0

D 2.8

Overview of FEV-related

Current and Upcoming

Standardization

February 8th, 2012

1

This document is a deliverable of the Coordination Action ICT4FEV funded by the European Union in

the framework of the European Green Cars Initiative under the FP7 Grant Agreement Number

260116.

Legal Notice

By the European Commission, Communications Networks, Content & Technology Directorate-

General.

Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on its behalf is responsible for the use which

might be made of the information contained in the present publication.

The European Commission is not responsible for the external web sites referred to in the present

publication.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the

official European Commission’s view on the subject.

2

Table of Contents 1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 5

2 Overview of Relevant Standardization Bodies .................................................................. 7

2.1 International Organisations .......................................................................................... 7 2.2 European Organisations .............................................................................................. 8

3 Report on FEV-related Standardization ............................................................................. 9

3.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 9 3.2 In-Vehicle Communication ........................................................................................... 9 3.3 Vehicle-to-Grid Communication ................................................................................. 10 3.4 Vehicle-to-vehicle / vehicle-to-infrastructure communication..................................... 13

4 Recommendations on Standardization ............................................................................ 14

4.1 Overview .................................................................................................................... 14 4.2 Technology areas ....................................................................................................... 14

4.2.1 Energy Storage Systems .............................................................................. 14 4.2.2 Drive Train Technologies .............................................................................. 15 4.2.3 Safety regulations on drive-by-wire ............................................................... 16 4.2.4 Vehicle System Integration ........................................................................... 18 4.2.5 Diagnostics in multi-drive power train architecture ....................................... 18 4.2.6 Grid Integration .............................................................................................. 19 4.2.7 Contactless Charging .................................................................................... 20 4.2.8 Transport System Integration ........................................................................ 20 4.2.9 Safety ............................................................................................................ 21 4.2.10 Roadmap with transversal items ................................................................... 21 4.2.11 Isolation in higher / lower voltage domains ................................................... 21

5 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 22

5.1 Industrial Situation in 2025 ......................................................................................... 22 5.2 Adaptation from Conventional Cars towards FEV in 2025 ........................................ 22 5.3 Major Differences in ICT of a FEV from a Conventional Car in 2025 ........................ 22 5.4 Priority Areas for Standardization .............................................................................. 22 5.5 Further Areas with the Need for Standardization ....................................................... 23 5.6 State of European standardization work .................................................................... 23

6 Conclusions and Outlook .................................................................................................. 24

References ................................................................................................................................. 25

Annex – Standardization Roadmaps ICT for the FEV ............................................................ 26

3

List of Acronyms

AC Alternating current

AUTOSAR Automotive Open System Architecture

AV Audio/video

BMS Battery management system

CEN European Committee for Standardization

CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization

DC Direct current

ECU Electronic Control Unit

EMC Electro-magnetic compatibility

EMS Energy management system

ESS Energy storage system

ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute

EV Electric vehicle

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FEV Full electric vehicle

GFCI Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters

GSM Global System for Mobile Communications

ICE Internal combustion engine

ICT Information and communications technology

ICT4FEV Information and communications technology for full electric vehicles

ID Identification

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

ISO International Organization for Standardization

ITS Intelligent transportation system

ITU-T Information and Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication Standardization

Sector

IVN In-vehicle network

JWG Joint Working Group

JTC Joint Technical Committee

NFC Near-field communication

4

NC National Committee

OSI Open Systems Interconnections

PHY Physical layer

PLC Powerline communication

SAE Society of Automobile Engineers

SOH State of health

SWITCH Selective Wake-able and Interoperable Transceiver in CAN High-speed

TC Technical committee

URL Uniform Resource Locator

V2G Vehicle-to-grid

V2I Vehicle-to-infrastructure

V2V Vehicle-to-vehicle

WAVE Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments

5

1 Introduction

A multitude of standardization activities, related to full electric vehicles (FEV), have already been

implemented, or are currently under way. Some standardization efforts have started in order to

accompany the evolutionary process of conventional (combustion) cars, and long before the

discussion on electro-mobility has received its importance. These efforts led to the start of various

publicly-funded, industrial research and pre-development programmes. Other standardization efforts

are directly connected to the development of FEVs, and result from the fact that the expert community

has already been successfully directed towards electro-mobility, and its technical challenges.

Standardization efforts that were started for conventional cars, and that will obtain a new dimension for

FEV can, for example, be found in the In-Vehicle Networking (IVN) arena with examples, such as

FlexRay and Partial Networking. Standards that are dedicated to FEV, or that will be developed for

FEVs during the next decade, relate to the connection of an FEV to the smart grid via an on-board or

external charger, the FEV technology (e.g. connectivity within battery stacks, energy density

improvement of the battery), the communication technology (e.g. communication protocols, media,

and EMC aspects), the FEV business and commercial model (e.g. battery package and re-usability,

communication with the energy supplier) and the security, privacy, and identification measures (e.g. to

support roaming payment while preserving privacy, and preventing identity theft). Figure 1 shows an

example of an FEV architecture for reference in the remainder of this report.

The charger (AC/DC Converter, shown at the bottom-middle of Figure 1) has a dedicated

communication channel for control to the loading station and energy supplier (both shown only in

Figure 2). The in-vehicle power grid is separated into a 12V domain and a high-voltage domain,

connected by a DC/DC converter. The energy management system of the FEV controls both power

domains. The power train architecture shows four e-motors integrated in the four wheels. The FEV

also has radio and intelligent transportation system (ITS) connectivity to enable communication with

other vehicles on the road, and road-side access points.

The architecture in Figure 1 clearly highlights new requirements for the control and communication

infrastructure (i.e. the IVN) that will become part of the overall energy management system of the

FEV. Standardization of key information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure is

essential to be able to successfully integrate electric vehicles into a smart electricity grid, so that

charge can be exchanged between the grid and the energy management systems of the FEV.

Figure 1 Architecture Example for a full electric vehicle

6

Figure 2 shows an example future smart grid, where power is not only generated by the traditional

fossil and nuclear power plants, but possibly also by concentrated solar power plants, wind farms, and

local or domestic wind mills and solar panels. FEVs may be charged near the home (e.g. private

parking garage) or in public parking places. These scenarios will use slow charging (e.g. 8-10 hours),

allowing them to be connected to the power grid behind the neighbourhood substations. For fast(er)

charging (e.g. 30 minutes) at road-side charging stations, higher currents and voltages need to be

available, which will need to be delivered directly from the transformers in the medium voltage

distribution grid, to prevent unnecessary conversion losses. The smart grid will use ICT to match the

supply of power as much as possible with the demand. Note that in Figure 2 there are more producers

and these are more distributed than in a traditional grid, where the production of electricity is largely

concentrated in the power plants. To be able to have all parties in this smart grid work effectively and

efficiently together, standardization of their interaction will be a key.

An important source of information on completed, on-going and required, but missing standardization

activities that are directly related to the FEV is the recently released “Standardization for road vehicles

and associated infrastructure” report by the CEN/CENELEC Focus Group on European Electro-

Mobility [1]. In the following, the recommendations given within the CEN/CENELEC-report are

analyzed and related to the standardization items defined in the ICT for FEV roadmaps described in

the deliverable D3.2 [2].

Figure 2 Charging locations of FEVs in a smart grid

7

2 Overview of Relevant Standardization Bodies

2.1 International Organisations

ISO - International Organization for Standardization

Within the non-governmental organization ISO, 162 countries are represented by their national

standardizations institutes. Many of the member institutes of the ISO are integrated into their national

government. Other members, however, have been set up by industry associations. Thus, the ISO

forms a bridge between the public and private sectors regarding standardizations and aims to meet

the needs of both.

URL: http://www.iso.org/iso/home.html

IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission

The IEC is a non-profit, non-governmental international standards organization that targets electrical,

electronic and related technologies. Its members are National Committees (NCs) of which only one

per country is permitted. The structure of each committee varies per country, but in each country

should involve all relevant stakeholders.

URL: http://www.iec.ch/index.htm

IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

The IEEE is the world’s largest professional association dedicated to advancing technological

innovation and excellence. The IEEE and its members write highly cited publications, organize

conferences, create technology standards, and provide professional and educational activities.

URL: http://www.ieee.org

ITU-T – Information and Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication Standardization

Sector

The ITU is the agency for information and communication technologies of the United Nations. The ITU

aims to improve access to ICTs to especially underserved communities worldwide, to allocate global

radio spectrum and satellite orbits, and to develop technical standards for the seamless

interconnection of networks and technologies. The latter functions are performed by the

Telecommunication Standardizations Sector.

URL: http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/

Joint Working Groups/Joint Technical Committees – JWG/JTC

The three international standardization institutes ISO, IEC and ITU-T work closely work together to

provide globally applicable standards particularly in fields that thematically overlap. Joint Working

groups and Joint Technical Committees were installed between the ISO and the IEC to ensure this

cooperation. The standardization work concerning electric vehicles is such a horizontal topic. The

standardization efforts regarding the vehicle mainly concern the ISO, while the connection to the grid

is a mutual topic of the ISO and the IEC. A respective agreement for cooperation was made in

February 2011.

URL: http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1402

SAE International - Society of Automotive Engineers

The SAE International is a global association of more than 128,000 engineers and related technical

experts in the aerospace, automotive and commercial-vehicle industries. One of its core competencies

is the development of voluntary consensus standards for the vehicle mobility industry.

URL: http://www.sae.org/

8

2.2 European Organisations

CEN – European Committee for Standardization

The CEN provides a platform for the development of European Standards and other technical

specifications. Its members are technical experts, business federations, consumers and other societal

interest organizations. The CEN is the only recognized European standardization organization in all

areas of economic activity with the exception of electrotechnology (CENELEC) and telecommunication

(ETSI). It cooperates with the ISO to ensure global standards in Europe.

URL: http://www.cen.eu/cen/Pages/default.aspx

CENELEC – European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization

The CENELEC prepares voluntary standards in the electrical engineering field and hereby adopts

international standards when possible in close collaboration with the IEC. 31 countries are members of

CENELEC and additionally 12 affiliates from Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Northern Africa and the

Middle-East participate.

URL: http://www.cenelec.eu/index.html

ETSI - European Telecommunications Standards Institute

The ETSI produces globally-applicable as well as harmonized European standards for Information and

Communications Technologies. More than 700 member organizations from 62 countries across five

continents world-wide participate in the work of ETSI. Among them are the world’s leading telecom

companies.

URL: http://www.etsi.org/WebSite/homepage.aspx

CEN/CENELEC Focus Group Electric Vehicle

The CEN/CENELEC focus group Electric Vehicle has been installed to ensure that international

standards that are being developed also meet European needs. It considers European requirements

relating to electric vehicle standardization, and assessing ways to address them. This focus group is

built up from members of the CEN and the CENELEC, the European Federations, and the European

Commission. They are supported by the chairmen and secretaries of the relevant technical

committees from the CEN, the CENELEC, the ISO and the IEC. Recently, a related report

concentrating on charging issues was published by this focus group. The establishment of an Electric

Mobility Co-ordination Group is recommended in this report.

URL: http://www.cenelec.eu/aboutcenelec/whatwedo/technologysectors/electricvehicles.html

9

3 Report on FEV-related Standardization

3.1 Overview

In this chapter, we present several standards concerning ICT for automotive applications and discuss

their relevance for the FEV. These standards include the in-vehicle communication (Section 3.2), the

vehicle-to-grid communication (Section 3.3) and vehicle-to-vehicle / vehicle-to-infrastructure

communication (Section 3.4), including security, and privacy aspects. Please note that this chapter is

intended to only show examples of the often multi-disciplinary nature of standardization required to

support ICT for FEVs. This chapter does not claim completeness.

3.2 In-Vehicle Communication

FlexRay - ISO 17458 1-6, New Working Proposal

FlexRay [3] has been standardized in the FlexRay Consortium where module makers, car makers, as

well as semiconductor suppliers are organized. FlexRay technology is available on the market for

years, and has been successfully incorporated in new car platforms. The first platform to adopt

FlexRay was the BMW X5, and others have followed. The FlexRay Consortium concluded its work by

the end of 2010 with version 3 of the physical and protocol specifications, and transferred its working

results to the ISO. After a vote in 2011, the ISO accepted the New Working Proposal and will take up

the work on FlexRay in the second half of 2011.

Why is FlexRay important for FEV?

With a bandwidth up to 10 Mbit/s and real-time characteristics, the FlexRay bus system is used (will

be used) for time-critical control systems that are spread across the vehicle. As an example for a

conventional car, in the BMW X5 platform FlexRay is used for the suspension control system where

sensors and actuators are in or near the four wheels. A central control unit orchestrates these four

suspension units. A similar scenario can be sketched as an example in an FEV where the power train

may consist of four separated drives that are integrated in the wheels. Needless to say that the

communication of the central control unit with all four drives is safety relevant. Figure 1 shows an

example of a FEV architecture where in each wheel one e-motor is integrated as well as the

suspension unit.

Partial Networking – ISO 11898/6, New Working Proposal

The New Working Proposal on Partial Networking has been accepted by the ISO, and work was

started in June 2011. It is planned to create an addendum for the existing ISO 11898/1-5 standard.

This extension will consist of the specification of the mechanism itself and certification tests. The

proposal originated from a specification by the SWITCH1

group. German car makers initiated the

SWITCH interest group. Further OEMs and semiconductor vendors joined. The SWITCH group

created a specification that describes a new wake-up mechanism that allows switching on/off parts of

the IVN during operation in the 2nd

half of 2010. As an example, the car on the left-hand side in Figure

3 shows that all ECUs are switched on (green box with the arrow pointing right), while the car on the

right-hand side of Figure 3 indicates that some ECUs have been switched off (grey box with the arrow

pointing left) in order to reduce the overall power consumption of the vehicle. In today’s cars, the IVN

is either completely switched on or off. Examples for good candidates to apply this Partial Networking

technique to are the applications seat heating, the trunk lifter, and the sunroof.

1

Selective Wake-able and Interoperable Transceiver in CAN High-speed

10

The motivation behind the SWITCH proposal is the increasing energy demands resulting from more

electronic content in a car. Recently, the CO2 tax has been introduced. As a rule of thumb, car makers

expect to save 100W by applying Partial Networking. This is around 2.5g CO2/km, which corresponds

with a tax saving of about 250 € when exceeding a CO2 limit. The EU will even reduce the CO2 limit

over the next years.

The AUTOSAR specifications [4] is a mutual reference software / architecture platform for module and

car makers. The next release of the AUTOSAR specifications will contain a driver for Partial

Networking, so that we can soon expect to see Partial Networking implemented in new vehicles.

Why is Partial Networking and AUTOSAR important for FEV?

While partial networking within the conventional car is an effective means to manage the CO2

emission level, within the FEV this technique has to become part of the overall energy management

system, as the efficiency of the FEV energy management system directly affects its operation range.

3.3 Vehicle-to-Grid Communication

Vehicle-to-grid communication includes all aspects concerning the efficient charging of FEVs from the

power grid. Figure 4 shows a step-wise example of the communication between an EV and (road-side)

charging station at the beginning of a charge cycle.

IEC and ISO standardization

A number of IEC and ISO standards are related to the connectivity of an EV to a charging station or

outlet, and its subsequent charging using the electricity grid. These are:

Figure 3 Comparison of vehicle without (left) and with (right) partial networking functionality

Figure 4 Example vehicle-to-grid communication

11

The IEC 61851-XX standards on electric vehicle conductive charging systems, particularly Part 1

with general requirements, Part 21 with EV requirements for a conductive connection to an AC/DC

supply, Part 22 for an AC EV charging station, and Part 23 for an DC EV charging station.

The IEC 62196-X standards on plugs, socket outlets, vehicle couplers and vehicle inlets for the

conductive charging of electric vehicles, particularly Part 1 with general requirements, and Part 2

with dimensional interchange-ability requirements.

The IEC 62196 documents standardize a set of electrical connectors, and four associated EV

charging modes. This standard in itself does not specify any physical connectors, but instead

refers to the IEC 61851 standard (see above). Specific to EV charging is the implementation of a

so-called pilot function. This pilot function serves three purposes: (1) the verification of a proper,

correct connection between charge station and electric vehicle, (2) a powerless mode when no EV

is present in which no power is present on the connector, and (3) the immobilization of an EV

when connected, to prevent the EV from being driven away while charging. These standards also

define four modes of charging:

Mode 1: a non-dedicated outlet, where earthing and Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters

(GFCI) are essential for safety.

Mode 2: A non-dedicated outlet with an in-cable protection device, which implements the

pilot function.

Mode 3: a dedicated outlet for EV charging, with protection via the control pilot function.

Mode 4: a D.C. connection with a stationary charger.

Examples of standardized connectors are:

the Yazaki connector in Northern America (standardized in SAE J1772),

the CHAdeMO connector in Japan,

the Mennekes connector in Europe (standardized in VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2),

the Framatome plug by Électricité de France,

the Scame plug in Italy, and

the CEEplus plugs in Switzerland.

The ISO/IEC 15118 standardizes communication protocols between electric vehicles and the grid,

particularly Part 1 on definitions and use-cases, Part 2 on sequence diagrams and communication

layers, and Part 3 on power-line communication (PLC) technology and associated timings. This

initiative is also called “Home-plug Green PHY”. Part 1 of this standard is similar to the SAE J2836

documents, Part 2 to the SAE J2847 documents, and Part 3 to the SAE J2931 documents. The

scope of the ISO/IEC 15118 standard is also shown in Figure 5 in relation to the OSI layers [5].In

this figure we see that the ISO/IEC 15118 standard addresses the different parts in the

communication stack, from the physical media layer at the bottom, to the application layer at the

top.

12

IEEE power-line communication standardization The IEEE P1901.2 working group is also working on a PLC standard. This standard specifies

communications for low frequency (less than 500 kHz) narrowband power-line devices via AC and DC

electric power lines. Here, e-charging is taken as an application target. This is in contrast to the above

PLC standardization, where the push is for the Home-plug Green PHY. Experts expect that two

standards need to be developed for e-charging:

1. PLC narrowband communication (e.g. IEEE p1901.2) between a power supplier (e.g.

Vattenfall or RWE), and the charging station in the street. This connection is for the smart grid,

making sure that the FEV battery will be charged in a convenient moment from a grid

exploitation point-of-view. The IEEE P1901.2 is a narrow-band standard, including Physical

Layer and Medium Access Control, utilizing the FCC band between 10 and 490 kHz. There

are plans to use bands for CENELEC-A between 35.938 and 90.625 kHz, for CENELEC-B

between 98.4375 and 121.875 kHz, and FEV charging communication between 145.3 and

478.125 kHz.

2. PLC narrow-band or broad-band communication between the charging station in the street

and the FEV. This connection is used to manage the load demand from the FEV towards the

grid.

The data rates in the IEEE 1901 standard will be scalable to 500 kbps depending on the application

requirements. This standard addresses grid to utility meter, electric vehicle to charging station, and

within home area networking communications scenarios.

The IEEE p1901 standardization group keeps the option open to include lighting and solar panel

power-line communications as part of this communications standard at a later stage. It is important to

note that the standard also intends to address the necessary security requirements that assure

communication privacy and allow use for security sensitive services.

Why is vehicle-to-grid communication important for FEV?

Bidirectional communication between the charging station and the FEV allows the smart grid to

choose the appropriate time to charge the EV’s battery, depending on the power demand and power

supply. Users may be able to enter information regarding their end of charge time and desired

mileage, while the smart grid may additionally take the available time, availability of renewable energy

resources (e.g. solar or wind), price, and grid load into account. Additionally, options are considered to

allow an EV battery to be discharged via the smart grid, in times of other, large power demands on the

grid (i.e. during start-of-industry/business hours).

Figure 5 ISO 15118 in relation to the seven layers of the OSI model [5].

13

3.4 Vehicle-to-vehicle / vehicle-to-infrastructure communication

The IEEE 802.11p standard is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard, targeted

specifically at the automotive industry by adding wireless access in vehicular environments (WAVE).

IEEE 802.11p defines enhancements to the IEEE 802.11 standard, required to support Intelligent

Transportation System (ITS) applications, allowing wireless, bi-directional communication between

vehicles, and between vehicles and road-side access points. An example of this is shown in Figure 6.

In Europe, this communication takes place in the 5.9 GHz band. The intention is to be, as much as

possible, compatible with the frequencies in the USA to allow reuse of the same hardware.

The primary use-case for the IEEE 802.11p standard is for safety-related communication among

vehicles, and between vehicles and road-side access points. Alternative use-cases include reducing

the fuel consumption of internal combustion engines (ICE) and electric vehicles, and providing driver

conveniences (such as over-the-air navigation map updates).

The IEEE 1609.2 standard describes security services for applications and management messages,

including requirements on how the communication security is handled in the IEEE 802.11p and IEEE

1609 standards. The requirements include encryption standards and protocols to be used, e.g. Elliptic

Curve Cryptography for identification and authentication, AES encryption for data transfer, and SHA-

based hashing for the message authentication code. This standard also specifies requirements on

secure storage (e.g. the minimum number of storable certificates) and other resources.

Why is vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communication important for FEV?

Vehicle-to-vehicle communication can do more than improve the driver safety alone. It can also be

used to improve the driving efficiency, and thereby for FEVs increase the range that can be travelled

on a single battery charge. Example means to improve this efficiency are improving the road utilization

through shock wave damping, cancelling out unnecessary acceleration and deceleration, and offering

speed advisories and alternative routes.

Security, and closely-related authentication, in vehicle-to-vehicle communication are essential

complementary functions that allow individual vehicles to validate incoming messages from other

vehicles or from road-side access points before acting upon them.

Figure 6 Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication

14

4 Recommendations on Standardization

4.1 Overview

The CEN/CENELEC Focus Group “European Electro-mobility” has been given a standardization

mandate concerning the charging of electric vehicles (M/468) by the European Commission. The

report “Standardization for road vehicles and associated infrastructure” [1] was then published in 2012

As mentioned in Chapter 1, in this section we discuss the standardization related items given in the

ICT for the FEV Roadmap setting them into the context of already existing standardization regulations

and giving recommendations on possible future approaches. For reference, the standardization items

of the ICT for the FEV roadmap can be found in the Annex.

When talking to experts, the framework for future standardization is at first glance seen in the areas of

o Standardization of the battery cells, the modules, and the packs to drive the costs down, while

maintaining safety (e.g. during manufacturing and after a vehicle collision)

o Standardization of the battery business model: if users rent the battery (outsourcing charging),

this requires standard connections to the charging infrastructure, the battery pack, and an

appropriate commercial model.

o Charging plug standards

o Need for data security and privacy when communication to the grid and vehicle-to-vehicle

o Identification and authentication to permit e.g. roaming charging.

The CEN/CENELEC Focus Group in Recommendation 13.6 assigns priority to:

o safety of charging installations

o plug-in interoperability

o EMC provisions for charging station and vehicle

o communication protocols for V2G

o and quick battery exchange (as soon as reference dimensions are available)

The ICT4FEV project members went a step further, and integrated into the roadmap ICT for the FEV

standardization items, related to ICT in the six technology areas already defined in the Electrification

roadmap, plus one roadmap containing transversal items [2]. The following subsections describe the

standardization framework per technology area, and the link to the recommendations presented in the

report from the CEN/CENELEC focus group. Numbered recommendations refer to the

recommendations provided in [1].

4.2 Technology areas

4.2.1 Energy Storage Systems

The ICT challenges for the energy storage system (ESS) in EVs can be partitioned into two phases:

one phase being during fabrication and battery assembly, and one phase post-fabrication during

operation in the field.

During the battery manufacturing and assembly processes, it is required that an identification tag (ID)

is associated with each (removable) part and component, so that it can be tracked during its lifetime.

Recommendation 11.5 from [1] advises that “ID should [in particular] be considered for each

part/component that can be physically removed from the battery pack without destroying it.” When

batteries are subsequently swapped at a road-side charging station, it is possible (1) to determine

which parts exactly were exchanged, and (2) to authenticate the new battery (parts) as genuine

item(s), preventing a black-market of sub-standard components. An additional requirement in the

manufacturing and assembly process is the thorough evaluation and testing of the batteries, to assess

and ensure their lifetime reliability before deployment.

15

To lower the cost of manufacturing a car battery, Recommendation 11.2 advocates the

standardization of battery component sizes, physical interface, and form factor when this topic is

mature enough. With the standardization of battery components comes the opportunity to also

standardize their interfaces to the rest of the Battery Management System (BMS) / EMS as well. This

standardization may include reusing existing electrical interfaces that are currently in use to monitor

the battery cells, e.g., in laptop batteries and mobile phones. In today’s battery, the battery cells

themselves make up the largest part of the cost of a car battery. It is expected that the relative cost of

a battery cell, compared to the overall battery cost will go down in the future, with the on-going

advances in battery cell chemistries, their manufacturing processes, and the standardization of their

interfaces and form factors. To prevent the electronics in a battery pack to become the dominant cost

factor of a car battery in the future, these electronics need to go through a similar cost-down as well.

Standardization enables and encourages competition, and thereby a required cost-down of the overall

battery solution compared to the price levels today.

In operation, these standardized electrical interfaces and IDs can also be used by the BMS/EMS to

associate important state of health (SOH), state of charge (SOC), and state of function (SOF)

parameters to individual battery parts. More research, among others on battery cell and pack

modelling, is needed to accurately calculate and predict a battery’s state of health based on the

physical parameters that can be measured (e.g., cell voltages, currents, resistances and temperatures

both instantaneously and over a period of time), and the consequences of different charging

scenarios, e.g., slow or fast charging. Recommendation 11.1 states that the SOH is an important

battery management parameter that requires constant monitoring. The ability to determine the SOH of

a battery is crucial to enable the second-hand use of car batteries. It would seem impossible to

accurately assess and gain customer acceptance of the resale value of a car battery without being

able to determine its SOH.

Additionally, Recommendation 11.3 promotes the standardization of a minimum set of battery

information parameters that can be extracted and stored from the battery by the EES. This information

can be used to balance the charge stored in the battery cells, thereby extending the effective range of

the EV. Information on battery usage may be of great help to boost innovation, however externally

storing this information may cause privacy concerns. Recommendation 11.3 also recommends

establishing guidelines on how to handle such data, respecting its potential private nature.

In general, a new battery technology underlies a development period of approximately twenty years.

This is a long interval and meanwhile the focus needs to remain on the current technology and the

standardization that has to be taken to further safeguard the current battery technology’s lifecycle.

4.2.2 Drive Train Technologies

Required drive train technologies for FEVs include the (in-wheel) electric motors, supplemented with a

possible range extender (i.e. a traditional combustion engine coupled in series or in parallel to the

electric motors), their power and communication connectivity, and controlling embedded control units

(ECUs). The drive train permits among others smart and robust traction control, and regenerative

braking. It is important to properly analyze the critical failure modes for such a complex system, which

includes highly-integrated ECUs. One key component in such an analysis is to understand, and

properly regulate the electro-magnetic compatibility (EMC) limits and associated tests for electric drive

trains. The proliferation of electronic devices inside the vehicle, from AV equipment (e.g. mobile

phones and small TV entertainment sets), to built-in electronics for safety, comfort, and EV control,

(e.g. a lane departure warning system, power steering and/or drive-by-wire, battery chargers, and

DC/DC converters), requires careful alignment and legislation on this topic. Proper modeling and

subsequent analysis will be necessary to better understand the noise floor levels these new devices

introduce inside the vehicle, and to provide guarantees on the interoperability of such a complex set of

electronic devices in the relatively confined space of an EV. The assembly and connectivity of

16

photovoltaic cells (e.g. for EV charging based on renewable solar energy) presents a new challenge

that will have to be investigated and, when mature, standardized as well.

To emphasize the importance of EMC for the EV, the CEN/CENELEC Focus Group dedicates an

entire chapter (Chapter 12 [1]) to on-going and required standardization and testing on this topic. It is,

for instance, considered key that the electrical industry is represented in the relevant standardization

bodies (Recommendations 12.1 and 12.3), that the “current status of the electric vehicle,

communications and power distribution technologies” is taken into account when updating the EMC

requirements (Recommendation 12.4), and that the regulatory framework and unifying testing

methods should be complete(d), but also kept as simple as possible (Recommendations 12.2, 12.7,

12.8, 12.9, and 12.10).

4.2.3 Safety regulations on drive-by-wire

Safety regulations for Drive-by-Wire

Many International Standards and Requirements concerning safety aspects for electrical vehicles

already exist, e.g. for regenerative braking, vehicle charging, batteries, etc.

In the European Artemis Project ‘Pollux’; Process Oriented Electronic Control Units for Electric

Vehicles, requirements and available standards have been summarized. Pollux documents are

referring to ISO26262, ISO6469/R100 R.13 rev. 6, ISO 6469-1 and other standards.

The following steps have been worked out in the frame of Pollux – where some parts have probably

potential to be standardized.

Hazard analysis & Risk assessment

Hazards are potential sources of harm. Hazards are identified by combining the potential malfunction

behavior and the operational situation of the vehicle.

Hazard classification

The identified hazards are classified regarding the Severity, the Exposure and the Controllability.

Safety Goals definition

For each hazard which has been rated (Risk Rating) as ASIL A, B, C or D, a safety goal must be

formulated. A “safety goal” is defined as a top-level safety requirement as a result of the hazard

analysis and risk assessment. The negation of a safety goal leads to the top event of further safety

analyses (e.g. FTA, FMEA).

The following table structure was used to summarize critical hazards and their exemplary Risk Rating

(ASIL C or D); complete list is available in Pollux documents.

17

Function/

Subfunction

Sub-function Guide

word

Malfunction/

Failure mode

Situations/

Modes

Hazard Impact S E C Risk

rating

Safety Goal Safe state

eDrive Acceleration NO No

Acceleration

/ Loss of one

eMotor

All driving

situations

(Partial)

Loss of

vehicle

control

S3 E4 C2 C avoid loss of only one

eMotor

all eMotors per axis must

have the same torque

eDrive Acceleration UNINTE

NDED

Unintended

Acceleration

curves with

high lateral

dynamics

(main road)

(Partial)

Loss of

vehicle

control

S3 E3 C3 C Avoid unintended vehicle

acceleration.

No engine power

… … … … …. …. … … … .. … …

18

The hazard analysis & risk assessment process aimed at identifying and classifying critical hazards

that may typically arise in drive-by-wire systems due to potential malfunctional behavior during the

operational modes of the vehicle.

The concentration was on the driving- and non-driving functionality (e.g. charging) of the vehicle.

A high level approach was taken by looking at the vehicle from a global system viewpoint without

going into sub-system details. This is finally implementation specific and up to OEM’s and Tier1’s

respectively.

The identified hazards and the related safety goals detected within this hazard analysis and risk

assessment are guidelines only and are meant as starting point for the development. The hazard

analysis and risk assessment of developments have to be performed based on the actual functions.

Furthermore they have to be further derived to safety requirements and taken into account during the

system development, either as technical solutions realized in the components or as specific

development and operation guidelines (including a specific testing program).

Standardizations to be considered

For further standardizations, it should be considered to define guidelines for those steps in this

process that are common and not implementation specific. For example, it is worthwhile to summarize

all possible malfunctions inclusive safety goal as a kind of starting point for every Electrical Vehicle

manufacturers. This would support the ‘safety culture’ in all companies that are involved in functional

safety development for electrical vehicles.

4.2.4 Vehicle System Integration

The complexity of the drive train architecture in future electric vehicles warrants research and

development of a robust diagnostics approach, supporting the proper diagnosis of vehicle faults that

may develop during its operation out in the field. A communication standard for the FEV Energy

Management System and its associated components (e.g. smart navigation eCharger, power train,

and vehicle safety module) is needed for this. Recommendation 10.5 states a need to standardize “the

diagnosis protocol, human-machine and energy management system for the complete charging

system”.

Recommendation 11.8 advices standardization to permit the easy exchange of empty batteries with

full batteries in road-side stations. This also presumes underlying standards (Recommendation 11.9)

concerning the safety of switching high-voltage batteries, energy needs, battery exchangeability,

battery pack accessibility, and their data and communication framework, as different vehicle models

may require different battery packs with different dimensions, mechanical fixation points, and electrical

and communication connectors, interfaces, and protocols.

4.2.5 Diagnostics in multi-drive power train architecture

Many recommendations have already been given by CEN/CENELEC [1] in chapter 4.1.4

“Recommendations Concerning Communication” on the data security in diagnostics and, here, the link

to ISO TC22/WG03 standardization. Also the ISO working group TC22/WG01 has made fundamental

work in the area of “diagnosis” and has paved the way to future electrical vehicles to a good extend. In

some paths, the link to SAE has been set.

There are three elements to diagnostics and identified by the expert community: data formats and

codes, transmission channels, and security. While the future electrical vehicle might mainly focus on

high-speed diagnosis and a mix of wired and wireless connection, IP based communication and

security are anticipated as key elements in future diagnosis.

19

The ISO13400 “Diagnosis over IP” and ISO15764 “Data Link Security/Electronic Certificate” are the

standardization activities with most relevance with future aspects. In ISO13400, various documents

has been shared between the standardization partners but are not public, yet. Recent approved

activity is Part5 (Conformance test) with “Diagnostic communication between test equipment and

vehicle over Internet Protocol”. Status is differently with ISO15764. This activity is “dormant” and last

deliverables seven years old and a re-fresh of the considerations is recommended by the editing

experts of this document.

The following gives a summary of the explicit ISO activities:

ISO 15031 Road Vehicles - Communication btw vehicle and equipment for emission related

diagnostics; the task force links to SAEJ1978 and SAEJ1699-2, status is periodic review

ISO 14229 Unified Diagnostic Services over CAN, K-Line, FlexRay, LIN; IP

ISO 15765 Diagnostics on CAN address range extension under development; this links to future

needs of embedded systems

ISO 27145 Road vehicles – diagnostics for trucks

ISO15764 Diagnostics over IP, dormant since 2004

While many activities have already been taken up, the interconnection to the future embedded

systems in a vehicle has been not clearly expressed in standardization. Recommended is to focus on

this.

4.2.6 Grid Integration

Most of the ICT-related recommendations by the CEN/CENELEC Focus Group have to do with the

integration of electric vehicles in the power grid itself. In addition, the importance is stressed of the

roles that the different standardization bodies, as mentioned in Chapter 2, either currently play, or will

have to play to help establish standards concerning grid integration.

To accomplish standardization in this domain, many existing technical committees within the

standardization bodies, described in Chapter 2, will have to work together. Recommendation 7.1

stresses the importance to address “all aspects of reverse energy flow (safety and control)” in the

related committees IEC TC 64 (safety) and TC 57 (smart grid) CEN TC 301 (vehicle aspects) and

other relevant TCs. Recommendations 8.3 and 10.3 recommend the definition of a standard connector

footprint with seven contacts (five power, and two auxiliary for control), possibly to be standardized in

future EN 61851-1 and EN 62196-2 standards. Recommendation 10.1 takes this definition one step

further and encourages a “harmonized and interoperable link between the different communication

standards for electro-mobility, security, safety and ITS. Co-operation on data communication and data

security - between EV, smart grid and ITS, is needed”. If a wireless or contactless charging approach

is required instead of a wired connection then additional regulations and limits will have to be set for

those solutions as well.

The mass adoption of FEVs will require not only a standardized EV connection to the power grid, it will

also require smart(er) charging coordination (Recommendation 9.1), as the domestic power grids have

not been dimensioned to accommodate the additional load imposed when all EVs would charge at the

20

same time at home. Re-dimensioning these grids requires a significant capital investment, making this

unlikely to occur in the short term. As such, the demand for EV charge and its supply from the power

plants has to be coordinated and matched through a next generation car-to-grid communication

infrastructure, which can help balance the load on the power grid, by charging EVs when the energy

demand is low, e.g. outside of office hours, and/or when the energy supply is high, e.g. with

concentrated solar plants on a sunny day. To accomplish this next generation communication

infrastructure within Europe, it is of importance to also “analyze regional regulation on grid connections

relative to perturbations” (Recommendation 12.11).

Allowing the EV drivers the ability to connect their EV everywhere, and charge their car in a smart way

is a significant step towards addressing their range anxiety, however, additional support for secure

roaming payment is still required. As with bank and credit cards in shops today, (internal or external)

EV chargers will have to be equipped with the functionality to uniquely identify the driver and remotely

charge not only the EV, but also his or her back account for the correct amount due. Recommendation

10.2 mentions this importance to offering data security in addition to traditional data communication.

As the EV domain is still a domain in which a lot of research and development is taking place at this

point in time, Recommendation 7.24 points out that “Additional requirements for charging

specifications and testing procedures have to be discussed and agreed based on experience gained

in the ongoing development process and demonstration projects and have to be brought into

amendments”.

4.2.7 Contactless Charging

4.2.8 Transport System Integration

One roadblock that is often stated for the mass adoption of FEVs is the range anxiety a driver may

experience while on the road. Range anxiety is said to be experienced by a driver, when he or she

observes that it may not be possible to reach the destination with the remaining charge in the car

battery. To prevent this negative experience, existing and next generation solutions are needed to

navigate an EV to the nearest charge points along the route to the destination, and/or navigate the EV

around terrain features that may disproportionately drain the car battery (e.g. hills and mountains).

Besides solving the range anxiety problem individually per car, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)

communication technology offers the possibility of saving energy by avoiding unnecessary

acceleration and deceleration on highways (e.g. avoiding unnecessary traffic jams) and inner-city

traffic (e.g. supporting green waves between pairs of traffic lights). These systems may obtain the

information to perform their task via a number of different communication protocols and media. One

such means may be a dedicated built-in GSM module, or Near-Field Communication (NFC) for

accessing a mobile phone’s GSM link to connect to services outside the car. When establishing and

using V2V and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) functionality, it is important to ensure the authenticity of

the messages received. Otherwise, it is not possible to prevent unauthorized entities from sending

messages to individual vehicles, and potentially causing (fatal) accidents. Hence, proper security on

these channels is essential. Recommendation 10.6 mentions an “interoperability hub”, which can

mediate between parties “to provide validation services for [the] exchange of technical information,

contract relations or security certificates”. Recommendation 10.7 adds the creation of “a security

architecture” for the interoperability hub and security issues for communication between charging

system and electric vehicles.

21

4.2.9 Safety

The safety measures concerning an EV range from preventing the driver from ever coming into

contact with the high-voltage internal power grid, to ensuring that the otherwise quiet EV can be heard

in areas where, in particular, pedestrians and bicyclist are present. For functional safety, the standard

addendum to ISO26262 with implementation guidelines for EV [6] can be used. For autonomous

driving, additional safety regulations will have to be put into place.

The CEN/CENELEC focus group adds, in Recommendation 11.10, that “appropriate measures should

be taken to improve emergency services awareness with respect to eventual battery hazards caused

by the use of EVs (mechanical impact to batteries, batteries’ exposure to water or fire).” Autonomous

driving requires foremost legislation and the solving of liability issues.

4.2.10 Roadmap with transversal items

The CEN/CENELEC Focus Group has a number of recommendations that transverse all previously

described technology areas. First and perhaps foremost, Recommendations 4.1 and 10.4 advise the

creation of one or more co-ordination groups for the standardization of aspects that go beyond the

individual charter of the standardization bodies, introduced in Chapter 2, and where applicable, should

also include market stakeholders. Important to note here is that these aspects also include any

regulations for the reliability and manufacturing tests for the extended lifecycle of FEV Components

4.2.11 Isolation in higher / lower voltage domains

As shown in Figure 1 Architecture Example for a full electric vehicle” and discussed there, FEV will

have to maintain different voltage domains in its system. Investigating on the standardization situation,

we encountered a vacuum especially in the lower voltage area where especially micro hybrids are

positioned and the introduction of recuperation system at a voltage level of 48V takes place. This is

seen as part of milestone 1 in the electrification roadmap [2]. Moreover, we have discussions in the

expert world to raise the level of voltage that is seen harmful for human beings, ICT4FEV sees this as

an interim discussion underpinning the fact of standardization need in the lower voltage region.

ICT4FEV chose the separation into levels for “human protection”, “functional safety” and level between

as proposed inTable 1. Note that there is a lot of application know-how already in the industrial sector.

Table 1 Separation of FEV Voltage Levels

Regulator VoltageLevel

Application Ambition

UL1577IEC61010

2500V HV Domain SeparationSecurity and ProtectionAll Plug-in Auto Apps

85% Industrial Apps

Human Protection andSecurity in Operation and Critical Situations

UL1577IEC61010

<1000V InverterNon line socketsBattery Mgmt 20%

80-85% Auto AppsFew Industrial Apps

Human Protection and SecurityFunctional Safety

? 200V Noise reductionBattery Mgmt 80%Recuperation12V/48V Board NetManaging different Grounds

Functional Safety

22

5 Summary

5.1 Industrial Situation in 2025

How will the world look like with the 3rd generation EVs? Following industrial situation is anticipated:

More complex grid with more energy sources (e.g. wind farms on top of fossil and nuclear plants)

Two communication lines needed of different bandwidth from vehicle to grid (charger, supplier)

Information from car2grid goes through several hands of different actors

Security is a main topic and industry engages several means to safeguard billing/payment

Tagged car modules enable to follow through its lifecycles and to secure against counterfeits

Prominent example are high-density batteries or removable components attached to it

Business models for batteries are established, to lease or battery exchange stations are set

Vehicle connects to the infrastructures via wired, wireless, stationary, or hand-held devices

5.2 Adaptation from Conventional Cars towards FEV in 2025

Building on standardization that already today develop, the usage and perspective when applying to

FEV may change, first example is in the area of in-vehicle control networks:

FlexRay (ISO10681) to control four-wheel engine drive, Partial Networking (ISO11898) as means

to control energy flow, Auto Ethernet as backbone to connect various types of sub-networks

Cars connect today via diagnostic interfaces (ISO15031, 15765, 13209), trend are communication

in car2car/infrastructure via wired, wireless as well as recently considered light (laser)

Adding wireless access in vehicular environments defines enhancements to existing (IEEE

802.11) standard and is required to support Intelligent Transportation System applications

ECUs belong to different voltage domains and ICT has to bridge domain boundaries without loss

in time and function, e.g. energy management controls energy flow amongst all components

5.3 Major Differences in ICT of a FEV from a Conventional Car in 2025

Exchange of data via internet or phone is today a download of entertainment and telematics data

and will change to the exchange of essential data for comfort and safety performance

This allows wireless safety-related communication between cars and road-side access points

The ICT system in the car is more complex and has to support higher number of operational

modes: charging, parking (regular battery checks), collision monitoring, drive, and recuperation

Range anxiety brings next system generations of traffic management and navigation into the car

Home entertainment and office systems exchange information with the car and vice versa

Sensibility of EMC increases because of charger (especially fast charger), power steering, DC/DC

converter, radar, etc; not known disturbance patterns on the communication appear in the car

5.4 Priority Areas for Standardization

Following priority areas have been filtered out in various expert discussions and study of the results of

the CEN/CENELEC focus team “electro mobility”, especially the recommendation 13.6:

Standardization of battery cells, modules, and packs as well as information tracked over lifetime

Standardization of the battery business model, standard connections to charging infrastructure

Standardization of charging plug standards across nations and regions

Standardization of data security and privacy in car2car and car2grid communication

Standardization of identification and authentication to permit e.g. roaming charging

Standardization of EMC limits for new FEV platforms designed for low emission and high immunity

23

5.5 Further Areas with the Need for Standardization

Ease the system of standardization body for effectiveness; the in this document listed for Europe

important standardization bodies counts up to 9, and there are more; continuous work throughout

entire FEV roadmap to clear overlap and remain focus

Summarize possible malfunctions inclusive safety goal as a starting point for each electrical

vehicle manufacturer in order to prepare for the 3rd generation of FEV

A robust diagnostics approach, supporting the proper diagnosis of vehicle faults that may develop

during its operation out in the field

A communication standard for the FEV energy management system and associated components

(e.g. smart navigation, charger, power train, and vehicle safety module)

5.6 State of European standardization work

CEN/CENELEC focus group is in their recommendation 13.6 in line with the above standardization

priorities. The cross-connections between the standardizations body has already been described in

their Annex D [1] to a very detailed and helpful extend. We agree to the choice of the most important

standardization bodies: CEN, CENELEC, ISO, IEC, SAE, and UL.

The ICT4FEV project went a step further and integrated standardization items into the ICT for the FEV

roadmap that relates to the six technology areas as defined in the electrification roadmap [2] and

added some to it so that the complete picture is as follows. Recommendations of CEN/CENELEC

have been linked to the technology areas within this document:

Energy Storage Systems

Drive Train Technologies

Safety regulations on drive-by-wire

Vehicle System Integration

Diagnostics in multi-drive power train architecture

Grid Integration

Contactless eCharging

Transport System Integration

Safety

Isolation in higher / voltage domains

Roadmap with transversal items

24

6 Conclusions and Outlook

In this document, we have sketched the ICT domains that are relevant for the mass introduction of

FEVs. These ICT domains comprise in-vehicle communication, vehicle-to-grid, vehicle-to-vehicle,

vehicle-to-infrastructure communication and connect also to new requirements on EMC. Examples of

both, completed and on-going standardization efforts were presented and discussed. The main part of

this report has been dedicated to the evaluation of the results of the CEN/CENELEC Focus Group

“Electric mobility”. Where possible and relevant, their recommendations have been brought into the

context of the ICT4FEV Roadmaps [2].

Overall, the CEN/CENELEC recommendations and the ICT4FEV Roadmaps appear to be in complete

agreement to a very large extent, containing a large number of similarities, and emphasizing the same

important aspects. As a next step it will be essential to complete the discussion of standardization

concerning ICT for the FEV and to develop recommendations beyond those of the CEN/CENELEC

focus group report. In the summary chapter, relevant standardization bodies for Europe, examples for

relevant today’s standardization for FEV, a priority list and further areas for standardizations are given.

Eventually it will be necessary to closely align the standardization efforts taken up by the

standardization bodies mentioned in this report with the path towards the mass introduction of electric

mobility taken up by Europe. A proposal for a concerted direction for such a path is provided by the

ICT4FEV roadmap. CEN/CENELEC is talking about a “marriage between different standardization

communities with different perspectives (vehicles, electrical system, components, ICT)”. Obvious is the

fact that the encouragement of alignment work needs to continue beyond the so-called milestone 4

“3rd generation of EV” in the electrification roadmap.

For the outlook of future standardization activities, more share and focus on best practices is

recommended. The following example shows how the severe topic of new EMC limits and

recommendation could be approached from a structural / process point of view:

1. Specify vehicle relation to weight and wheels

2. Give good practices on

- FEV Architectures

- Describe voltage domains as a

- Share EM field reduction practices 3. Derive EMC standardization needs per vehicle type 4. Conclude in measurement and limit proposal

25

References

[1] Focus Group on European Electro-Mobility, “Standardization for road vehicles and associated

infrastructure”, URL:

ftp://ftp.cen.eu/CEN/Sectors/List/Transport/Automobile/EV_Report_incl_annexes.pdf

[2] ICT4FEV, “D3.2 Roadmap ICT for the Full Electrical Vehicle”, 2011

[3] FlexRay Consortium, “FlexRay protocol specification v3.0”, 2009,

URL: www.flexray.com

[4] AUTOSAR GbR, “Layered Software Architecture v2.2.1”, 2008,

URL: www.autosar.org

[5] Rich Scholer, “PEV Standards - Process and Status”, Plugin 2011, URL:

http://www.transportation.anl.gov/batteries/us_china_conference/docs/vehicle_demos_day1/p

ev_standards_Ford_Scholer.pdf

[6] International Standards Organization, “ISO-26262 Functional Safety in Automotive Electronics

– Addendum Implementation Guideline EV”

26

Annex – Standardization Roadmaps ICT for the FEV

Energy Storage Systems

User Interface to BMS/EMS

Standards for Smart Packaging of Batteries

Reg. for Battery Assembly and Manufacturing

Processes

Standards for Battery Evaluation, Test, and

Reliability

Drive Train Technologies

EMC limits and tests for electrical drives

Diagnostics in multi-drive power train

Safety Regulations drive-by-wire for EV

Vehicle System Integration

Communication Standard for the EV Energy

Management System and Associated

Components (e.g. Smart Navigation eCharger,

Grid Integration

Regulations and Limits for Contactless eCharging

Next Gen car2grid Communication for eCharging

Incorporating new Charging Techniques

Transport System Integration

Next Gen Maps for EV Navigation; Smart

Information and Formats, Learn Techniques,

Smart Connectivity to Private Networking (e.g.

NFC) and Public Information Systems

Next Gen Car2Infrastructure Communication;

Wireless and Secured

Safety

Functional Safety "Designing for Reliability"

Standard Addendum to ISO26262;

Safety Regulations for Autonomous Driving

20262010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024

4