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Perceiving Motion and Events
Chienchih ChenYutian Chen
The computational problem of motion
• space-time diagrams: image structure as it changes over time
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The computational problem of motion
• space-time diagrams for some simple motion of a single dot
1. Stationary dot2. Constant velocity motion3. Harmonic motion4. Apparent motion(stroboscopic
motion)
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Continuous Motion
An environmental object is considered to be moving if its position changes over time.
Motion perception thresholdex.• The blades of a window fan• The moon• The movement of clock hands
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Adaptation and Aftereffects
• Adaptation
• Motion Aftereffects
o Waterfall illusiono Paradoxical motiono Spiral aftereffect
Where are they occurred in the visual system?There are both monocular and binocular components to the motion perception system.
Simultaneous Motion Contrast
If a stationary path of random dots is surrounded by a field of dots moving steadily downward, the central patch will appear to drift upward.
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Apparent Motion
Human visual system can be fooled into perceiving continuous motion from a sequence of "snapshots" or "frames" presented at the proper rate.
Early Gestalt Investigations
Two lights across a fixed distance turn on and off alternatively from very fast to very slow:
1. Simultaneous flickering2. Phi motion3. Beta motion4. Sequential alternation
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Korte's laws
Korte examined the quality of apparent motion as a function of the relations among three parameters: the alternation rate, the separation between the two points of light, and the intensity of the two lights.• Separation vs. intensity: Larger separations require higher
intensityes• Rate vs. intensity: Slower rates require higher intensities• Separation vs. rate: Larger separations require slower rates
Motion picture technology
• 24 frames per second lies squarely within the range that produces beta motion, the most convincing perception of smooth continuous movement
• A flicker rate of at least 60 times per second is needed for flicker fusion--in which a flickering light appears to be on continuously.
• Thus, 72 flashes and 24 frames per second to produce good perception of apparent motion.
• As for TV and videotape, each video frame is effectively presented twice by interlacing the odd- and even- numbered lines of the video image. 30 frames per second.
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The Correspondence Problem of Apparent Motion
Motion is perceived between corresponding objects, but which objects are the "corresponding" ones?
Wagon wheel illusion
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Do other factors affect correspondence problem?
Short-range VS. Long-range Apparent Motion
• Random-dot Kinematogram• Classical phenomena of apparent motion
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Short-range VS. Long-range Apparent Motion
• Short-range motion system is responsible for performance on Random-dot Kinematogram. And it is thought to occur fairly early in visual processing, before information from the two eyes has been integrated and before shape and color have been extensively analyzed.
• Long-range motion system is responsible for classical phenomena of apparent motion with large-scale, individual figures. It is thought to occur much later in visual processing,after information from the two eyes has been integrated.
The Aperture Problem
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The Barberpole illusion
Plaid grating
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Physiological Mechanisms
• The Magno and Parvo System• Cortical Analysis of Motion• Neuropsychology of Motion Perception
The Magno and Parvo System
In comparison to P cells, M cells respond rapidly to changes in stimulation, are highly sensitive to luminance contrast, have large receptive fields, and are low in spatial resolution. M cells are the first step in the visual system's analysis of image motion.
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Cortical Analysis of Motion
• Selective response to different directionso component cellso pattern cells
Neuropsychology of Motion Perception
• A patient was admitted to the hospital complaining of severe headaches, vertigo, nausea, and the inability to perceive motion. She reported that the world appeared to her as a series of frozen snapshots.
• Brain image tests indicated that the lesion in her brain was located in the border region between occipital and temporal cortex, clearly outside of primary visual cortex.
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Computational Theories
• Directionally selective cells play a crucial role in our ability to perceive motion.
• But, how?
Delay-and-Compare Networks
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Edge-Based Models
Analyze the change in illumination over time in conjunction withan edge detector
Spatial-Frequency-Based Models
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Integrating Local Motion
Integrating Local Motion
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next......
• Object Motion– Depth and Motion– Long-Range Apparent Motion– Dynamic Perceptual Organization
• Self-Motion and Optic Flow
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Image Motion Vs. Object Motion
• Image motion must be interpreted to provide information about the motion in environmental objects
• Image motion + movement of eye, head, body ...
=> motion constancy
Velocity Constancy
• Object speed, rather than image speed
• Good depth information is needed– Adjust speed of moving objects at different depth
(Rock, Hill, & Fineman, 1968)
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Depth and Motion
• When only motion information is present, does the visual system interpret differential motion in terms of depth?
• Rigid Motion in Depth (Gunnar Johansson 1950)
• Rigidity heuristic
The Kinetic Depth Effect (KDE)
• Experiment by Wallach and O’Connell (1953)
– Using a shadow-casting technique to present 2-D images of angular 3-D wire objects to observers
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• Rigidity Heuristic– All else being equal, if there is an interpretation in
which rigid motion can be perceived, it will be.• Correspondence Problem
– Unique points, such as vertices and endpoints (but not cross-points), appear to play an important role in the conditions required for veridical perception of rigid motion
What if the correspondence problem is solved incorrectly?
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The Stereo-Kinetic Effect
Perception of Nonrigid Motion
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Long-Range Apparent Motion
• Long-range apparent motion is fundamentally a 3-D, object-based perception
• Experiment by Shepard and Judd (1976)– Two sets of displays for picture-plane rotation (A) and 3-D rotation in depth (B)– Determine the fastest alternation rate for smooth rigid motion
• The process underlying apparent rotation is a continuous process that requires time to go through intermediate orientations, just as real objects do.
• The linear increase was virtually identical for the pairs related by picture-plane rotations and depth rotations.
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Geometrical Model• Map object motions to geometrical paths in a high-dimensional space
– Motion hyperspaceAny continuous motion can be represented as a continuous path within the higher-dimensional space.
– Path impletionThe visual system interprets apparent motion by traversing (impleting) one of many possible paths between corresponded points of the two displays.
– Maximum speedRigid apparent motion will be perceived if and only if the alternation rate is sufficiently slow that the shortest path along the rigid-rotation surface can be traversed at or below a maximum speed in the time between two displays.
Curved Apparent Motion• 1. A translation along a straight-
line path from left to right with a concomitant clockwise rotation about the center of the line– minimize the work required to move
the object
• 2. A global rotation about a point below the two lines in which the points on the line follow curved paths– minimize motion in kinematical
geometry
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Path-guided apparent motion
• The visual system has internalized the structure of motions in the real world to a remarkable degree
• Allowing it to fill in the most likely motion in apparent motion displays
Dynamic Perceptual Organization
• What regions are perceived to be part of the same object or group of objects? • How do we organize the motions of different objects? • How they move with respect to each other?
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Grouping by Movement
• Common fate: the tendency to group together units that move with the same velocity (direction and speed)
• Put back two or more parts of a single moving object separated by occluding objects
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• Common fate can destroy even the best natural camouflage
Configural Motion
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• The visual system performs a vector analysis of the motion of objects moving synchronously.– Motion vectors are decomposed in to two components:
common motion and relative motion
Induced Motion
• The moon is moving through the cloud rather than the cloud passes in front of the moon
Karl Duncker (1929/1937)• Two assumptions:
– 1. Sensitivity to relative motion– 2. Stationarity of the surrounding object
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Self-Motion and Optic Flow• Induced self-motion
• Two differences between induced self-motion and induced motion– 1. The motion of the environment is well above the threshold of absolute motion– 2. There is an initial period of veridical perception: You first perceive the drum as
rotating and yourself as stationary
Perceiving Self-Motion
Optic flow: the global patterns of retinal motion
• Direction
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Speed of Self-Motion
• Information about absolute speed is not available solely from optic flow– absolute distance is not available
• Time to contact:– the length of time it will take the observer to reach the surface toward
which he or she is heading under present motion conditions – t=distance/speed
A
A’
BB’
b
a
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Understanding Events
• How balls move when one collides with another?• How objects behave under gravitational free-fall when
dropped from a moving object?
Biological Motion
• Meaningless points when seated motionlessly
• Perceived as a person immediately and unmistakably when began to move
• Even walking versus jogging were easly discriminated
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Biological Motion
Biological Motion
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Perceiving Causation
• Launching effect• Triggering effect• Entraining effect
Perceiving Mass Relations
• Ricochet heuristic: When the incoming ball ricochets at a higher velocity than the forward motion of the initially stationary ball, the stationary ball is heavier than the incoming one
• Clobbering heuristic: When the stationary ball moves off with high velocity, the incoming ball is heavier than the stationary one
• The two heuristic conflict when the ricocheting ball moved more slowly than the ball it struck.
• Thus people appear to be recovering information about mass from visual information, but not with the quantitative precision and sophistication his analysis implied
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Perceiving Mass Relations
Intuitive Physics
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Intuitive Physics
Intuitive Physics
One possibility is that the high-level cognitive system that is responsible for generating solutions to statically stated problems simply does not have access to the perceptual system's expertise in these domains
reason: many of the same people who favored the curved trajectory when presented with the static version of the C-tube problem chose the correct, straight trajectory in the dynamic version