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Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 3, November 2012
Pedagogies of doing good: Problematisations, authorities, technologies and teleologies in food
activism
Rick Flowers and Elaine SwanUniversity of Technology, Sydney
In this paper, we apply a framework from Nikolas Rose to analyse the politics of ‘doing good’ in food activist education, what we call food pedagogies. We argue that a detailed exploration of food pedagogies has been neglected in adult education and in the growing field of food studies, in spite of the rapidly proliferating forms and site of food education, advice and learning in Australia and other countries. In contrast to other frameworks in adult education which focus on classifying approaches as behaviourist, humanist, progressive and radical, we deploy problematisations, technologies, authorities and teleologies. These latter ‘pathways’ move away from an abstract idea of ‘power as property’ and as coercive (Gore 1993) to an examination of ‘power as technique’ and as productive. Drawing on qualitative data with three different types of food activist educators – a biodynamic educator, a health promotion managers and two farmer-activists, we show Rose’s framework
Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan 533
opens up our ideas about what can be seen as pedagogical to include the non-human and how adult educators authorise their claims to be doing good. We conclude by arguing that the differences in how each of these activists see food and health should not simply be seen as a difference in opinion but a difference in what Annemarie Mol (1999) calls ontological politics. In so doing, the paper contributes new findings and theorising on pedagogies to food studies, and a new analytic framework for analysing adult education approaches and in particular their claims to be ‘doing good.’
The politics of knowledge and relations between teachers and learners are foundational concerns of adult education scholars (Foley2000;Cervero&Wilson2000;Alfred2001;Vella1994).Incriticalfoodreform,theracialised,classedandgenderedmoralitiesoffoodknowledgearefoundationalconcerns(Guthman2004,2008;Slocum2011;Kimura2011;Ken2010;Lupton1998).Inthispaper,weanalysehowtheseintersectinfoodactivistpedagogies,itselfanunder-researchedtopicinadultlearningandfoodstudiesaswehavearguedelsewhere(FlowersandSwan2011;seealsoCook2009).DrawingonaFoucauldianframeworkculledfromBritishsociologistNikolasRose(1996),weanalysetheaccountsofthreetypesoffoodactivists:abio-dynamicagriculturaleducator,ahealtheducator,andtwofarmer-activists,takenfromafull-dayroundtableweconvenedforfoodactivistsinvolvedineducationalworkforethicalandsustainable food.
Wehavetwomainaims:first,toofferananalysisoftheprojectof‘doinggood’infoodpedagogiesthroughusingRose’sframework.Bydoinggood,wemeanthewaysinwhicheducators–andinthiscasefoodactivisteducators–authorisewhattheydoasaformofethics;andsecondly,tocomparetheframeworktotypologiesofadult education which describe politics of knowledge and relations betweenteachersandlearners(Merriam,Cafferella&Baumgartner
534 Pedagogies of doing good
2007;Newman1993,2006;Fenwick2006;Boud&Griffin1987).Infocusingon‘doinggood’,weintendtoexaminethewaysinwhichfoodeducatorslegitimatetheirinterventions,andthepoliticsoftheseclaims(seeGuthman2008onhowwhiteundergraduatestudentstrytodogoodby‘bringinggoodfoodtoothers’).Thisisanimportanttopicforfoodstudies’authorswhoquestionthemoralityinfoodadvicebutupuntilnowhavefocusedlessonpedagogiesperse(Mol2010;Jackson2009;Coveney,thisissue;PikeandLeahy,thisissue).InthepaperwearguethatRose’sframeworkisafruitfulformofanalysisforeducatorsasitopensupthevistaofwhatcanbeunderstoodaspedagogical;expandsourunderstandingofthetypesofknowledgethatadulteducatorsmobiliseintheirwork;andfinally,offersawaytoexaminethepoliticsof‘doinggood.’
Ofcourse,theworkofMichelFoucaulthasbeenusedextensivelyinanalysingadulteducationinthepasttwentyyears(Fejes&Nicholl2007;Fejes2008;Garrick&Solomon2001;Reich2008;Chappell,Rhodes,Solomon,Tennant&Yates2003;McLean2012;Tennant1998;English2006;Swan2009,2008;Gore1993).Asadulteducationtheorist,ScottMcLean(2012)writes,NikolasRose’sresearchislessrecognisedanddeployedinadulteducation,inspiteofhavinginfluencedanumberofrelatedfields.BothFoucaultandRoseofferadulteducatorsaconceptualisationoftheoperationofpower,quitedistinctfromGramsciandMarxandothertheoriesofpowerusedinsomeformsofadulteducationliterature.Itisdistinctonanumberofcounts.First,implicitinsometypologiesofadulteducation(seetable1)isaconstructionofpowerasapossession,asee-sawmodelinwhichteachershaveitorlearnershaveit.Thisleadsadulteducatorstoemphasisehowpowershouldbedistributedtolearners,aconceptof‘power-as-property’(Gore1993:73;Chappelletal.2003).ButforFoucaultandRose,powerisexercisedratherthanowned.Thismeans:
Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan 535
‘thatpowerisnotthepossessionofsomepeoplewhowielditoverothersdominatingandconstrainingthembutthatitisrelationalandproductive.Withoutpower,nothingisachieved.Butifpowerisnottobefoundinsomebody’shands,orinthisorthatsocialactor’spossession,thenwhatisitandhowdoesitmanifestitself(Fox2000:860)?’
Powerisexercisedthrougheverydaymundaneactivitiesandprocesses:whatFoucaultcalls‘technologies’:hybridassemblagesofdiverseformsofknowledgesuchasadvice,techniques,judgments,experts,texts,andsanctions.Technologiesarehighlyconcrete,specificformsknowledge-in-practicenotgeneralisedapproaches.Throughthesemundane,micro,even‘minorandpetty’formsofexpertise,authoritiessuchasthestateattempttogovernthroughcapacitating,notconstrainingus.Thisworksinquiteunsystematic,dispersed,contradictoryandlocalisedwaysacrossinnumerableandunexpectedsites(Miller&Rose1996:12;Miller&Rose2008;McNay1992).
Thisreformulationofpowerisimportantfortheorisingadulteducation.Adulteducationisoftenconceivedbyscholarsandactivistsasasiteforenablinglearnerstoliberatethemselvesthroughgainingnewknowledgeorbecomingconsciousofexistingbutundervaluedformsofknowledge.ButanotherpointofdistinctionisthatforFoucault,therecanbenoseparationofpowerandknowledge,thusheusesthetermpower/knowledge.Powerworksthroughallformsofknowledge:forexample,bottom-upandtop-down,scientificandlay,andparticularlyforFoucault,self-knowledge(McHoul&Grace1993).There is no point of origin such as an institution like the state or an elitecabal.Andthereisnowaytobeoutsideofpoweroroutsideofknowledge,evensocalledliberatoryknowledgesuchasconsciousnessraisingorself-reflection.
Thirdly,poweris,inaddition,notseensimplyasacoerciveforce.Itisalsoproductiveinthesensethatwecandoandbethingsasa
536 Pedagogies of doing good
resultoftheoperationofpower.Partofitsproductivenessisthewayitoperatesthroughnotionsofseduction,freedomanddesireratherthanprohibition,coercionandpunishment.Rosearguesthat,althoughtheselatterformsofpowerarestillinoperationtheyaresecondarytotheideaofourbeinggovernedbytheideaoffreedom.Thus,hewritesthat‘instrivingtoliveourautonomouslives,todiscoverwhowereallyare,torealizeourpotentialsandshapeourlifestyles,webecome…boundinnewwaysintothepedagogiesofexpertise(1999citedinMcLean2012).Animportantpartoftheoperationofpowerthenisthatweimaginewearedoinggoodtoourselves:gettingthegoodlifeofhealth,wealthorhappiness.Wheneducatorsworkwithsuch‘pedagogiesofexpertise,’theytooconstructthemselvesasdoinggoodinhelpingpeoplegetthegoodlife.
Inthisspecialissue,JohnCoveney,JoPikeandDeannaLeahyprovideusefulFoucauldiananalysesofnutritionandschoollunches,respectively.Ourworkdiffersinthreekeyways:first,wearekeentoofferaframeworkwhichcouldbeusedtointerrogate‘doinggood’acrossothersitesofadulteducation;secondly,ifweacceptthatpedagogiesworkthroughhybridassemblagesweareinterestedtoexaminewaysinwhichfoodactivistsmobilisediverseformsofadvice,techniques,judgments,experts,texts,andsanctionsandwhatthismaymeanpolitically.Wehavearguedelsewherethatactivistsinfoodsocialmovementsdrawonapanoplyofknowledges:codifiedandinformal;theoreticalandexperiential;layandexpert;embodiedandcognitive;gendered,racialisedandclassed(Flowers&Swan2011;seealsoAllenetal.2003forresearchontheplacebasednatureoffoodactivismknowledges).Muchofwhatisgoingoninfoodsocialmovementsis:
‘strugglesoverknowledgesystems…Themostcursorylookattoday’sfoodadvertisementsshowsthatallfoodisembeddedinacontesteddiscourseofknowledgeclaims’(Goodman&DuPuis2002:18).
Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan 537
Asweemphasiseelsewherethepoliticsofknowing-whatisknown,whoproducesitand‘whoisintheknow’-arecriticaltofoodpedagogies(FlowersandSwan2011).Thistypeofpoliticslinkstoourthirdaimwhichistoexaminetheauthorisationof‘doinggood’andtheirrelationstogender,raceandclass.Strugglesoverknowledgearealsostrugglesaboutthelegitimacyforauthority.Rose’sframeworkencouragesustoanalysethepoliticsof‘doinggood’asaformoflegitimacy.Contrarytosomeadulteducationtheorists,thismeanswecastacriticalgazeattheclaimsto‘doinggood’madebyactivistsaswemightattheclaimsmadebyinstitutionalexpertstoofferusnewwaystothinkaboutadulteducationandfoodactivism.Todothiswebeginwithasummaryofa‘typical’adulteducationapproachesframework,followedbyanintroductiontotheworkofNikolasRose;weintroduceRose’sframeworkofproblematisations,technologies,authoritiesandteleologiesinsomedetailsothatthiscouldbeappliedtofutureadulteducationinitiatives.Afterintroducingthethreetypesoffoodactivisteducator,werelateeachoftheelementsofRose’sframeworktoillustratequotesandthemesfromtheactivistsandweconcludebyaskingwhatthismeansforunderstandingtheethicsandpolitics of doing good.
Frameworks
Inthissection,wecompareaninfluentialtypologyfromGriffFoley’sedited book Understanding adult education and training(2000)toanalternativeframeworkfromNikolasRose’swork.AdulteducationscholarssuchasSharranMerriam,RosemaryCafferella&LisaBaumgartner(2007),DavidBoud(1987),TaraFenwick(2006),MiriamZukasandJaniceMalcolm(2002),andGriffFoley(2000)havecreatedalltypologiesofdifferenttraditions,orientations,identities and philosophies in adult education theory and practices. Theseauthorsdescribesuchclassificationattemptsaslimitedandsimplifyingbutarguethattheyhaveheuristicutilityinenablingadulteducatorstounderstanddifferenttheoreticalandvaluepositions
538 Pedagogies of doing good
withinparticulartraditions(Foley2000).Underpinningmostoftheseisaclassicdistinctionbetweentraditionslabelledliberal,behaviourist,humanistandradical.Foley’stypology,abridgedbelowinTable1isausefulexampleforthispaperasitiswidelyused;hasalonglineage(Scott1985whichinturnisadaptedfromDarkenwaldandMerriam1982);andistaughtonundergraduateandpostgraduate courses.
Table 1
School of thought
Aims of adult education
Role of teacher and learner
Teaching methods
Cultivationoftheintellect(traditionalschool)
Fill learners with worthwhile knowledge
Teacher is in control and learner is passive
Mainlylecture
Individualself-actualisation (humanist)
Self-directionandself-fulfilment
Teacher facilitates and students decide what to learn
Experientialmethods
Progressives(reformist)
Activeindividualcitizenshipto strengthen democracy
Teacher and student learnfromeachother
Problemsolvingand negotiated learning
Social transformation(revolutionary)
Createnewsocial and political order
Co-creationofcurriculum
Participatory action research and dialogical learning
Organisationaleffectiveness
Developskillsand attitudes to enable achievementofprescribed goals
Trainerstransmitinformationanddeliverprescribedcurriculum
Outcomesare assessed intermsofobjectivesachieved
Source:adaptedfromFoley2000,inturnadaptedfromScott1985andDarkenwald&Merriam1982:14-15.
Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan 539
Wecouldattempttocategorisevariousfood-activistsaccordingto these schools of thought. But for us this forecloses analysis. For example,implicitinmanyoftheseframeworks,includingFoley’s,isafoundationalcontinuumofbehaviourismbad;humanistso-soandprogressivegood.Fromthisstemsanumberofeffectswhichinourviewlimitexaminationsofadulteducation:first,somefairlycrudeassumptionsaboutthepoweroftheteacherandstudent.Second,afailuretoexaminetheclaimsto‘doinggood’acrossallschoolsofthoughtespeciallytheso-calledradicalorprogressive.Thirdly,thiskindoftablealreadyassumesthatthekindsofideaswhichareinformingpracticearefromashalloweducationalpoolofbehaviourism,humanismandcriticaltheoryratherthanthedeeperandswirlingeddiesofknowledgesusedbyfoodactivists.Itdelineateseducation as if pedagogies and their supposed schools of thought arehermeticallysealedandnotinformedbyotherculturalideas.Fourthly,inassumingwhatalreadyconstitutestheeducative,itislessusefulforidentifyingandexaminingmore‘concealed’pedagogies.
Incontrast,Rose’sframeworkenablesustoextendournetmorewidely.TheprosandconsofFoucauldianapproacheshavebeenmuchdebatedacrossanumberoffields,andinparticularbyfeminists(LukeandGore1992;McNay1992;Gore1993).Forproponents-includingStephenBrookfield(2005)inhisbookaboutcriticaltheoryandadulteducation-Foucault’smodelofpowerasproductiveisparticularlyuseful.Thus,therelationsbetweenpeopleandsocialinstitutionsarenotsimplycoercive,buttakeonmanyaims,‘notjusttocontrol,subdue,discipline,normalise,orreform’butalsotomakeus‘moreintelligent,wise,happy,virtuous,healthy,productive,docile,enterprising,fulfilled,self-esteeming,empowered’(Rose1996:12).ThismeansforRosethatwearenot‘incessantlydominated,repressed,orcolonisedbypower(although,ofcourse,dominationandrepressionplaytheirpartinparticularpracticesandsectors)butsubjectified,educatedandsolicited’(1996:79).How
540 Pedagogies of doing good
thenmightweexaminetechniquesofsubjectification,educationandsolicitation in food pedagogies?
Rose’sframeworkprovidesuswitha‘shorthand’forsuchanapproachtoanalysingpowerandpedagogy.FirstreferencedbrieflyinapaperinoneofthekeyjournalsforFoucauldianscholars,Economy and Society(1993),andtheninamoreextendeddiscussionpublishedinthebook,Inventing our selves: Psychology, power and personhood (1996),Rosepositionstheframeworkasasetof‘pathways’forinvestigatingthehistoryofhowwerelatetoourselves(1996:25).Thesetofpathwayscompriseswhathereferstoas‘problematizations’, ‘authorities’, ‘technologies’ and ‘teleologies’. We can contrast these to thecategoriesinFoley’stabletoanalyseadulteducationapproachesandwecomparethesemoreextensivelylaterinthepaper.
Table 2
Usefullyforadulteducation,Roseiskeentomaptheconcretevocabularies,techniquesandpracticesprofessionalsandlaypeopleuse.Rose,himself,usestheframeworktoofferacapacioussetofquestionstoexamine‘psy’pedagogies(coaching,facilitation,self-help)butwesuggestinthispaperthatitcanusedforanalysingothereducationalprojectssuchasfoodpedagogies.Wenowdefine,elaborateandapplyeach‘pathway’inturntotheaccountsofthreetypesoffoodactivists.
Traditional categories from Foley
Pathways derived from Rose
school of thought problematisation
teachingmethods technologies
role of teacher and learner authorities
aims teleologies
Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan 541
Problematisations
Westartwiththeideaof‘problematisations’becausethisconceptisfundamentaltoFoucauldiantheorising.ThecomparisonpointinadulteducationliteraturesuchasFoleywouldbe‘schoolsofthought’:behaviourism,humanist,progressiveandradical.Throughapplyingtheconceptofproblematisationstothreetypesoffoodactivisteducators,wewanttoidentifyhowwemightthinkdifferentlyabout‘schoolsofthought’.AlthoughourpaperismainlyfocusedonRoseandFoucault,weaugmenttheirdefinitionofproblematisationwithCaroleBacchiasshehasdevelopedabodyofworkextendingthenotionofproblematisationtopolicymaking(2012,2010).
Firstthen,Foucaultdefinesproblematisationas‘howandwhycertainthings(behaviour,phenomena,processes)becomeaproblem(1985:115).Thesignificanceofthisconceptisinitsfocusontheprocessual:
‘askinghowthisrenderingofthingsproblematicoccurred.Thetermproblematizing[is]ausefulwayofdesignatingthisasaprocess,foritremove[s]theself-evidenceoftheterm‘problems.’Itsuggest[s]that‘problems’arenotpre-given,lyingtherewaitingtoberevealed.Theyhavetobeconstructedandmadevisible,andthisconstructionofafieldofproblemsisacomplexandslowprocess’(Miller&Rose2008:14).
Forexample,aproblemforsomeactivistsisthatpeoplearenoteatingenoughorganicfood.Butaproblematisationismorethanjustseeingaproblem:itisabouthowaparticulargroupofactivists,inthiscase,makesuppositionsandpresumptionsaboutwhatfoodis‘good’and‘bad,’basedoncertainkindsofknowledges,andhowthesegettranslatedintoadvice,prescriptions,tips,techniquesandinterventions.Problematisationisaboutanalysingtheconditionsofknowledgeproduction:‘Where,howandbywhomareaspectsofthehumanbeingrenderedproblematicaccordingtowhatsystemsofjudgementandinrelationtowhatconcerns’(Rose1996:25)?Thismeansanalysing‘howproblemsaregivenashapethroughtheways
542 Pedagogies of doing good
theyarespokenaboutandthroughthe‘knowledges’thatareassumedintheirshaping’(Bacchi2010:2).Forexample,ofthe‘problem’ofmadness,Foucaultasks‘howandwhywereverydifferentthingsintheworldgatheredtogether,characterized,analyzed,andtreatedasforexample‘mentalillness’?’Theanswertothisquestionprovidesthe“elements”deemedrelevant“foragiven‘problematisation’”(Foucault,1985citedBacchi2012:2).Whatisemphasisedhereisthatproblematisationinvolvesagatheringtogetherofknowledgesandsoinrelationtofoodactivismwecanaskwhatisgatheredbywhomforwhat ends?
Asecondpartofproblematisationisdesignatingcertainpeopleandbehavioursasunsoundandthentryingtochangethem.Inrelationtofood,certaintypesofeatingareconstructedvariouslyasunhealthy;environmentallydamaging;crueltoanimals;unsustainableforfoodproducers;andhavingunfairlabourconditionsforworkers.Groupsofpeopleareseentobeinneedofchanging,dependingonwhichoftheseproblemsisthetargetofreform:women,mothers,children,workingclasses,middleclasses,youngmen,raciallyminoritisedgroups,migrantsetc.Expertsareneededtoidentifytheproblemandtoprovidethesolutionsincludingchangingpeople’sbehaviours:forexample,adulteducators.Peoplewhoneedchanging‘havetobeknowntobegoverned’(Bacchi2012:5).Thus,theeatingof,growingof,wastingof,shoppingforandcookingfoodconstitutesaconstellationofproblematisationsforarangeofexpertsandprofessionalsthatincludeagriculturaleconomists,statisticians,nutritionists,developmentplanners,adulteducatorsandhealthpromotionworkers.Problematisationsproduceproblematicpeople,habitsandobjectsandpeoplewhoknow,peoplewhodon’t(Flowers&Swan2011).
Finally,problematisationsentailparticularsolutions.Environmentalissuesaboutfood,forsomeactivists,mightmeanbuyinglocalfood.Oritmightmeanbuyingorganicfoodthatisn’tlocal.Solutionsaregroundedincertainpresuppositionstoo.Sobuying‘local’foodgrown
Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan 543
ina100-mileradiusisbasedonanassumptionthatreducingthedistancefoodtravelspreventscertainenvironmentalproblems.
Solutionscanbeprovidedintheformofadvice,rules,opinions,policies,andprescriptivetexts(Bacchi2012).Wecanseethisclearlyinrelationtofoodpedagogieswithmagazinecolumns,caloriecounting,nutritionallabels,recipecards,healthyeatingmnemonicsetc.Throughtheprocessofproblematisation,expertsandsolutionscreatesubjectpositions,certainidentities-waysofbeingandacting-andasaresult,moralitiesandethicsabout‘good’and‘bad’people,behavioursandobjects.
Havingelaboratedonthepathwayof‘problematisation’,weanalysetheaccountsofthreetypesoffoodeducatorsfromourresearch.Weprovideabriefsummaryoftheirkeyconcernsaboutfoodpedagogiesdrawnfromourcodingofcorethemesintheiraccounts.Beforedoingthat,weprovideashortintroductiontotheactivists.
The food activist educators
Thedataaredrawnfromafull-dayroundtablediscussionweorganisedforanumberoffoodactivisteducators.Forthepurposesofourpaper,wefocusonIan,Susan,JoanandPaulbecausetheyprovideuswithsufficientdepthandheterogeneityinordertoexemplifyRose’sframework.
Ianisaself-employedbio-dynamicsagriculturaleducatorwhorunsworkshopsinAustraliaandinternationallyongrowingfoods.Bio-dynamicsisbasedonthephilosophyofRudolphSteiner,whichincludesabeliefthatthevisible,physicalworldispenetratedbyaworldoflife-forces(Purdue2000).
Susanismanagerofahealthpromotionprojectaimedatencouraging‘disadvantagedpeople’toeataccordingtotheprinciplesoftheAustralian Guide to Healthy Eating which were produced by the CommonwealthofAustralia(Kellet,Smith&Schmerlaib1998).The
544 Pedagogies of doing good
initiativeisbasedonapeereducationmodelinwhichlocalpeoplearetrainedtoteachcooking,healthyeatingandbudgeting.
JoanandPaularefarmersandadvocatesinafarmer’sassociation.Theyhaveaparticularinterestinpromotingprovenance.Alloftheeducatorshaveaclearideaofthestrategiestheythinkwillmakea‘difference.’Inthenextsection,weusequotesfromourfive-houraudiorecordeddiscussionsillustrativelytoenableustoelucidateRose’sframeworkandtosignpostfurtherpotentialanalysis.Ouraimistonotderideordismisstheworkoftheactivistsbutattendtotheideas and techniques they drew upon and to ask questions about their likely effects.
Summary of problematisation for each educator
TheproblematisationforIan,thebiodynamicfarmer-educatoristhatfoodsarenotbeinggrownwiththelife-forceofthecosmosinmind(Pfeiffer1938;Purdue2000).Thismeansthatpeopleareeatingfoodsthatcanmakethemsickphysicallyandspiritually.Thusthelandandthesoilareseenassitesofaction.Small-scale,commercialandnot-for-profitvegetablegrowersandfarmersarethetargetlearnerswhoneedtochange.Thesystemofjudgmentisbiodynamicphilosophy.Thesolutionistoshowpeoplewhomightgrowfoodasfarmersandgardenershowtousebiodynamicprinciples.
TheproblematisationforSusanthehealtheducator,isthatpoor,workingclassandmigrantmothersarenotcookingfoodaccordingtothe‘healthyeatingmessages’promulgatedbygovernmentauthorities(Kellet,Smith&Schmerlaib1998). In thisproblematisation,thehealthworkerimaginesthisgroupdoesnot know what healthy food is or how to cook it on a tight budget. Shesays:‘peoplehaveverylittlemoneytobuytheirfoodbecause
Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan 545
TheproblematisationforJoanandPaul,thefarmer-activistsisthatconsumersarenotpurchasingenough‘local’foodfromsmall-scalefarmersandthismeanstheyarebuyingthewrongkindoffoodwhich,inturnaffectsfarmers’livelihoodsandpeople’shealth.Itisbelievedthatconsumersdon’tknowwherefoodcomesfromandiftheydid,theycouldmakerationaldecisionstobuymorelocalfoodthatwouldhavebetternutritionalproperties.Thesiteofinterventionissupermarketaisles.Thesolutionistoensurefoodislabelledwithinformationaboutprovenance,nutritionaland‘freshness’qualities.Thesystemofjudgementisamixofsocialmarketing,environmentalideasaboutlocavorismandagainnutritionalscience.Joansays: ‘In supermarkets, information on the origin, freshness, or mode of generation is scarcely available. That’s particularly evident in the food aisles in the fish market aisles because even though you might be buying Australian fish, you cannot differentiate between farm fish and free ranging fish in which your omega threes are substantially different. In farmed fish, the omega six is much more relevant and the omega threes are down, yet it’s the omega threes that we are looking for in our diet. There have attempts to increase the disclosure by the supermarkets. But the supermarkets, their accumulators and merchants have actively opposed any attempts at transparency in the area of production, mode, origin, or date of harvest.’
Acrossalltheseproblematisationsareassumptionsaboutwhatmakesfor‘goodhealth’andindividual’sresponsibilityforgrowing,shopping,cookingandeatinginwayswhichareimaginedtobe
theyareallprobablyongovernmentbenefitsorhaveverysmallincomes.’Thesystemofjudgementrelatestonutritionalscienceandgovernmentpolicyonwhatconstituteshealthbutalsopopularideasaboutgoodmothering.Therearealsojudgmentsmadeabouthowthisgroupbestlearns,namelyfromtheirpeers.Thesolutionistoteachmothershowtocookandshopaccordingtothe‘healthyeatingmessages’agenda.Shesays:‘Sooneofthethingsthatwearetrying to teach these participants and peer educators is how to cook ahealthymealwithamodestbudget.’
546 Pedagogies of doing good
‘healthful.’AlthoughRose’sworktypicallylacksattentiontoclass,raceandgender,wecanseeclassedexpertiseinoperationhereandassumptionsabouttheclassandgenderofthosepeoplewhocanandshouldlearndifferenthabits.Growingfoodrequiresland.Makingdecisionsbasedonfoodprovenancerequiresacertainlevelofdisposableincomeandclassedattitudesabouthealth.
There are clear distinctions in who is seen as responsible for producinghealth,andwhatthesolutionsandthesitesofinterventionare.Forexample,inthecaseofthehealtheducators,migrantandworkingclasswomenarebeingresponsibilisedfortheirchildren’shealth:theyarebeingtaughthowto‘motherhealth.’Foodisseenasakindofmedicine(Gaynor1998).Buttherearedifferentassumptionsbeingmadeaboutwhatconstitutes‘good-for-you-food’andwhatit‘contains’whichcanfacilitatehealth.Forthebiodynamicagriculturaleducator,foodisaconduitforalifeforcefromthecosmos.Forthefarmers,itisfreshnessandlocalitywhichintheirviewguaranteesthevitalitygivingpropertiesoffood.
Underpinning these pedagogies are different ontologies of food and of physicalhealth.Buttheassumptionthatfoodisonlyimportantforitsroleinpromotingphysicalhealthis,ofcourse,highlycontested.Forexample,LaurenBerlant(2010)arguesthattheemphasisonphysicalhealthinrelationtofoodneglectshowimportantcertainkindsoffoodareformentalandemotionalhealth.
Toturnnowtoreflectonadulteducationtypologies:theuseofproblematisationcanbecomparedtoschoolsofthought.Schoolsofthoughtseemlikestaticandpredictableinfluencesonhowadulteducatorsthinkandact.Thebenefitofusingproblematisationistomake‘thinkingaspractice’morevisibleandtoshowthatthereisnothinginevitableaboutit(Bacchi2012).Itgetsattheprocessesandconditionsofknowledge-makingandforcesustoexaminetaken-for-grantedassumptionsaboutwhatareimaginedtobe‘problem’actions,behavioursandpeopleinawaythatschoolsofthoughtdo
Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan 547
not.Foodactivistsandadulteducatorsdrawonaspectrumofideasfromthepredictabletotheunpredictableinquiteparticular‘blends’whichcan’tfitsimplyintothecookiecutterofbehaviouralism,humanism,progressiveandradical(Csurgo,Kovach&Kucerova2008;Swan2009).Problematisationcanhelpustraceblends,andtheireffects.Toputitpithily,schoolsofthoughtfocusonproductandhomogeneity,andproblematisationonprocessandhybridity.
Technologies
TechnologyintheFoucauldiansensereferstovariousmeans‘inventedtogovernthehumanbeing,toshapeorfashionconductindesireddirections’(Rose1996:26).InFoley’sadulteducationtable,technologiescanbecomparedtoteachingmethodssuchaslectures,groupdiscussions,andpeereducation.Implicitintheclassifyingofteachingmethodsareassumptionsthatsomearemore‘empowering’thanothers.TechnologiesasdefinedbyFoucauldiansaremuchbroaderinscopethanteachingmethods.Technologiesareassemblagesofknowledges,instruments,statistics,notations,systemsofjudgment,buildingsandpersonsandcantakenumerical,classificatory,spatial,visual,bodilyanddiscursiveforms(IlcanandPhillips2003).Extendingwhatwemightseeaspedagogical,theemphasisisonthemundane,technicalandmaterial(Dean1999).
Adistinctiveelementtotechnologiescomparedtoteachingmethodsisthattheybringtoviewmoreindirectandeverydaywaysthroughwhichpeopleinterveneintheirownwaysofacting,beingandlivingandwhichconnectbackuptopoliticalstrategies.Asassemblagesofsituated,technicalandcorporealprocedures,practicesandtactics,theyarehowgovernmentworksatadistance(Miller&Rose2008:16).Importantly,thesetechnologiesworkthroughthenotionoffreeingratherthancoercingordominatingus.Thisfreeingconstitutesanewformofcontrolwhichvaluesself-responsibility,self-careandself-disciplineasethicalandcivic.
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Theideaoftechnologieshasbeentakenupwithsomealacritybyarangeofadulteducationtheorists,butfewhavedeployedRose’sotherpathwaysofproblematisation,authoritiesandteleologies.Foucaultdefineddifferenttypesoftechnologieswhichworktogether:technologiesofproduction,signsystems,powerandtheself.Eachofthesetechnologiesembodiesdistinct‘presuppositionsandobjectivesabouthumanbeings’(Rose1996:26)anddistinctformsofdominationthatinvolveschangingortrainingtheself(Burkitt2002;Besley2005).Adulteducatorshavefocusedmostontechnologies of the self (seeforexample,Fejes2008;Reich2008;Chappell,Rhodes,Solomon,Tenannt&Yates2003).Inessence,thesearemechanismsforself-discipline:procedureswhich‘permitindividualstoeffectbytheirownmeansorwiththehelpofothersacertainnumberofoperationsontheirownbodiesandsouls,thoughts,conduct,andwayofbeing,soastotransformthemselvesinordertoattainacertainstateofhappiness,purity,wisdom,perfection,orimmortality’(Foucault1988:18).Comprisedofspecialisedformsofknowledgewhichteachushow‘toestimate,tocalculate,toevaluate,todisciplineandtojudgeourselves’(Cruikshank1993:329),technologies of the self are contrasted with technologies of power: the latter being exercisedbyinstitutionssuchasprisonsandschoolsandwhichattempttodominatethroughexamining,normalisingandclassifying.
Examplesofadulteducationscholarshipontechnologies of the self includeCliveChappelletal.’sanalysisofself-helpbooks,work-basedlearning,trainingincorporateculture,andHIV/AIDSeducation(2003);AndreasFejeson‘theconfession’ineducationalguidance(2008);AnnReich’sanalysisofAustralianvocationaleducationandtraining(2008);andinrelationtofoodpedagogy,PeterKellyandLynHarrison’sanalysis(2009)ofJamieOliver’sFifteen apprenticeship project.
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WefocusontwocentraltechnologiesforIan,thebiodynamicseducator:oneisasoilactivatormadefromamixtureofchickenmanure,basaltsaltandotheringredients.Inbiodynamiccircles,itisimaginedtocarrycosmologicalproperties.Inhisteaching,hehandsthisoutforpeopletotry.Ithasmaterialpropertiesintermsofitsbiologicalcapacitiestoaffectsoilandoperatessymbolicallyas‘dirt’operatesintheorganicfoodmovementasasignifierofpurityandnature.Togetheritworksasa‘graspableethics’i.e.thatyoucantouchandsmell(Clarke,Cloke,Barnet&Malpass2008).
Thesecondisthetechnologyofhands-onlearning:learnershavetohaveago,beitgrowingcropsorbakingbread.Hesays:‘Inotherwords,Iteachpeopleaboutthepreparationsbutbythetimetheygohomethey’vestirredthemandsprayedthemsothey’vehadthephysicalexperience.Sotheycangohomeandinitiatechange.’‘
Havingago’worksonthebodyratherthantheintellect,andactsasakindofwitnessingto‘littlemiracles’whichthenworktoconvert
Technologies of the selfhavealsobeendiscussedextensivelyinrelationtoresearchonfood.Forexample,CressidaHeyes(2007)discusseshoworganiseddietprogrammesandweigh-insarepresented as technologies of the self inWeightwatchers.Inthisissue,PikeandLeahywriteaboutthetechnologyoftheschoollunchboxandhowitoperatestoproduceamoralityaboutgoodmothering.Therehasbeenin-depthworkontechnologies of the selfincommunitydevelopmentbyBarbaraCruikshank(1993).Shearguesthatempowermentandself-esteemcanbeunderstoodastechnologies.Anytechnology,sheremindsus,operatesatimprovingtheindividualandsociety.ImportantlyforFoucaultbothtechnologiesofpowerand technologies of the self produce effects that constitute the self. Feministsandcriticalracetheoristshavegoneontoarguethatthesealsoconstitutegender,raceandclass.
Summary of technology for each educator
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InthecaseofSusan,thehealthpromotionmanager,peereducationis the core technology: ‘We decided that we would train ten peer educators to start off as a pilot in nutrition concepts. Very basic nutritionconcepts.’Peereducation–inwhichitisclaimedthatif‘peers’teachandmentoritwillbemoreeffectiveandprogressivethanifonereliesonprofessionalexperts-hasbecomeawidelyusedinterventioninhealthpromotionsincethe1980s(Turner&Shepherd1998).Commonassumptionsarethatpeersareacrediblesourceofinformation,actasrolemodelsandequalisepower relations. Peerness then is used as a gloss for participatory democracy.
Thepeereducatorsinthisexample,however,areinstitutionallyeducatedin‘nutritionbasics’,‘healthyeatingmessages’andpresentationskillsandaregivenmentorsinnutritionfromalocaluniversity.Theirroleistorun‘healthyeatingactivities’inthecommunity:todocookingdemonstrations;toshareideasaboutnutritionalvaluesoffood,andcostingmenus,largelyaimedatpoorermigrantwomen.Thepeereducatorsthenaretrainedinnutritionalknowledgethattheir‘peers’donothave.Thenatureoftheirpeernessthenistheircomingfromthesameneighbourhood.
learners.Thiscantakeseveralyears.Hisisapedagogyofconversionratherthandidactism.
‘It’samazinghowthesethingshappenbutI’vegotlittlesamples[ofsoilactivator]youcanalltakehometotryit.…Igave[anairportsecurityofficer]oneoftheselittlepacksthatyoucantakehomeandIsaidlook,westiritforanhour…justmakesureyoudissolveitinyourwateringcan,flickitout,weaimforadroppersquarefoot,andIgotontheaeroplaneandleft…12monthslaterIwentthroughandhewasonduty.Herushedoverandsaid;Idon’twantyoutothinkthatIdidn’tbelieveyou,buthesaidthatstuffisjustwaybetterthanwhatyoutoldmeitwas.Sotheissueishowwegetpeopletostart.Becausewithfarming,oncepeoplehavetheexperience,it’snotmeteachingthem,it’sactuallytheirexperiencethatactuallydrivesit.’
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Using the concept of technologies enables us to broaden our understanding of what can be understood as pedagogical. The food educatorsareusingarangeofhumanandnon-humantechnologies,suchasBodyMassIndex,healthyeatingpyramid,andpeereducators.Therearesomesimilaritieswiththeconceptofhiddencurriculumwhichalsoexpandstheanalyticalfocusofwhatcouldbeconsideredpedagogical.Buthiddencurriculumisbasedonaparticular understanding of ideology. In the words of Steph Lawler:
LabellingonfoodisthetechnologyforJoanandPaul,thefarmer-activists.Intheirview,thelabelshouldprovideconsumerswithinformationaboutprovenance,dateofpicking,placeofproduction,ingredients,andecologicalfootprint.They,likemanyotherAustralianfoodactivists,refertothisas‘truthinlabelling.’AsPaulputs it:
‘Consumersneedtobetaughttoreadthelabelandrequirethattheproducttheyarebuyinghascomprehensiveinformation…Nowthisiswhatmostpeopledon’trealise.Whenyoubuyapacketofeggs,thatcouldhavebeeninacoolroomforsixmonthspriortobeingpacked.Samewithyourvegetables.WhenyougotoWoolworthsorColes,you’llseeadatewhenitwaspacked.Butthatcouldbeaweekold.’
Labellingworksasatechnologyoftheselfasitassumespeoplecanbeagenticbybeinginformed(Yngfalk2012).Itisameansthroughwhichconsumerscanprotectthemselvesandtheirbodiesfromharmthroughtheireverydayshoppingdecisions.CarlYngfalk(2012)observesthatlabellingattemptstotrainpeopletotrusttheircognitivedecision-makingand‘factual’informationandtoover-ridetheir‘greedybodies’(Mol2010)andsenseofsmell,touchandtaste.Eventhoughlabel-knowledgewillnecessarilybeincompleteandfoodinformationhighlycontested,forthefarmersthelabelswilloperate as truthful authorities.
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…theconceptofideologyalmostalwayspresupposesa‘real’whichisbothbeyondideologyandobscuredbyit(Barrett1991).To speak of ideology is to speak of the lies that obscurethetruth,buttospeakofdiscourses…istospeakoftheknowledgesthatproducethetruth…[Foucault]replacesaconcernwithhowwecometobegovernedbyliesanduntruth(aswithideology)withaconcernwithhowwecometobegovernedbytruthswhicharemadetrue.…Itissimplynotpossible,inmanycases,tospeakoreventothink“outsidethetrue”(Lawler2008:59).
Tofocusontechnologies,meansthentobelessconcernedaboutwhatisdeemedtobetrueornot,buthowwhatisdeemedtobetruecomesabout,andatatechnicalormateriallevel.Thustherearenoteachingmethodsortechnologiesthatareoutsidepower/knowledge,eventhatoflearnerorcommunityempowerment(Cruickshank1993;Gore1993).So,asthefeministeducationalscholarJenniferGoreobservesof the often used circle chair technique in which interactional controlisimaginedtomovefromtheteacheraslearnerssittogethernot behind desks in rows with eyes to the front: ‘there is nothing intrinsicallyliberatingaboutthispractice(1993:58).Adulteducatorswhomightbecategorisedinpolarisedwaysasradicalorbehaviouristintheliterature,usesimilartechnologiesoftheselfsuchasdiariesandgroupdiscussionandinsodoingexercisepowerandknowledge.Ofcourse,theiraimsandcontentmaybedifferentbutaparticularrelation to oneself and others is produced for the learners and the educators through deploying technologies of the self.
Buttheconceptalsoasksustoreflectonthewiderrelaysandlinksoftechnologiestowidergovernmentalityaims.Ofcoursebehaviourism,humanismandprogressiveeducationhaveallbeenusedintheserviceofinstitutionalandgovernmentalgoalsbutthisisrarelydiscussedinadulteducationmodelssuchasFoley’s.Inaddition,weneedtoaskquestionsaboutwhocanmobilisewhatkindsoftechnologies.Itshouldnotbeassumedthattheyareavailableuniversallynortheireffectsevenandundifferentiatedbygender,raceandclass(McNay1992).
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Authorities
Thethirddimensionintheconventionaladulteducationtypologyistherolesofteachersandlearnersandhowthesemaybedefinedinrelationtotheirrelativeskills,power,andexpertise.Herewewillconsiderasapointofcomparison,Rose’sconceptofauthorities.Roseasksustostudythenatureoftheauthorityofthoseinvolvedindefining,makingandsolvingproblematisations:forexample,foodactivisteducators.Analysingauthoritymeanstothinkabout:‘Whoisaccordedorclaimsthecapacitytospeaktruthfullyabouthumans,theirnature,theirproblems?’(Rose1996:27).Oftherecentriseinfoodexperts,JaneDixon(2003)askswhattheyclaimastheirrighttoact.Thisinvolvesusexamininghowauthorityisauthorised–forexamplebythelaw,themedia,culture,science,artandsport.Thenatureofauthorityvariesandcanbepersonal,alliedtoscience,spirituality,claimstotruth,orformalqualifications.Forexampleinrelationtofood,JohnCoveney(thisissue;2006),JoPikeandDeanaLeahy(thisissue),andDeborahLupton(1996)writeabouttheway‘nutritionalscience’providesauthorityforarangeofexpertssuchashealthworkers,personaltrainers,andteachers.
Forexample,wecanaskhowhasitcomeaboutthatAustralianfoodwriter,StephanieAlexanderorBritishTVchef,JamieOliverareseenasauthoritiesonwhatweeatandcookathome.Roseshowsushowauthoritytakesdifferentforms:expert,codifiedandlayknowledge,butalsoimportantlyforthepurposesofthispaper,includeswisdom,virtue,experienceandpracticaljudgment.SoAlexanderandOlivercalluponnutritional-scienceauthoritybutalsoinvoketheirexperienceascooksandloversoffood.AdulteducationtheoristshavelongrecognisedexperientialknowledgebutRose’sframeworkpushes us to dig deeper and interrogate who and what has authorised it.Acriticaldimensiontoauthoritiesincludesclassifyingpeople‘behavingbadly.’Inthefieldoffoodpedagogiesthereareenergeticpronouncementsbyfoodeducatorsabout‘bad’eating,cookingand
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shoppingbehavioursmotivatedbyabelieftheyare‘doinggood.’Rose’sunderstandingofauthorityisthattheideaof‘doinggood’-beingethicalandwantingtohelp-iscentraltothelegitimacyofcontemporarypedagogiesandeducators.
ForRose,anotherdimensionistherelationbetweenauthoritiesandthosewhoaresubjecttothem.Onecommonplacerelationisthepastoralrelationlikethatofapriestandamemberofhisorherflock,inwhichtechniquessuchasconfession,self-disclosure,discipleshipandexemplarity(rolemodelling)areused.Othertypesofrelationswhichwemightseeinadulteducationandfoodpedagogies,whichareunder-theorised,includesolicitation,seduction,captivationandinparticular,conversion(Rose1996).AsMillerandRoseputit:
Itseemsthatthereareonlysomanywaysinwhichthefewcanchangethemany…youcanregulateothers,enmeshtheminawedofcodesandstandards,couplingthesewithsanctionsfortransgressionand/orrewardsforobedience.Youcancaptivateothers,seducethemwithyourcharmsandpowers,bindthemtoyourvaluesthroughthecharismaticforceofyourpersona.Youcaneducateothers,‘changetheirminds’asthesayinggoes,train,convinceorpersuadethemtoadoptparticularwaysofunderstanding,explaining,reasoning,evaluating,deciding,suchthattheywillrecastwhattheywishtoachievethroughreckoninginyourterms.Oryoucanconvertothers,transformtheirpersonhood,theirwaysofexperiencingthemselvesandtheirworldsothattheyunderstandandexplainthemeaningandnatureoflife-conductinfundamentallynewways(2008:147).
Itisthelattertheysuggestwhichismostpotent.ItiswhatFoucaultcallssubjectification:turningusintoactivesubjectswhoarealsosubjectatthesametime:‘wehavebeenfreedfromthearbitraryprescriptionsofreligiousandpoliticalauthorities…butwehavebeenboundintorelationshipswithnewauthorities,whicharemoreprofoundlysubjectifyingbecausetheyemanatefromourindividualdesires(Rose1996:17).
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ForSusan,theauthorityrelationisoneofthebenevolent,caringprofessional.Shesaid‘wedidn’twanttocomeinandinterveneasexperts.’Thelegitimationofauthorityiscomingfromaclaimtobedoinggood;first,inimaginingpeereducationtobemoredemocraticthandidacticism,andsecondlyinimprovingpeople’slives.WehavediscussedhowRoseproblematizesthefirstclaim,andnowrefertohowCoveney(2006)andLupton(1996)problematizethesecondclaim.Coveney(2006)andLupton(1996)pointout,therearecontestingviewsamonghealthscientistsandsocialscientistsabout
Ian,thebio-dynamicagriculturaleducatorconceiveshimselfasafacilitator.Hesays:‘SoIdon’tevergoandtrytosolicitpeople.I’mnottheretryingtosellitsomuchasmakeitavailableforthepeoplewhocanseeit.’Heclaimsthatpeoplechangethemselvesthroughaslow-burnmodelofconversion.Thisisthequintessentialmodeloffacilitationwheretheeducatortakesabackseatandimaginestherelationsbetweenteacherandlearnertobeanti-authoritarianandanti-didactic.
‘Theyhadanillnessinthemselvesortheirfamily,theygottothestagewheretheirdoctorssaidhere’syourpill,gohome,don’tcomeback,Ican’tdoanythingmoreforyou.They’recalledheart-sinkpatients.Whenyouturnupthedoctor’s;his(sic)heartsinksbecausehecan’tdoanythingwithyou.Thesepeoplegohomeandtheysitontheirbuttforfiveminutes,fivedays,fiveyears,fivedecades,andonedaytheywakeupandsayI’mgoingtodosomething.Theysetoffonapathofinvestigation.Itcantakethemtoyoga,orthis,orthat,ortheother,buttheyactuallyoutoftheirownpassionaffectchange.Thesearethepeoplewhogodownthealternativepathways.’
Wenowturntoseehowwemightapplythisanalyticconceptofauthorityrelationstotheaccountsofourfoodactivistsandwhatthisenables us to scrutinise.
Summary of authorities for each educator
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Inattendingtoauthoritiesinsteadofteacher-learnerroles,wecansee that there are other relations between teachers and learners thanthosebasedonacontinuumofcontrolorcodifiedknowledge.The concept enriches our understanding of the nature of teaching andlearningbybringingexpandednotionsofauthoritytoinclude,
howfoodis‘good’foryou,andaboutwhetherfoodistobeconceivedprimarilyasmedicine,fuel,orpleasure.Theideaof‘doinggood’-inotherwordstheauthoritythatisinvoked-comesfromthepremisethat‘nutritional-science’viewsabouthealthoverrideanyothers.
JoanandPaul,thefarmer-activistsalsodrawon‘nutritionalscience’knowledgebutalsoemphasisetheirfirst-handexperienceofgrowing.Theypresentthemselvesasmodernandscientificbutalsobeing close to the land and as rural stewards. They talk about the importanceofknowingaboutthesoilandland.
‘…youlookatabokchoyoravegetable,youlook-whenyougoandbuyit,youlookatthebottom.Iftheendisbrown,youknowit’snotfresh.Igrowcorianderandwehadthreefarms.IwouldtakeituptomyChineseneighbourswhoalsogrowitandtheycouldtellmewhichfarmitcamefromjustbythetaste.Nowthisisalltodowiththenutrientsandthesoil.’
Insodoingtheyareinvokingwhatwehavecalledelsewhere‘farmingnature’(FlowersandSwan2011):Farmingimproves,tamesandcultivatesnature,‘throughgenerationsofembodiedexperience’andknowledgethroughthesenses(Franklin2002,inJacobsen2004:64).Farmingnatureinvokesaclosenesstoland,animalsandsoil,asimplerrurallife,andstraightforwardpeople.Thisisincontrast to industrialised and polluted city life with its corrupted bodilyknowledge(Vileisis2004).Becausefarmingnatureisaboutimprovingnature,authorityforthesefarmer-activistscomesfromtheirbodilyknowledgeaugmentedwithscientificknowledge.‘Doinggood’isaboutconnectingshoppersto‘farmingnature.
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forexample,theoperationofwisdom,benevolenceandsenses,allofwhichcanbeshapedintoadvicewhichaffectsourlives.ForFoucauldians,contemporarygovernmentalitytakestheformofadvice(Phillip2009).Thekeyissueisthroughwhatclaimsandtechniquescansomeonelegitimatelyexciseauthorityovertheintimatedetailsofsomeoneelse’slife(MillerandRose2008:149)?Inourpaperthiswouldincludewhatpeoplecook,eat,dowiththeirbodies,dointheirdomesticspheres,spendtheirmoneyonandmore.
Afocusonauthoritiesencouragesustoquestiontheethicsof‘doinggood.’Anne-MarieMol(2010)arguesthatinmanydiscoursesoneatinghealthily,foodchoicesareseenasdifficultwiththebodyimaginedastoo‘greedy’toeattoomuchofthe‘wrong’foods.Thereissomeofthisinthefarmers’discoursesbuttheirmainconcernishowpeopleaccessfoodswhichareseenas‘bodilyhealthy’.Wecanseehowclassed,genderedandracialisednotionsof‘healthism’andclaimstobeimproving‘health’enablearangeofexpertstoclaim‘anewethicalregimeforauthorityitself’(MillerandRose2008:144).JulieGuthman(2008)hasshownhowthesetypesof‘bringinggoodfoodtoothers’initiativesintheUSreinforcewhiteness,andsheandJessicaPaddock(2008)havearguedagainsttheirmiddleclassassumptionsabouthealth.AsMol(2010)andBerlant(2008)argueweneedtointerrogatetheethicsofhealthbeingpromulgated:whataboutpleasure,satisfaction,andotherkindsofhealth?
Itistruethatsomeadulteducationapproachesexamineethics.Butoftenassumptionsaremadeinadvance.Thusa‘boo-hooray’binaryunderpinscharacterisationsofso-calledinstrumentaleducationversusprogressiveorradicaleducation,withinstrumentaleducationseentobeunethicalandradicaleducationthemostethical.Criticaltothefoodactivisteducatorsaccountsoftheirauthorityistheideathattheyarebeingethicalbecausetheydon’t‘impose’theirexpertiseonlearners.AsWendyHollway(1991)notesthisisacommon-placeideaaboutpowerandknowledgeamongstadulteducators,whoconstructthisformofteachingas‘democratic’and‘participative’asifpowerhas
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beenwaived.WhathasbeenlessexaminedinFoucauldiananalysesistheclassed,racialisedandgendereddimensionsofauthorityrelations–whoorwhatisseentobeauthoritative.Whoseethicscount?Whocanclaimauthorityandwhoorwhatauthorisesit?
Teleologies
Finally,wecontrastRose’snotionofteleologieswiththemoretraditionalconceptofeducationalaims.Rosedefinesteleologiesasthegoals,plansandendpointsofprograms,andwhathecalls‘formsoflife’-subjectpositions-whichareidealwaystobeandtoact.Thesearemodesofbeingwehopetocreateinourselvesandinotherswhichhaveanethicalvalorisationtothem(Dean1996).Examplesincludethe‘responsibleprudentfather’;the‘workeracceptingher/hislot;’the‘goodwifefulfillingherdomesticdutieswithquietefficiencyandself-effacement.’Inthefieldoffood,examplesincludethe‘health-consciouscitizenwhoheedsdietaryguidelines’;‘ethicallyconsciousconsumerwhocaresaboutthesustainabilityoftheenvironment’;or‘creativeandcosmopolitanfoodadventurer.’InherstudyofNorwegianfooddiscourses,AnnechenBugge(2003)presentsthreecoresubjectpositions:The‘gourmet’whichvaluespleasure,the‘therapist’valueshealthconsciousness,andthe‘traditionalist’whichvaluesnationalsentimentandnostalgia.Subjectpositionsareformsofdesireablesubjectivityandclearlygendered,racialisedandclassed.Theyarenotaprioripreformedbutspecific,concrete,historicalshapings.Wecantakeupmultiple,partial,elidedandevencontradictorypositions(Fejes2008:655).
Asecondimportantelementisthattheteleologiesarearticulatedinrelationtospecificproblemsandsolutionsabouthumanconductandconnectedtowidergovernmentalobjectivessuchasnationalprosperity,virtue,harmony,productivity,socialorder(Rose1996).ForRose,healthisoneofthequintessentialteleologiesofgovernmentality.Teleologiesspecifyundesirableanddesirablebehavioursatthelevelofpopulations,workers,familiesandsociety.
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Inrelationtofood,Jensenhasreferredto‘theemergingcitizenshipoffood’(Jensen2004)inwhichtraditionallythoughtofmundanedomestichabitsarenow‘ethicalised.’Thisishowindividualscanmake‘biggeracts’throughbeing‘responsibilized.’AsFionaAllonwritesofgreenhomeDIY,weareseeingthe‘micropoliticsofthehouseholdandtheminuateofeverydaybehaviours’connectedtocivicresponsibility(2011:205),reinventingcitizenshipandpatrioticduty(2011:207).Throughtheseordinaryeverydayhabits,onecanbecomean ethical subject.
Summary of teleology for each educator
Thedesiredsubject-positionofIanisthespiritualgrowerwhocaresforhisorherselfandthecosmos.Thisisnotsimplyanorganicgrower.Theybecomestewardsofthecosmosthroughgrowingfoodinspecialways–forexample,fertilisermixeswithbone,feathersandsoil-whichbringindividualandenvironmentalhealth.WenotethatvariouscommentatorswouldclassifybiodynamicagricultureasNewAgeandcritique‘NewAge’practicesforreproducinganeo-liberalagendaofself-responsibilisation.Thereareclearlysomeaspectsinthisaccountwhichcanbeseenasself-responsibilisation,buttherearecomplications:thebio-dynamicfarmer-educatordoesnotadvocatethemarketasasolutionandassertsthatchangeinfoodgrowingandconsumerpracticesmighttakeuptotwentyyears,andcanhappenasmuchthroughserendipityasplanning.Thereareparticularitiestothebiodynamicsphilosophyinitsconfigurationasa‘spiritualscience’ofbiodynamicstoowhichrendersitmorecomplex.Thusitpostulatesamorefluid,openbodythanoftendescribedinFoucauldiantheorising(Gaynor1998).Inthiswayitalsomovesoutsideoftraditionalnutritionalpedagogies.Itimagines‘linksbetweenthedynamismofsoils,plantsandpeople,thusmovingfromthe‘clinicalnutrition’apprehensionofthebodyasacomplexcollectionofmolecules,toanapproachwhichconsidersbodiesassitesofadynamicactivitywhichpersistthroughvariousspatial-temporalprocesses’(Gaynor1998:19).
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InthecaseoftheSusanthereisamoreapparentlinktoneo-liberal‘self-care’governmentalityagendas.Thesubject-positionisthefrugal,obedientmigrantcookingwomanwhomustcareforherfamily’shealththroughmakingmealsaccordingtothe‘healthymessages’guidelines.Shemustcookaccordingtocalculatedbudgetsandscientificallydefinednutritionalvalues.Thisteleologyrepresentsthequintessentialneoliberalprojectofpersonalisingsocialproblems,andwemightadd,genderingandracialisingsocialproblems.ThisdoesnotmeanthattherearenotimportantbenefitsforthewomeninthefoodprojectSusanruns.NorarewesuggestingthatSusanisunawareofthelimitationsoftheapproach.Sheclearlywantedtoorganiseothermoremacroreformsbutdidnothavethepowerorfunding.Nevertheless,thesubjectpositionisofmotheringhealth,andwithhealthandfooddefinedinnarrowways.
ForJoanandPaul,thedesiredsubject-positionisthelabel-literateshopperwhomakesrationaldecisionsonthebasisoftheprovenanceoffood.Thenotionoflabel-literacyconnectswithawidernotionofconsumercitizenship.Shopping-activismismuchdebated.Somefoodtheoristshavecritiquedwhattheyseeastheneoliberalrationalitiesandsubjectivitieswhichundergirdconsumer-activism(Guthman2007).Thisisbecausethisteleologyconstructsthemarketastheplacewherepoliticsgetsdoneandprivilegesthe‘choosingsubject’(Guthman2007).Inthisway,‘citizenship[is]manifestedthroughthefreeexerciseofpersonalchoice…newrelations[havebeenformed]betweentheeconomichealthofthenationandthe‘private’choicesofindividuals…thecitizen[is]assignedavitaleconomicroleinhisorheractivityasaconsumer’(MillerandRose2008:48-49).Morerecentlyfoodtheoristshavearguedthatneo-liberalgovernmentalitydoesnotmopupallwaysofbeingandacting(Dowling2010).Forexample,RobynDowlingarguesthatitispossibleto‘gobeyondgovernmentality’toexceedthesesubjectpositionsorcreatealternatives.
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Incontrasttotheideaofeducationalaims,thenotionofteleologyupsthestakeswithitsfocuson‘formsoflife’andtheirlinkstowidergovernmentalprojects.Inthecaseofthebio-dynamicfarmer-educator,healtheducatorandalternativefarmersdiscussedinthispaper,wecanseeanemphasisbeingplacedon‘formsoflife’whereindividualsmusttakeresponsibilityforthefoodtheygrow,eatandshop.Forouractivists,goodcitizenshipisbeingrefractedthroughalensofcare:forself,family,cosmos,farmerandland.Withthefocusonthegrowing,shoppingandcookingoffood,theseformsoflifeandtheirethicsarehighlyclassed,racialisedandgenderedthough.Class,genderandracearecentraltotheseformsoflifeasfeministfoodwritershaveargued.Importantlyforadulteducators,subjectpositionsasformsoflifearewaysthroughwhichsubjectsarebroughttolifethroughtechnologiesandknowledge,andespeciallyself-knowledge.Buttheyarealsoresistedandrefused(seeinthisissuePikeandLeahy).Inrelationtothefoodactivists,moreresearchwouldneedtobedoneontheirlearnersandhowtheselearnersmayreproduce,embrace,orperhapshalf-heartedlyorintermittentlyinhabittheseformsoflife,andrejecttheteleologiesbeingsetoutbeforethem.
Conclusion
Inthispaper,wehaveexaminedthewaysinwhichthreetypesoffoodactivist-educatorsconstructfood,health,learnersandpedagogiesusingRose’sframeworkofproblematisations, authorities, technologies and teleologies.Wehavearguedthatthisframeworkenablesustodotwothings:first,toopenupthepoliticsofadulteducationpedagogiesthroughadifferentmodelofpower;andsecondly,toexpandourunderstandingoffoodactivistpedagogies.Inshort,wecanseethatthethreetypesofactivistscannotbeeasilycategorisedinanyoneschoolofthought,beithumanist,behaviourist,radicalorprogressive.Evenheuristically,theseconcepts,unlikeproblematisation,flattenthecomplexityofhowfoodandhealth
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becomeanalysedandtreatedinpedagogies.Lookingatauthority relations rather than the role of the teacher gets at the ways in which educatorslegitimatewhattheydointermsofdoinggood.Thefocuson technologiesbringsnewpedagoguestothefore;forexample,itwouldbequiteunusualtodiscusslabelsaspedagogicalwithinmoretraditionalmodels.Rose’sframeworkenablesustothinkaboutthewaysinwhichadulteducators,regardlessofso-called‘schoolofthought’arevehiclesofpowerinmobilisingtechnologiesofselfanddomination.Finally,byemphasisingteleologiesratherthanaims,wecangetatthewaysthesepedagogiesproducetypesofselvesandtypesof ethical habits.
Ofcoursewedonotknowhowthesepedagogiesarereceivedbythetargetlearnersandtheextenttowhichlearnersaccept,refuse,andtakeupsubjectpositionseitherapatheticallyorcompliantly.Moreover,researchisneededonfoodpedagogiestoidentifywhat‘substance’gets‘capacitated’:habits,skills,identities,emotions,senses,knowledge(Flowers&Swan2013).
Furthermore,Rose’sframeworkchallengestheclaimstoethicalisationinadulteducation.Thusitprovidesuswithameanstoexamineadulteducationapproachesandtheirtermsandconditionsof‘doinggood.’Rose’sframeworkdescribesprocesseswhichbringsubjects,identities,knowledges,andtruthsintobeing:theyarenotsimplypre-formed.Theyalsobringpoliticalandethicalsubjectsintobeing(King,S.2003).Wehaveseensomeoftheethicalworkthatthe‘learners’needtodoaccordingtoourfoodactivisteducators.Throughwhatknowledgesandtruthsdofoodactivisteducatorsmaketheirwork‘ethical’?Throughwhatknowledgesandtruthsdoweasadulteducatorsmakeourwork‘ethical’?Toproduceourselvesintopoliticalandethicalsubjectswhat‘substance’dowehavetoworkon?Whatistheprimematerialofourclaimstobeingdoinggood(King,L.2003;King,S.2003)?ForRose,thesequestionswouldneedto
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beansweredinrelationtospecific,concretepracticesaspowerisnotgeneral and abstract but located and technical.
Acrosstheaccountsofthefoodactiviststhereisamultiplicityofeducationalsources,aimsandtargetsofintervention.OnewaytounderstandthisistodrawinspirationfromRose’snotionofthe‘psy-complex’whichisanumbrellatermthatreferstotheexpandingarchitectureofpsychologicalexpertiseandtechniquesincontemporaryculture.Thetermcomplexisusedtoindicateahybridassemblageofknowledgeswhichmaybecontradictorybuthaveafamilyresemblanceinhowtheyunderstandproblemsandsolutions.Inthesamevein,wecanseethecontoursofwhatwemightcall‘thefood-knowledgescomplex’acrossarangeoffoodpedagogies,includingfoodactivisteducators.Inthefood-knowledgescomplex,thereisacongeriesofideas,idealsandpractices.Whilstinvoked,psyknowledgesaremuchlessimportantthan‘health’knowledgesofwhich‘healthism’isthemostsalient.AswithRose’sideaofthe‘psycomplex,’eventhoughthereisadiversityofviewsaboutwhathealthis(ontology)andwhatconstitutesgoodhealth(knowledges),thereisadominantviewofhealththatgetspropagated,andthisisusedtoundergirdclaimstobedoinggood.Inthisideaofthe‘food-knowledgecomplex’wecanseehowproblematisations,authorities,technologiesandteleologiesaregendered,classandracialisedandconstitutegender,classandrace.Inthepsy-complexexpertsclaimtohelpuswithwhatRose(1996)calls‘problemsofliving’;inthefood-knowledgescomplex,expertsclaimtohelpuswith‘problemsofeating’.
Differentproblematizations,technologies,authoritiesandteleologiesconstitutefood,healthandbodiesinvariouswayswhilstatthesametimepromoting,inthiscase,healthism.Toarguethis,istosaymorethantherearevariousconstructionsbeinginvokedinfoodactivistpedagogies:itistosuggestthatfoodandhealthareactivatedbyactivistsinontologicallydistinctwaysacrosstheirpedagogies.Thisis
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becausepedagogiesareperformativeandreproducewhatRosecalls‘formsoflife.’Thepedagogiesbringobjectsandkindsofhumanstolife.Insodoing,theycanalsobringtypesoflivestohumans.Acrossthefoodactivistpedagogies,foodbecomesseenasspiritual,amedicine,achoice,aresponsibilityandhealthexpandstocovertheenvironment,spiritualconnection,familyhealth,agriculturalhealth,farmer’seconomichealth.Fortheeducators,togetatthe‘healthinfood’requiresdifferentactivitiesandprocesses:foodneedstobegrown,cooked,andshoppedforinparticularways.Whatfoodandhealth,then,are‘reallylike’and‘shouldbelike’iscontested(Jacobsen2004).
TounderstandthiswedrawonMol’s(2002)notionofthe‘body-multiple’:aconceptsheusestoshowhowpatients’bodieshavequitedifferentontologicalrealitiesaccordingtowhichmedicalpracticetheyare participating in. This is to argue that the body is not singular but multiple,andenactedinvariedandevenincommensurable,situatedmedicalpractices.Objectsaremultiple;andrealityopen(Jacobsen,2004).Insimilarvein,JohnLawandMarianneLien(2012)examinehowsalmonbecomeaverydifferenttypeofontologicalobjectacrossdifferent‘salmon-reality’practicesfromthebiologistwritingatextbookonsalmontosalmonfarmersinNorwaycatchingsalmon.Thusinexaminingthe‘food-knowledgescomplex,’itmaybehelpfultoidentifyhowwhatwecouldcall‘food-multiple’and‘health-multiple’constitutenotonlyfoodandhealthasdifferentobjects,butalsohowtheymakerace,classandgender.Rose’sframeworkhelpsusunderstandthatwhatweseeasproblemsandsolutionsaseducatorsarenotself-evidentnorequallydistributedbyrace,genderandclass.Onewaytothinkabout‘doinggood’theninfoodpedagogiesisas‘ontologicalpolitics’(Mol1999):thewaysinwhichdebatesandstrugglesneedtobehadoverwhichfood,pedagogicalandhealthrealitiestoenact(Bacchi2012;Jensen2004).
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Acknowledgements
WewouldliketothankFacultyofArtsandSocialScienceandtheCosmopolitanCivilSocietiesResearchCentreattheUniversityofTechnology,SydneyforfundingthisresearchandStephenFox,QueenMaryCollegeLondonUniversityforhelpfulcommentsonourdraft work.
About the authors
Rick Flowers has been Head of Adult Education and Postgraduate Programs in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at the University of Technology Sydney (UTS) since 2008. Rick was Director of the Centre for Popular Education at the University of Technology, Sydney from 1999 to 2007. The Centre for Popular Education undertook research in environmental education and advocacy, community cultural development, health education and community development, the pedagogy and politics of working with young people, union and community organising, and community leadership. Rick has been undertaking research with Elaine Swan about food pedagogies for just under two years. This has included papers about activist films, food practices in mixed-race families, and empirical research in southwestern Sydney about culinary ethnicism in a project led by a food social enterprise. They have an edited book with the title ‘Food Pedagogies’ coming out in 2013.
Elaine Swan is Head of Communication Studies in Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at the University of Technology Sydney (UTS). Recent papers examines processes of whiteness: Swan (2010) looks at the active labour of ignorance, audit culture and white masculinity in UK universities; Swan (2009) focuses on the visual image of the mosaic, a well worn cliché of diversity management to explore the ideal of whiteness in race making; Swan (2011) examines whiteness and the figure of the career woman in relation
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to dirty work in women’s magazines. She has published two books: Worked up Selves which looks at the interface between therapeutic pedagogies and the workplace, and Diversity in Management with Caroline Gatrell.
Contact details:
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Technology Sydney (UTS).
Email: [email protected] and [email protected]