Overview of Psychology & Personality

8/16/2019 Overview of Psychology & Personality

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Psychology Topics > Personality

Introduction

Personality is defined as a person's unique behavioral and cognitive patterns; OR, a person'sunique consistent pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. In describing personality, theorists

attempt to anser the folloing questions.

• Freedom versus Determinism:

!re our behaviors determined by forces e cannot control or are e free to control our

on behaviors"

• Heredity versus Environment:

Is our personality shaped solely by genetics, the environment e gro up in, or both"

• Uniqueness versus Universality:

!re people unique or similar in comparison ith one another"

• Active versus Reactive:#o e choose behavior on our on volition or do people simply react to theirenvironment"

• ptimistic versus Pessimistic:

$an people change their personalities or do they have to accept themselves the ay theyare and remain the same"

%ey &igures (heories

!ordon Allport

)ordon !llport as an !merican psychologist ho focused on individuals personalities. !llport

is sometimes referred to as the founder of personality psychology. *e believed that the study of

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personality could be characteri+ed in ays. (he first, nomothetic, refers to traits and rules of

personality that can be generali+ed to large amounts and types of people. (he second, idiographic

psychology, states that there are characteristics that are unique to the individual. (hus, !llportattempted to e-plain personality be ansering the question of uniqueness versus universality.

!llport developed the trait theory of personality. *e did this by looking through a dictionary andriting don any terms that described a person's personality. *e then divided these terms into

types of traits; cardinal, central and secondary.

• "ardinal trait / (his refers to a trait that dominates the individual's life, personality and

behaviors. (his type of trait is uncommon because people usually have more than 0 trait

that shapes their lives.

•

"entral trait / (hese are traits that everyone has to one degree or another.

• #econdary trait / (hese characteristics are unique to the individual.

!llport also coined the ords genotype and phenotype. )enotype is a trait that a person has

ithin themselves that determines their behaviors ith others. Phenotypes are observable aspects

of ho the individual relates to the orld. &or e-ample, genotypes can be values, likes ordislikes. ! phenotype for someone ith a personality disorder is a pattern of disturbed or

inappropriate relationships ith others.

"arl $ung

$arl 1ung as a 2iss psychologist ho as most notable for dream analysis, but he also

illustrated a theory of personality. 3ike !llport, 1ung also ansers the question of uniqueness

versus universality in his theory.

1ung believed that everyone had particular unlearned yearnings or archetypes. &or e-ample, themother archetype has a yearning or need to nurture others. In other ords, an archetype is a

model, prototype, or stereotype that is used as a structural component to a developing

personality. 2ome e-amples of 1ung's archetypes ere4

• (he 5other4 feeding, soothing and nurturing.

• (he 2elf4 spiritual connection to the universe

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• (he 2hado4 dark, unknon and mysterious part

• (he Persona4 public mask

• (he $hild4 birth and beginnings

• (he (rickster4 deceiving

• (he 2carecro4 outcast

•

(he 2age4 knoledge and guidance

• (he *ero4 rescuer, champion

#igmund Freud

&reud developed the model of the psyche or personality composed of the Id, 6go, and 2uperego.

(he Id orks on the pleasure principle / it seeks to avoid pain and increase pleasure at any cost.

It drives us to search for food hen hungry, rest hen tired, and other basic impulses that ensureour survival.

(he 2uperego acts as the moral police, and demands that e act in a moral and sociallyappropriate manner, no matter the circumstance. It orks in direct contradiction to the Id. (he

6go orks as the e-ecutive of the psyche, striving to find a balance beteen the Id's hedonismand the 2uperego's moralism.

&reud also believed that personalities ere influenced by material held in the unconscious. *is

treatment consisted of helping individuals make the unconscious/conscious to understand their

motives behind their emotions and behaviors. *is e-pectation as that once people ere trulyaare of themselves, they could make changes to improve their functioning.

Al%red Adler

!lfred !dler as an !ustrian psychologist ho believed personality as not only developed dueto internal processes but e-ternal processes. One of the e-ternal processes !dler believed had a

significant impact on a developing personality as birth order. &or e-ample, the oldest child may

have leadership capabilities, the youngest child is often overindulged and the middle child mayfeel squee+ed/out or ignored.

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!dler proposed a model of personality that defined particular patterns of behaviors. (hese

patterns ere named getting 7 leaning, avoiding, ruling 7 dominant, and socially useful. (he

getting 7 leaning type are selfish personalities ho take but never or rarely give back. (heavoiding type of personality does not take risks and does not en8oy much social interaction. (he

ruling 7 dominant personality ill do anything to get their ay and can be very manipulative.

&inally, the socially useful personality is outgoing and ants to do things for the good of others.

Ro&ert "loninger

Robert $loninger characteri+ed personality by three dimensions of temperament and three types

of traits. *e also developed the tridimensional personality questionnaire 9(P: to measure thesedimensions in individuals.

(he dimensions of temperament are4

• *arm !voidance4 an-ious, pessimistic vs. outgoing, optimistic

•


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personality included to dimensions, e-traversion 96 and neuroticism 9


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Raymond "attell

Raymond $attell as a >ritish and !merican psychologist ho proposed a 0A factor theory of personality. (hese 0A factors are outlined in the folloing table.

Descriptors o% (o) RangePrimary

FactorDescriptors o% High Range

Impersonal, distant, cool, reserved,

detached, formal, aloof 9Schizothymia

?armth

9!

?arm, outgoing, attentive to others,

kindly, easy/going, participating, likes

people 9 Affectothymia

$oncrete thinking, loer generalmental capacity, less intelligent, unable

to handle abstract problems 9 Lower

Scholastic Mental Capacity

Reasoning

9>

!bstract/thinking, more intelligent, bright, higher general mental capacity,

fast learner 9 Higher Scholastic Mental

Capacity

Reactive emotionally, changeable,

affected by feelings, emotionally lessstable, easily upset 9 Lower Ego

Strength

6motional2tability

9$

6motionally stable, adaptive, mature,faces reality calmly 9 Higher Ego

Strength

#eferential, cooperative, avoids

conflict, submissive, humble, obedient,easily led, docile, accommodating

92ubmissiveness

#ominance96

#ominant, forceful, assertive,

aggressive, competitive, stubborn, bossy 9 Dominance

2erious, restrained, prudent, taciturn,

introspective, silent 9 Desurgency

3iveliness

9&

3ively, animated, spontaneous,enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful,

e-pressive, impulsive 9Surgency

6-pedient, nonconforming, disregardsrules, self indulgent 9 Low Super Ego

Strength

Rule/$onsciousness

9)

Rule/conscious, dutiful, conscientious,conforming, moralistic, staid, rule

bound 9 High Super Ego Strength

2hy, threat/sensitive, timid, hesitant,

intimidated 9Threctia

2ocial

>oldness9*

2ocially bold, venturesome, thick

skinned, uninhibited 9 Parmia

Btilitarian, ob8ective, unsentimental,tough minded, self/reliant, no/

nonsense, rough 9 Harria

2ensitivity

9I

2ensitive, aesthetic, sentimental, tender

minded, intuitive, refined 9 Premsia

(rusting, unsuspecting, accepting,

unconditional, easy 9 Alaxia

Cigilance

93

Cigilant, suspicious, skeptical,

distrustful, oppositional 9 Protension

)rounded, practical, prosaic, solution !bstractedness !bstract, imaginative, absent minded,

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oriented, steady, conventional

9 Praxernia95 impractical, absorbed in ideas 9 Autia

&orthright, genuine, artless, open,

guileless, naive, unpretentious,

involved 9 Artlessness

Privateness

9


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delivered the food. Pavlov reali+ed something 'unusual' as occurring because he kne that dogs

don't instinctively salivate in response to a sound.

!fter further investigation, Pavlov reali+ed that the dogs FlearnedF that every time they heard thatsound, they ere about to be fed. (his FpairingF of a stimulus that naturally caused a biological

response ith another stimulus that did not refle-ively cause a response is the essence ofclassical conditioning. (he vital part is the pairing of the to stimuli that precedes the

conditioning of a refle-ive response to the neutral stimulus.

$onditioned responses are not permanent hoever. Bpon further investigation, Pavlov

discovered that after several times of ringing the bell ithout giving dogs food that the dogs

ould re/learn that the bell as no longer associated ith being fed. (his process is callede-tinction. If the conditioned response is never paired again ith the neutral stimulus then the

conditioned response ill fade and then disappear.

+,F, #'inner

>.&. 2kinner as also a behaviorist, hoever, unlike Pavlov, ho believed behaviors ereinvoluntary reactions to the environment, 2kinner believed behaviors ere voluntary. 2kinner

illustrated this concept through his operant conditioning theory. (his theory states that people

perform behaviors because they are reinforced or punished to do so.

Reinforcement is something that increases the likelihood that a behavior ill continue.Punishment is something that decreases the likelihood that a behavior ill continue. >oth

Reinforcement and punishment have to types, positive and negative.


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!n e-ample of a poerful negative reinforcer is a screaming child. (he sound is so annoying that

many adults ill give the child anything he or she ants in order to get the screaming to stop.

(he child ill stop screaming 9take aay the piercing sound hen the adult gives him or hercandy 9increase likelihood that behavior occurs. $hildren use this technique ith adults every

day. It doesn't take a psychologist to understand ho to change behaviorG

Al&ert +andura

!lbert >andura as a psychologist most noted for this theory of social learning. (he main idea

of the social learning theory is that people learn by atching hat other people do and then copy

that behavior. (his is called modeling. >andura can also be thought of as a FnurtureF orientedtheorist. In response to the question of hether our personalities are the result or genetics or our

environment, he ould say e act the ays e do because e are nurtured to act in those ays.

$ohn Holland

1ohn *olland developed a model of A personality types that is mostly used in career counseling.(hese A personality types are Realistic, Investigative, !rtistic, 2ocial, 6nterprising, and

$onventional.

• Realistic4 likes to ork ith animals, tools, machines, and is practical and realistic.

•

*nvestigative4 likes math, science, is precise and intellectual.

• Artistic4 likes creative activities, is very artistic, e-pressive, and avoids repetition.

• #ocial4 likes to help and be around people. Is trustorthy, friendly, and likes to solve

social problems.

• Enterprising4 likes to sell things, engage in politics and other leadership positions but

does not en8oy analytic activities.

• "onventional4 en8oys orking ith numbers and structured activities.

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source4 https477edtechvision.ikispaces.com7file7vie7*ollandH1obs.gif

A&raham .aslo)!braham 5aslo as a *umanistic Psychologist ho believed personality as based on

meeting survival and other needs. *is theory ansers the question of uniqueness versus

universality because the needs he identified are universal to all people. (he needs he identifiedere physiological, security, needs of belonging, esteem, and self/actuali+ation.

• Physical needs4 food, ater, sleep

• 2ecurity7safety4 shelter, safe environment

• >elongingness and love4 friends, family, and intimacy

• 6steem4 Respect, self/esteem, recognition

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• 2elf/actuali+ation4 achieving an individual's full potential

*e organi+ed these needs into a triangle he called the *ierarchy of


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(he assumption is that the person ill Fpro8ectF hich is that he or she ill use the picture to talk

about hat has happened or is significant to them.

Rorschach4 (his assessment consists of a series of ambiguous ink blots and the psychologist asksthe patient hat he or she sees in the ink blots. (his is similar to looking at clouds in the sky and

talking about hat the clouds look like. 2imilar to the (!(, the assumption is that the individualill Fpro8ectF their issues, struggles or delusions onto the picture.

55PI II4 (he 5innesota 5ultiphasic Personality Inventory is a long test consisting of over HHstatements such as FI hear things that other people cannot hear.F 6ach question can be ansered

either true or false. Results are shon according to 0H scales. (hese scales are outlined in the

folloing table4

-um&er A&&reviation Description /hat is .easured-o, o%

*tems

0 *s *ypochondriasis

$oncern ith bodily

symptoms

# #epression#epressive2ymptoms

J

*y *ysteria

!areness of

problems and

vulnerabilities

AH

= Pd Psychopathic #eviate$onflict, struggle,anger, respect for

society's rules

H

5& 5asculinity7&emininity

2tereotypical

masculine orfeminine

interests7behaviors

A

A Pa Paranoia3evel of trust,suspiciousness,

sensitivity

=H

J Pt Psychasthenia

?orry, !n-iety,

tension, doubts,obsessiveness

=K

K 2c 2chi+ophreniaOdd thinking and

social alienation JK

D 5a *ypomania 3evel of e-citability =A

H 2i 2ocial Introversion People orientation AD

source4 http477en.ikipedia.org7iki75innesotaE5ultiphasicEPersonalityEInventory

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5yers/>riggs (ype Indicator4 this assessment is also used in career counseling and is another

personality inventory that measures personality according to = dichotomies. (hese are

introversion 9I vs e-troversion 96, sensing 92 vs intuition 9riggsE(ypeEIndicator

Personality #isorders

(he folloing disorders are unhealthy patterns of behaviors that require treatment. Bsually thesedisorders are not FcuredF per se, hoever, individuals suffering from personality disorders can be

taught coping skills to help them cope ith their symptoms. Personality disorders are classified

into clusters of symptoms; !, >, and $.

$luster !4 these disorders consists of odd, eccentric thinking or behaviors

• Paranoid personality disorder

• 2chi+oid personality disorder

• 2chi+otypal personality disorder

$luster >4 these disorders consist of dramatic, overly emotional thinking or behavior.

• !ntisocial personality disorder

• >orderline personality disorder

• *istrionic personality disorder

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and related chapters. 5any of the findings are nonobvious, in that most people 9including

scholars ould not be aare of them. (his is partly due to the author's inside knoledge

from having orked in a prison treatment program as ell as being a researcher7professorin universities. ... more

Personality4 ! $ognitive !pproach 9Psychology &ocus

1o >runas/?agstaff&rom !ma+on.com4 !re individual differences best e-plained in terms of nature

9biology7genetics or nurture 9upbringing" #o e have Ffree ill"F Is personality a result

of differences in cognition or differences in termperament" Personality4 ! $ognitive

!pproach touches on a number of controversies in academic psychology, and provides a broad and integrated vie of individual differences psychology in this concise yet

academically rigorous overvie of relevant theories and research ... more

! *istory of Personality Psychology4 (heory, 2cience, and Research from *ellenism to

the (enty/&irst $entury&rank #umont

&rom !ma+on.com4 &rank #umont presents current personality psychology ith a fresh

description of its current status as ell as its prospects. Play, se-, cuisine, creativity,altruism, pets, grieving rituals, and other oft/neglected topics broaden the scope of this

fascinating study. (his tract is imbued ith historical perspectives that reveal the

continuity in the evolving science and research of this discipline over the past century. ...more

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Overview of Psychology & Personality