Overview of Europian History

8/9/2019 Overview of Europian History

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Startingof15thcentury:

EuropeangeographicalknowledgelimitedtoEuropeonly.

Mendidnotquestionthefactthatearthwassphere.

ExistenceofAmericancontinentwasunsuspected.

Onlythe

Mediterranean

parts

of

Africa

were

known.

OnlythepartsofAsiawhichtouchedEuropewereknown.Otherpartsweretalkedaboutby

talesandaccounts.Example:TheBookofSerMarcoPoloconcerningtheKingdomsandMarvels

oftheEast.

Europeanswerefascinatedbytheunknown.

ThemapbyMartinBehaimin1492wasmostlyfaulty.

Reasonsfortheageofexploration:

Mostimportantreason:thedesiretofindallwaterroutetoeast.Thiswouldcutdownonthe

middlemenandthecountriescouldmakemoreprofit.Untillate15thcenturytherewere3routesto

East:

a) Malabarcoast,IndiaIndianoceanRedseaCairoandAlexandria

b) Malabarcoast,IndiaPersianGulfBlackseaorMediterraneanSea

c) ChinaGobidesertSamarkandandBokharaCaspianSeaBlackSeaorMediterranean

throughSyriaoraroundCasplanorthroughRussia

Goodsbroughtinweremostlyprofitableonesasthehardshipsintravellingweregreat.Examples:

spices,preciousmetals,medicaments,dyes,silks,glassware,etc.MiddlemenwereMoslemswhocarried

ittotheMediterranean.Italians(almosthadmonopoly),FrenchandSpanishmerchantsboughtitfrom

themdue

to

their

positions

close

to

Mediterranean.

Advancestohelpnavigation:

a) Marinerscompass:

PreviouslysailorguidedbyNorthStar,butwhenweatherwouldbecloudythatwouldbetough.

Nowsailorsbecamebraverinopenseas.

Directionsofcoastlinesandpositionofcountriesinrelationtoeachotherwereindicated.

b)

Astrolabe:Helpedtocalculatelatitude

c) Others:Tablesofsunsdedication,devicestomeasuretime,etc.

Allthese

enhanced

both

safety

and

scope

of

navigation

throughout

15th

and

16th

centuries.

PORTUGAL:

Leadtakerforexplorationage:PrinceHenry(1394to1460):

Portugalhadinternalpeacecomparedtothedomesticproblemsofothercountries.

Itwasthemostunifiednationatthebeginningof15thcentury.


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ThecountryturnedtoseaasithadlongAtlanticseaboardswithexcellentharbors.

InitiatedbyPrinceHenry(13941460).HewasthuscalledtheNavigator.

Hegatheredpilots,mathematiciansandcartographerstobuildstouterandlargerships,

equippedwithcompassandastrolabe.

HesentthemouttoexplorewesterncoastofAfrica.

Henrysreasonsforexplorations:

a) Religious:tocrusadeagainsttheMoors.

b) Economic:HewasawareofthepossibleadvantagesofimprovingtradeforPortugal.His

menbuilttradingpostswherevertheywent.

c) Religious:TofindlandofPresterJohn(mythicalChristianruler)intheeast

Heurgedeachcaptaintooutstriphispredecessor.

BeforehisdeaththewestcoastofAfricawasexploredasfarasGulfofGuinea(2000miles)

AfterhisdeaththerewasalagperiodwhenPortuguesesailorswerentencouraged.

Explorationresumedin1481underJohnII.

1488:

Bartholomew

Diaz

rounded

southernmost

tip

of

Africa.

Named

it

Cape

of

Good

Hope.

ChristopherColumbus(sailedin1492):

Obscureoriginandearlylife:hisownwritingsaddtotheconfusion

ClaimedbySpain,PortugalandFranceandallofthemhaveevidences

ButhewasborninGenoa,Italyin1451

Nooneknowswhyhewantedtosailwest,butitissurethathebelievedlandwasthereandthat

IndiaandChinacouldbereachedthroughthatroute.

HefirstappliedtokingofPortugal.Hewasturneddown.ThenheappliedinSpanishcourt.

HethenwonsupportofFerdinandandIsabellaofSpainandleftwiththreeshipsfromportof

Palosin

1492.

Ships

were:

Santa

Maria

(biggest),

Pinta

and

Nina.

Hehad90sailors.

TheylandedinasmallislandofBahamasafterabout2.5monthsandthenfoundCubaandHaiti.

HethoughthefoundAsia.Hedidntrealizehefoundanothercontinent(AmerigoVespucci

figureditoutlaterandnamedthenewworldAmerica).

Afterhereturned,SpanishrulesaskedthePopetograntthemrighttoclaimthoselands.

PopeAlexanderVIthenissuedabullwhichdrewalineofdemarcationfromNorthtoSouth

Pole.FinalizedversioncalledtreatyofTordesillas,issuedin1506:

a) AfricaandAsiawouldgotoPortugalexceptPhilippines

b)

AmericancontinentwouldgotoSpainexceptBrazil

SpainandPortugaltookitseriously.Othercountriesattimestookitseriouslyandattimes

ignoreditaspertheirconvenience.

VascodaGama(firstsailedin1497):

StartedhisjourneyfromPortugalwith4ships.

ReachedCalicutinMalabarCoastofIndiaafter10monthsin1498.


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FacedthewrathofMoslemsthere.

Forcedtoleavetoasmallercityfromwherehecollecteditemslikespicesandpreciousstones.

StartedhisjourneybacktoEuropefromtherein1499.

HisvoyagewasregardedasatriumphwhenhereachedLisbon:

a) Financial:theitemscovered60timeshisexplorationexpense

b)

Geographical:He

brought

back

solid

information.

Buthisvoyagehadnegativesidestoo:scurvydisease

a) Losthalfhisships

b) Lost2/3rdofhismen

c) Losthisbrother

DreamofPrinceHenryhadcometrue.TheyhavefoundtheallsearoutetoIndia.

HissecondvoyagefollowedthefirstvoyageofCabral.

Thistimehehad15shipsandtheobjectivewastosecurePortugaldominanceinMalabarCoast.

HisfleetdestroyedMoslemfleetafterthelatterattackedfirst

Built

a

number

of

trading

posts

PedroAlvaresCabral(firstsailedin1500):

SentafterthefirstvoyageofVascodaGamabykingofPortugal

With13shipsand1200soldiers

Objective:toestablishcommercialstationsinIndia(succeededindoingsoinCochinandCalicut)

Thesestations,whichwereattimesheavilyfortified,werebuiltstrategically.

Theywereforbothcommercialandmilitary(onlyfordefense)purposes(theycontrolledsmall

districtsattimes).

Noharshintentiontotakecolonies.

AffonsodAlbuquerque(firstsailedinaround1508):

RealfounderofPortugaldominioninEast

BecameGovernorofIndiain1509

Veryaggressive:crusadingspiritagainstIslam

DreamttocaptureMecca,carrytheremainsofMohammedfromMedinaandtradeitfor

Jerusalem,destroyfertilityofEgyptbydivertingpathofNile.

ButrealisticallycouldonlydrivetheMoslemtradersfromIndianOcean:

a)

CapturedGoain1510.ThismadethemcontrolthewholeofMalabarCoast.

b)

CapturedMalacca

in

1511.

This

made

him

break

Moslem

monopoly.

c) BrokethetraditionaltraderoutethroughPersianGulfandRedSea(Moslemcontrolled)

FacilitatedPortuguesemonopolyinIndoEuropeantrade.

ReasonsforfallofPortuguesemonopolyintheEast:

Smallnationwithamillionpeopleandsocouldnotkeepsendingbackupstotheeast.

BattleagainstMoslemreducedtheirnumbers


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Diseaseslikescurvy,choleraandmalariareducedtheirnumbers

Thisforcedthemtosendtheirconvictsandhalfgrownlads:inexperienced.

OnlysubstantialcolonyinGoa.Couldntsettleatanyotherplaceduetoclimaticreasons.

WeakPortugalwasforcedtounitewithSpainin1580sothatotherEuropeancountrieswould

notinvadethem.

From1580to1640PortugalwasapartofSpain(underPhilipII).

MoreattentionprovidedtoBrazil(sugarcaneplantationandexportfromBrazil,discoveryof

valuablereddishdyewood)afterindependencein1640.

SPAIN

SpanishandtheNewWorld

HispaniolawasthefirstSpanishsettlementintheNewWorld

ItwasanislandinHaiti,discoveredbyColumbus

Foundedin1504,cityofSanDomingointhatislandbecamethefirstcapitalofSpanishAmerica.

1509:JamaicawasconqueredandestablishmentofPuertoRicotherebyPoncedeLeon

1511:DiegoVelasquezfoundedHavanainnorthcoast

1541VelasquezextendedhisswayoverwholeofHavanaisland

AlthoughFerdinandandIsabellaaskedtheconquerorstotreatnativeskindly,theyweretreated

cruelly:forcedintoslaveryastheywerepowerlessagainstEuropeanweapons.

IntroductionofsugarcanecultivationfromHispaniola.

Explorerswantedtogofurtherinlandtofindtreasuresorwinfame.

Intheend,SpainwasthefirstexploringandcolonizingnationofAmerica.

By1574:morethan200Spanishsettlements,thewholeSpanishAmericawasdividedinto2

kingdomseach

ruled

by

aviceroy.

PoncedeLeon(startedin1512):

MotivatedbytalesoffameandwealthbyIndians

Andalsowantedtofindthefountainofyouth

Hestartedin1512fromPuertoRicoandonlycoulddiscoverFlorida.

Secondexpeditionin1521hereachedFlorida,foughtwithIndiansanddied.

VascoNunezdeBalboa:

Hesought

after

an

ocean

about

which

the

Indians

told

him:

Pacific

Ocean

HelaidclaimonalltheislandsandtheoceanonbehalfofSpain

ThisshowedthattheNewWorldwasntapartofAsia

DiegoVelasquez

GovernorofCuba


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ReachedYucatanpeninsulain1517wherehefoundthattheinhabitantswereofamuchhigher

stateofcivilizationthananywhereencounteredintheNewWorld.

Theyhadgold,woreclothesandcultivatedmazefields

ThelandwasactuallyMexico

Cortez

(started

in

1518)

HavingheardofVelasquezsdiscoveryofMexico,CortezsetoutfromCubawith10ships,600

soldiersandweapons.

FoundVeraCruz:anAztecsettlementfromwherehereceivedgoldfromAztecleader,

Montezuma,lesthemovedontoMexicoCity.

Seeingthegold,hisgreedincreasedandhedestroyedhisshipssothatnoonecouldturnback

MovedtowardsMexicoCity,capitalofAztecs.

RecruitednativeshostiletoAztecsonhisway.

ReachedMexicoCityandwasinvitedinbyMontezumasothattheywouldntattack.

Butonce

inside,

the

Spaniards

took

Montezuma

hostage

and

asked

him

to

give

the

city

to

Spain

CowardiceofMontezumaangeredthepeopleofthecity

TheyfoughtandwardedoffCortez

WithmoresoldiersCortezattackedagainandsucceededintakingthecityin1521.

ProceededfurtherasfarasPanama.

FerdinandMagellan(startedin1519)

ExperiencedthroughhisserviceforPortugal

ConvincingKingCharlesIofSpain,hesailedfromSevillein1519.

Objective:

Find

path

to

Spice

Islands

through

Brazil

HeturnedthesouthernmostpartofSouthAmericaintothePacificOcean(henamedtheocean

Pacific)

DiscoveredStraitsofMagellan

Butheandhismenwentthroughhardships:

a) nofood;ateleather,ratsandsawdust

b) drankyellowwater

ThentheyreachedwhatisnowPhilippines

Hewaskilledtherebythenativesin1521.

SurvivorswentontoSevillein1522.

ImportanceofMagellansexpedition:

Hisexpeditionwasimportanttheoretically:

Firsttimeevertheearthwascircled.Showedthatitisindeedspherical.

Gaveideaaboutthecircumferenceofearth

ShowedthatWestIndieswasnotapartofAsia


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Notmuchpracticalimportance:

PacificOceanwastoofarawayandcouldnotbeusedforcommercialpurposes.

SpiceIslandwasfoundouttobeinthehalfthatwasgiventoPortugalbythePope.

OnlygainthatSpainhadoutoftheexpeditionwasPhilippines

FranciscoPizarro(startedin1524):

WantedtofindoutthefabledlandofvastwealthintheNewWorldaboutwhichtheIndians

toldBalboa.

ThenamegiventotheunknownlandwasPeru(ElDorado).

Hewasdoggedinnatureandkeptonsearchingfor3years.

FinallyfoundTumbez(whereEcuadorandPerujoins)

HewenttoSpain,gainedpermissionfromtheSpanishkingtoembarkonaconquestofthe

discoveredIncaEmpireandsucceededingainingcontrol.

TheIncanruler,AtahualpamettheSpaniardsinafriendlymanner,butwascaptured

immediately.

AfterhereceivedtreasuresfromtheIncans,hekilledthecapturedAtahualpa.

ThenenteredtheIncanempireandraidedthecities.

Foundgreaterrichesthantheyhaddreamtof.

FirstofthesePeruviangoldreachedSpainin1534andexcitedmanymoreadventurerstocome

andfindmore.

TheyforcedthenativesintoslaveryandthemissionariesstartedtoconvertthemtoChristianity.

Pizarromurderedbyconspiratorsin1541.

ENGLISH:

TheEnglishtriedtofindtraderoutesinthenorthwesternandnortheasternpartssincethesouthand

thewestwasdividedamongSpainandPortugal.

JohnCabot(startedin1497):

Venetian,butstayedinBristol

WentnorthwestbythepermissionofHenryVIIinhopestofindAsia

UltimatelyreachedNewfoundland

Notfruitfulexceptthefactthathediscoveredrichfishinggrounds

Laterhis

son

embarked

on

the

same

route

in

order

to

reach

Asia,

but

found

nothing

but

ice.

SirHughWilloughbyandRichardChancellor(startedin1553):

Wentnortheast

Astormseparatedthem

WilloughbywaslaterdiscovereddeadbyRussianfishermen.

RichardfailedtoconnectwithWilloughbyandreachedArchangelthroughWhiteSea


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ThenhewentoverlandandreachedMoscow

ObtainedpermissionofrulerIvantheTerribletotradewithEngland.

Whenhereturned,anewcompanywasformedtoengageintradewithRussia.

MonopolyofthecompanytodiscouragefurtherventuresgivenbyQueenMaryin1554.

Englandexportedwoolenclothandimportedfurs,timber,wax,oil,etc.

MartinFrobisher(startedin1576):

WentnorthwestagaintofindthatroutewhichwouldleadintoAsia

ReachedBaffinLand

HethoughtthiswastheroutethatwouldtakethemtoAsiathroughnorthAmerica

Hecamebacktoreportittotheauthority

Thesoilthathebroughtbackcontainedgold

Companyformedandthemainobjectivewastofindgold(shiftinobjective)

Butintheend,nothingwasfoundandthecompanywentbankrupt.

JohnDavis(startedfirstjourneyin1585):

Madethreejourneysintotal

Mainobjective:gettoAsiabysailingaroundthenorthernpartofAmerica

Founditnotnavigableduetoice

NomoreattemptsweremadetoreachAsiathroughthenorthwest

FocuschangedtobreakingSpanishmonopoly:

AdventurerswiththispurposeinmindencouragedtacitlybyEnglishgovernment

JohnHawkins

(1532

1595):

a)

HewasluredbyslavetradeinHispaniola

b)

EngagedindoingbusinesswithSpanish

c) Histhirdvoyagewasdisastrous:hewasattackedbyaSpanishfleetwhenhewasaboutto

enterSanJuandeUlua.

d) Twoofhis5shipsreturnedtoEngland

TheattackhurttheEnglishego.

FrancisDrake(wasacompanionofJohnHawkins):

a) Wantedtoavengethemurderofhiscomrades

b) Resortedtopiracy

c)

AttackedSpanish

ships

and

took

their

treasures

d) HewentasfarasCaliforniaafterroundingthetipofSouthAmerica

e) HereturnedtoEnglandin1579andwasknightedbyQueenElizabeth

f) Asaresultofhisconquest,thosewhotalkedaboutthedisadvantageofthesmallerEnglish

galleysweresilenced.

g) HebroughtbackinformationthatinthePortuguesecoloniesthenativeswereagainstthe

rulers.


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Englishtradeprosperedthereafter.

1588:SpanishinvincibleArmadadestroyed:

1591:EnglishfirstsailedtowardsIndia,disregardingthePopesboundaries

1600:EstablishmentofEnglishEastIndiaCompany

FRENCH

Mostoftheexpeditionsintheearly1500swerefishingexpeditions

Financedbyprivateinterests,nogovernmentcooperation(maybebecausetheyweretoobusy

withhandlingwars)

FrancisI(15151547)wasthefirstrulerwhowasinterestedinthesediscoveries:particularlyto

China

HesentoutGiovanniVerrazanoin1524andthenJacquesCartierin1534westward.

JacquesCartier:

Inhis

first

journey

he

reached

the

New

World

ButwasforcedtoturnbackatSt.Lawrenceduetobadweather

Hereturnedthenextyearalongthesameroute

FoundtheIndianvillageofHochelagaandnamedthenearbymountainMontReal.

HiseffortstoreachChinawereunsuccessful

ButhefoundfertilelandsinSt.Lawrence

POSITIVESOFTHEEXPLORATION:

Expansion of commerce outside ofMediterranean trade: The entireworld opened up. The

Atlanticroutes

used,

the

Indian

Ocean

routes

used

after

turning

around

the

Cape

of

Good

Hope.

MonopolyofItaliansended.

Increase in volume and variety of commerce: Someof the products are potato,maize and

tobaccofromNorthAmerica;molassesandrumfromWestIndies;chocolate,quinine,dyesfrom

SouthAmerica;ivory,slaves,ostrichfeatherfromAfrica.Whatwereluxuriesoncenowbecame

normal.Pricesweredecreasing.Influencedcapitalism.Riseofbanksandcompanies

Increase in supply of preciousmetals: Themetals facilitated the circulationofmoney. They

allowedmentoholdwealthinsolidformforfutureinvestment.Goldandsilverwerebeingused

asthingsofvaluesotherthanjustmetals.Butthisrapid increase incirculationalsoresulted in

speculationsonvoyageswhichaffectedmarkets.Thiswasthebasisforcommercialrevolution.

Geographical

knowledge

expansion.

NEGATIVESOFEXPLORATION:

Africanslavery

Religious:Now for the first time,Europeansventuredout forconversion.Missionarieswould

comealongsidetheadventurers.

Colonialism:Europeanizationstarted.Theywereinfluencingthethoughtsofpeople.


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Whenthemiddleagesendedandthemodernagestarted:

Thereseemstobevaryingexpertopinionswhenaskedwhattheapproximateboundaryis.Although

everyoneagreesthatthereisnodistinctborder(meaningthatthechangedidnothappeninoneday),

andthattheprocesswasgradual,theyinsistonformingborders.Therearethreeschoolsofthought:

i) MiddleagesendedwiththecaptureofConstantinoplebyOttomanTurksin1453.

ii) ModernhistorystartswiththediscoveryofAmericabyColumbusin1492.

iii) ModernhistorystartsfromthesplitinChurch(anincidentwhichmarkedtheperiodwhen

thepeoplestartedtoquestionaboutreligion,whichwasconsideredtobeataboountil

then).ThissplitintheChurchoccurredin1517.

Featuresofmedievalperiod:

Periodsareidentifiedlesswithdaysanddates(astheprocessofchangesaregradual)andmoreby

seriesof

movements

or

features

that

gives

aperiod

adistinctive

characteristics.

Formedievalperiod,thedistinctivefeatureswere:

i) Dominatedbytwoempires:ThefirstonewastheEasternByzantineempire(Greek

dominated)andtheotheronewastheRomanEmpire.Duringtheendofthemedieval

period,bothofthesewerecollapsing.TheEasternEmpirewascollapsingasConstantinople

wascapturedbytheOttomans.TheHolyRomanEmpirelingeredtillthebeginningofthe

19thcentury,butstoodnowhereclosetoitsformerglory.Theyfailedtoplayinternational

role.Nationalstateswerebeginningtoform.

ii)

Socioeconomicorder:

The

order

that

dominated

throughout

the

middle

ages

was

feudalism.Inthissystem,therewerelandlordsandpeasantsandtherewereknightsto

maintainsocialorder.Butgraduallytheeconomybegantoshiftfrombeinglandorproduct

basedtomoneybased.Newequipmentswerebeinginstalled.Theknightswerebecoming

obsoleteandwerebeingreplacedbymercenariesfighterswhowouldaskformoneyto

fightonbehalfofaparty.Thesemercenarieshadnewtypesofweaponswhichtheknights

werenotcomfortableusing.Therigidsystemwasgivingway.

iii) Craftguild:Thesesortsofassociationshadcontrolinretailtrade.Butnow,theexportswere

alsoemerging,whichwidenedthescopeoftrade.Merchantsandcapitalistsassociations

werecoming

in.

iv) RomanCatholicChurch:Duringthemiddleages,theChurchstoodforrighteousnessand

unity.Theyimposedwasrestraints,maintainedpeace,etc.Butnow,thepeoplestartedto

questionthePopetheyputpressuresandposedthreatsonCatholicChurch.TheChurch

alsoopposedtothedevelopmentofnationalstates.


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v) Newforces,motivesandfactors:Astheparadigmwasontheshift,therewerenewforces

andmotivesthatwereshapingupthemindsetofthepeople.Theircombinedeffectshad

impactsonproducingthemodernworld.

Featuresofmodernperiod:

i) Riseofmiddleclass:Previously,theclasswasdividedintoclergy(peoplewhowerefrom

theChurch),nobilityandthirdestate(commonersandpeasants).Butwithtime,theclergies

werelosinginfluencesaspeoplestartedquestioningreligion.Alongwiththis,thepowerof

thenobilitywasalsoonthefall.Newsocialclasswasrisingbetweennobilityandthethird

estate.Thiswasthemiddleclass(artisans,craftsman,etc).Theywerecalledbourgeoisie

inFrench.ThemainreasonfortheiremergencewastomakemoneyduringtheCrusades.

Theiridealwastomakemoney.Theylatergaverisetoscholars,doctors,writers,etc.Asthis

classofpeoplestartedtomakemoney,theystartedtolookforpoliticalpower.

ii) Emergenceofnationalstates:Withtheemergenceofcitystates,rivalriesweredeveloping.

Amongthese

states,

there

were

divisions

based

on

languages

and

strong

rulers.

Balance

of

powerwasthereifarulerwastoostrong,otherswouldganguponhim.

iii) Changingeconomicworld:Thefactorwhichbroughtthisaboutwastheexpansionof

commerceinlargescale.Routeswerebeingdiscoveredtothenewworld(America)andthe

east.Capitalismwasanecessarything.Thesupplyofraregoodsincreasedwiththeflourish

oftradeandthisreducedtheprices.Thecommonpeoplewerebeingabletopurchase

necessities.

iv) Growthofsecularspirit:Previously,peopleweredominatedbyasceticspirit(tiedto

religion).

But

now,

life

on

earth

was

taking

a

new

meaning.

People

started

to

enjoy

their

lives,amindsetwhichpromotedliterature.Sciencewasalsoflourishing.Therewasa

simultaneousriseinanticlericalfeeling.Protestswereheardagainstthechurches.These

werereflectedintheirliterature.Piouspeoplewererising,whoseemedtodefinereligious

intheirownway.Thus,theyweregoingagainstthechurchaswell.

Sosixheadingthatcanbeusedtosummarizethewholechangeare:

Riseofnationalstates

Intensificationofsecularspirit

ExpansionofEuropeintoAsia/America

Riseof

modern

capitalism

FoundingofProtestantChurches

Riseofmodernscience

Andinthemidstofthemall,themostimportantpoint,whichrelatestoallsixofthemisthe

emergenceofthemiddleclass.


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RENAISSANCE

Overview:

Afterthe1300s,thecharacteristicsofthemedievalagesstartedtodecay,asdiscussedinthelasttopic.

Gothiccathedrals

were

gone.

The

supremacy

of

religious

and

ethical

interpretation

was

undermined

throughsecularthinking.Newinstitutionswerearising.Somecharacteristicsweredeveloping.The

traditionalnamethatisgiventothiscivilization(from1300toabout1650)isRenaissance.

Renaissanceliterallymeansrebirthanditcommonlyimpliesthatsuddenlytherewasarevivalof

peoplesinterestsintheancientlearning.However,thechangewasnotsosuddenandthisinclination

wasalsopresentinthemiddleagesamongmanyscholars.Example:Dante.But,whatmarks

Renaissanceisnotonlytherevivalofclassicallearning,butalsomaynewemergencesinthefieldsofart,

science,literature,religion,politics,education,etc.ThefoundationsforthesewereRomanandGreek

influences,butitwentbeyondthesetwo.

Idealsof

Renaissance:

Renaissanceputforthdominantidealsandattitudeswhichsetstandardforthenewworld.

i) Optimism:Willingtobelieveinpossibilities

ii) Worldliness:Maininterestwasonthisworldandnotontheafterlife.Focuswason

enjoyment.

iii)

Individualism:Takingdecisions,comingupwithownideas.

Aboveall,theidealofRenaissancewasdominatedbyhumanism,theglorificationofthehumanself

supportingnatureandhumansratherthanthedivineandafterlife.

CausesofRenaissance:

1. InfluenceoftheByzantine(Greek)andSaracenic(Islamic)empires.

2. Developmentofflourishingcommerce,whichledtoincreaseinpatronage.

3. Growthofcities(urbancultures)andashiftfromtheruralculture(whichwasreligiousand

conservativeinnature).

4. Revivalofinterestinclassicallearning.

5. Growthofcriticalorquestioningattitudesasseeninphilosophers.

6. Gradualescapefromotherworldlythinking.

7. StudyofRomanLawwhichconnectstothinkinginasecularmanner.

8.

ExpansionofintellectualinterestbyUniversities

9. Growthofnaturalisminliteratureandart(goingawayfromreligion)whichledtodeveloping

scientificthinking.

10.Patronagebywealthymerchantstosupportphilosophersandartists.Someofthepatronswere

wellconnectedtotheChurch(somewereevenPopes).Othersincludedwealthyandinfluential

rulers.Example:MedicifamilyinFlorence.


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11.Crusadesandtheinventionofprintingpresshadindirectroles:TheCrusadesweakened

feudalismtosomeextentanditdiminishedtheprestigeofPapacy.Also,itgavetheItaliancities

themonopolyovertheMediterraneantrade.

TheinventionofprintingpresscameinthelaterstagesofRenaissance(1454).Thereweremany

scholarswhowereagainsttheuseofprintingpresstheywereafraidthattheywouldbe

misunderstoodby

the

people,

who

were

not

intellectually

equivalent

to

them.

They

were

afraid

thatpeoplemightprotestastheychallengedestablishedbeliefs.Punishmentswereverysevere

andincludedbeingtermedasawitchandbeingburntalive.Moreover,theownersofprinting

pressweremoreinterestedinreligiousthingsandpopularlegendssincethesewereindemand.

Theywerentthatinterestedinscholarlypieces.Theprintingpressesonlyhelpedinthe

spreadingofRenaissancetoNorthEuropeinthelaterstages.

WhyItaly?

ThereasonwhyRenaissancetookplaceinItalyandnotinanyotherEuropeancitiesis:

i)

Strongerclassical

tradition:

Italians

were

descendents

of

Romans

and

thus

were

proud

of

theachievementsthatweremadebytheRomans.Asaresult,theirconnectiontothepast

waseasilysetandtheyweremoreeagertoupholdthetraditions.

ii) Romansystemofeducation:ItstillsurvivedintheschoolsofItaly.Itservedasalinkageto

thepast.

iii) Unmoralattitude:TheItaliansdidnothaveastrongmoralorethicalconsideration.They

werequiteliberalintheirbeliefs.TheyhadanancientPaganspirit.Anexample:Whenthe

ItaliansfoundoutthatthePopehadillegitimatechildren,theywerenotshockedatthis

unexpectedevent.ThiswasthespiritofRenaissance.

iv) Secularculture:ThescopeofdevelopingsecularculturewasmorefavorableinItaly.

Universitieswere

set

up

for

studying

law

and

medicine

(although

the

rest

of

the

Europe

still

focusedmoreontheology).InRomehowever,thereligiousstudywasstrongerthaninother

citystates.Thus,inthisrespect,theItalianswerequitefarsighted.

v) FullimpactofByzantineorSaraceniccivilization:Thefullimpactofthesetwocivilizations

camestronglyinItalymostlyduetoitsgeographicallocation.ItalywasclosertoGreece.

vi) Trade:Italiancityportswerethemainlinkofrevivaloftradewiththeeast.Theseseaports

includedtheseaportsofNaples,VeniceandGenova.Theyenjoyedmonopolyofthe

Mediterraneantrade.Italianmerchantsactedasmiddlemenduringsuchtradesaswell.All

theseimprovedtheeconomicprosperityofItaly,whichisanimportantaspectof

Renaissance(itultimatelypromotedpatronage).

PoliticalBackgroundofItalianRenaissance:

i) Presenceofchaos:Althoughitisgenerallyexpectedthatforprogresstooccur,theremust

bepeacewithinthecountry,thegovernmentmustbeorderlyandefficientandthepeople

mustbecalmandpeaceful.Butthiswasnotthecase.Renaissancedevelopedamidst

turmoil.ItalywasntastatewhenRenaissanceoccurred.Therewerefactionalrevolts,


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conflictbetweenrulers,etc.Thepillarsofthemedievalworldwerebreakingdown(chivalry,

feudalism,etc.)Newmiddleclasswasemergingandmercenarieswerecomingin.

ii) Growthofdespoticgovernments:Italyhadseveralpettycitystateswhichwereincreasingly

throwingawaythedominanceoftheHolyRomanempire.Therewasdemocraticsetupback

there.Butnow,thenewemergingrulershadlittlerespectfordemocracy.Somanycities

cameunder

the

rule

of

despotic

rulers.

Enlightened

dictators

or

despotic

rulers

are

sometimesgoodaswellasdemocracygaverisetotoomanyopinionsfromtoomany

people.OneexampleofthisiswhentheRepublicofFlorencepassedontotheMedicifamily

in1434toberuledforthenext60years.LorenzoMediciwasadespoticruler(Lorenzothe

Magnificent).

iii) Expansionofcitystates:Therewasatendencyoflargercitystatestocontrolthesmaller

citystates.Whateventuallydevelopedby1500wastheexistenceoffivedominantcity

states:thePapalStates(controlledbytheRomanCatholicChurch),theDuchyofMilan

(Viscontidespots),theKingdomofNaples,Venice(theGreatCouncilandthedoge)andthe

RepublicofFlorence(Medicifamily).

OverviewtableofRenaissance:

Trecento(1300s) Quattrocento(1400s) Cinquecento(1500s)

Literature FrancescoPetrach

(13041374):Fatherof

ItalianRenaissanceand

humanism.Florentine.

Religious.Likedmonks.

Wrotesonnets.Loved

GreekandLatinclassics

butdidnt

understand

them.Lovedwifeof

anotherguy.

GiovanniBoccacio

(13131375):Florentine.

Illegitimateson.Sentto

Naplestoworkinbank.

Wrotepoemsand

prose.Bestwork

Decameron(100

storiesofmanytheme,

anticlerical,manyPOV).

1393:famousGreek

scholarcametoItaly

ManuelChrysaloras.

Sentfrom

Constantinopoleasan

ambassadorof

Byzantines.

1413to

1423:

Giovanni

Aurispaandhis250

manuscriptsofmany

famousGreeks.

Poggio,Becadelli,

Filelfo,Pontano

LorenzoValla(1406

1457).Wrotehistory.

CriticizedChurchby

provingforgeries.

Consideredof1500s.

LudivicoAriosto

(14741533):Wrote

epics.Orlando

furiousobestwork.

JacopoSannazaro

(14581530):Wrote

pastoralpoetry.

Arcadiabest

work.

NiccoloMachiavelli

(14691526).Wrote

dramaandhistory.

Mandragola(drama)

bestwork.

FrancescoGuicciardini

(14831540).Wrote

history.Thehistoryof

Italyfrom1490to

1534bestwork.

Objective.

Arts Giotto(12761337):

Naturalism.Lifelike

painting.2Dcharacters.

Surpassedteacher,

Cimabue.WorksSt.

Francispreachingto

birds,Themassacreof

innocence.

Masaccio(14011428):

Realist.Introduced

uniformity(senseof

space).Lightshade.

Nudeart.Expulsionof

AdamandEvefrom

thegarden.

Tintoretto(1518

1594).High

Renaissance.

Venetian.

RaphaelSanti(1483

1520):Mostpopular.

Charming,not


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FraLippoLippi:

Memberofreligious

brotherhood,drawing

normalpeopleinto

saints,psychological

analysis.

SandroBotticelli(1445

1510):Beautyofsoul.

Psychological

treatment.Pensive

sadness.Yearningfor

divine.Classicalmyths.

AllegoryofSpring,

BirthofVenus.

DaVinci(14521519):

Versatile.Patronized

byLorenzo,thenby

Sporzafamily

in

Milan.

Scientificstudybehind

art.TheVirginofthe

Rocks,TheLast

Supper,Monalisa.

Titian(14771576):

HighRenaissance.

Venetian.Venetian

lifestyle.

Giorgione(14781510):

HighRenaissance.

Venetian.

emotional.Pious.

CopiedVincis

technicalfeatures.

Seekedbeauty.Glorify

formandcolor.

SchoolofAthens,

SistineMadonna.

Michelangelo(1475

1564).Badchildhood.

Tempestuous

mentality.Pessimistic.

Universaltragedy

theme. Masterpiece

isseriesoffrescosin

SistineChapelceiling.

TheLastjudgment,

Godcreatingearh,

Fallof

man.

Pagan

spiritinhumanshapes

(muscular).

Sculpture Donatello(13861466):Individualism.Chosetoshowcharacteroverbeauty.

DavidandGoliathshowednaturalismandglorificationofnude.

Gattamelatashowedequestrianmonument.

Michelangelo(14751564):Greatestofthatera.Perfectionist.Brokestatueif

notsatisfied.Pessimistic.Tragicsceneseen.Expressionofthoughtinstone.

Distortioninfigure. WorksBoundSlaveandMosesinTombofPopeJulius

II.DawnandSunsetonTombofMedici.Pietaforhisowntomb.

LiteratureofTrecento:

a) FrancescoPetrarch(13041374):PetrachwasaFlorentine.HeistermedasthefatherofItalian

Renaissance.HewasclosetothestudyofmedievalperiodsandhebelievedfirmlyinChristianity

asthewayofsalvation.Hewasaddictedtomonks.HewasafanaticoftheTuscandialect

(previouslyusedbyDante).Hisbestknownworksincludesonnetscontainingchivalrouslove

elements.Asaresult,hewascalledthefatherofhumanismaswell.Anothersideofhimshowed

greatadmirationtowardsGreekandLatinclassics.Thesadparthereisthathedidnt


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understandGreek,sohejustlookedattheworks.Hefellinlovewiththewifeofanotherman,

whichwasthesourceofmanyofhisgreatestworks.

b) GiovanniBoccacio(13131375):HewasalsoaFlorentinelikePetrarch.Hewasanillegitimate

sonofarichmerchantandsohewassenttoNaplestoserveasanapprenticeinabank.But

accountingboredhim.HeinsteadfoundNaplesaestheticallybeautifulandthisservedashis

sourceof

inspiration.

Although

he

started

out

with

poems,

he

moved

on

to

prose.

His

first

work

ofmeritwasFiamettawhichwaslikeapsychologicalnovel.Hismostpopularworkis

DecameronwhichhewrotewhenhereturnedtoFlorence.Thewordmeans100and

contained100storiesfromPOVof7ladiesand3men.Ithadmultiplethemes(fromfarceto

tragedy)whichwereunitedbytheoverallplotthese10peopleescapingFlorenceduetoBlack

Deathandtookshelterinasafehouse,tellingstoriestoeachother.Butmanystorieswerenot

original.Therewasarecurringanticlericalcharacteristic.Thisbookwasimportantsinceitset

thepatternforItalianproseandhadanimpactonwritersfromothercountriesaswell.

Bocacciosdeathin1375somewhatmarkedtheendofTrecentoinItalianRenaissance.

Literatureof

Quattrocento:

SomeofthebestnamesofthisperiodarePoggio,Beccadelli,Filelfo,Pontano,etc.Mostofthemshow

aninherentpassionforGreekstudies.Althoughthiswasalsopresentpreviously(e.g.Petrarch),there

wasnoonetoteachGreekphilosophiesbackthen.

In1393afamousGreekscholarcomestoItalynamedManuelChrysaloras.Heservedasanambassador

fromtheByzantinesinConstantinoplesenttoswayItalianstowardsthemintheirwaragainstOttoman

Turks.TheItaliansconvincedhimtoacceptprofessorshipattheUniversityofFlorencetoteachGreek

Classics.

Atthe

beginning

of

the

15th

century,

Platonist

philosophers

started

to

come

to

Italy

to

teach

them

their

ways.ThiswasfollowedbyItalianphilosophersgoingtoConstantinopletolookforGreekmanuscripts.

Oneofthem,GiovanniAurispa,broughtback250manuscriptsofmanyfamousGreekssuchas

Sophocles,Euripides,Thucidydes,etc.from1413to1423.

LiteratureofCinquecento:

Duringthisperiod,ItalianlanguagewasraisedtofullequalitywithGreekandLatinclassics.Classicaland

modernphilosophieswereblendedtocomeupwithaformandcontentthatwasoriginal.Tillnow,

literaturewasmainlycopiesfromtheclassicalLatinandGreekphilosophies.Butnow,itwasnolonger

so.

OneimportantchangethatcameaboutinthisperiodistheshiftoftheliterarycapitalfromFlorenceto

Romeinthefirsthalfof16thcentury.ThereasonbehindthiswasthepatronageoftheChurchand

Popes.OneexampleisPopeLeo10th.HewasthesonofLorenzotheMagnificentandbecameacardinal

attheageof14throughhisfathersconnections.Hewasnotthatreligiousgiventhefamilybackground.

Rather,hewantedtoenjoythePapacy.Helavishedrichgiftinaspendthriftmanneronartistsand

writersandalsofinancedsomeofthemostbeautifulChurchesinhistime.


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Someofthenamesthatcomeupduringthistimeare:

a) LudovicoAriosto(14741533):Hewasbestknownforepics.HisbestworkisOrlandoFurioso

whichwasbasedonancientlegendsderivedfromclassicalsources.Thethemewaslight,

portrayedverylittleidealismandwasfilledwithlove,natureandromancetocharmthe

readers.

b) JacopoSannazaro(14581530):Hewasbestknownforpastoralpoetry,whichdealtwiththe

glorificationofthesimplerurallife.Inthesepoetries,theauthoryearnstogobacktothegolden

agetotheunspoiledruralbeauty.HisbestworkisabookcalledArcadia.

c) NiccoloMachiavelli(14691526):Hewasbestknownfordrama.TheItalianswerenotthat

successfulindramaliketheGreeks.Theywerenotthatgoodinwritingtragicdramassincethey

weremoreoptimisticthantheGreeksandthuswerementallymismatched.Theyweremore

individualisticandsowerenotinfluencedbythemesofsufferings.ThebestworkofMachiavelli

indramawasMandragola.ThisbookwasverywittyandwasbasedonlifeinFlorence.Ithad

elementsofsatireinitwhichshowedhiscynicalviewonthehumannature.Accordingtohimin

thisbook,

everyone

thinks

that

he/she

is

right

no

matter

how

stupid

they

really

are.

People

wantedtocoveruptheirperspectiveswithrefinementsoflearning.Peoplewereselfish.

Machiavellishowedtheseinahumorousway.OneofthebooksthatMachiavelliisfamousfor

(althoughitisnotadrama)isThePrince.Healsowroteonhistory,ontheevolutionof

FlorenceafterthedeathofLorenzoMedici.

d) FrancescoGuicciardia(14831540):Hisbestworkswereinthefieldofhistory.Duringthis

period,historicalwritingsachievedacertaindegreeofcriticalaspectandobjectivity.Hewasan

ambassadorofFlorenceandagovernorofthePapalterritories.Asaresult,hesawfirsthand

howpoliciesandreactionsoperatedandwroteaccordingly.Hegaveminuteandrealistic

analyseswhichwereobjectiveandneutral.Hisaccountswerethusdispassionate.Hisbestwork

isThe

History

of

Italy

from

1490

to

1534.

e) LorenzoValla(14061457):Hisbestworkswereinthefieldofhistory.Althoughhebelongedto

thequattrocento,heisconsideredtobeahistorianfromthecinquecento.Heisconsideredto

bethefatherofhistoricalcriticism.AlthoughhewaspatronizedbytheChurch,hisbestworks

ledtodivulgingdocumentsthattheChurchforgedinordertokeepcontrol(example:donation

ofConstantinople).ThisstimulatedamuchbroaderattackontheChurch.

ArtsofTrecento:

ArtisconsideredtobetheproudestachievementsoftheRenaissanceandthedevelopmentsinthisfield

occurredparalleltotheonesinliterature.

a) Giotto(12761337):HeistopaintingwhatPetrarchandBoccacioistoliterature.Withhim,

paintingtookthestatusofindependentart.Heinauguratedthenaturalisminpainting.Although

hisartswerequitemedieval(2Dandlowallegoricalitems),hestartedthetrendtowards

naturalism.HisteacherwasCimabuewhowasalsoatoppainted,butGiottosurpassedhim.

Healsoworkedonfrescos,twoofwhichareSt.FrancispreachingtothebirdsandThe

MassacreofInnocence.


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ArtsofQuattrocento:

Duringthisperiod,thefocusonpaintingwasincreasedtremendouslydueto:

i) Increaseofwealthofthecitystates.

ii) Partialtriumphofthesecularspirit(Artwasnowfreedfromthedomainofreligiousthinking

ithadtranscendedreligion.Thusthesubjectmatterofpaintingincreased).

Asaresultofthese,thechurchwasnotthesolepatronoftheartsandthereweremanyotherwealthy,

secularpatrons. Therewerechangesinthesubjectmatteraswell:therewasanonreligioustheme

infusedinthereligioustheme.Also,thepaintingstructurechangedaswell:portraitswerebecoming

morepopulartorevealthemysteriesofthesoul.Theywereintendedtoappealnotonlytotheeye,but

alsototheintellect.

Thenewestfeatureintroducedwastheconceptofoilpaintingwhichrevolutionizedtheindustry.This

techniquewasfirstintroducedinFlanders,Belgium.Itcontributedtotheartisticadvancementare:

i) Oiltakeslongertodryandsopaintersgetmoretimetofinishpainting.Scopeofcorrection

ishigh.Moretimecanbespentindifficultareas.Soperfectionlevelishigher.

ii)

Moreglossypaintings.

iii)

Longlastingpaintings.

MostofthepaintersfromthisperiodwereFlorentines.

a) Masaccio(14011428):HeisconsideredtobethefirstoftherealistpaintersoftheRenaissance.

Hewasgeniusintheanalysisofspace:persons,trees,houseswereshowningeometrically

determinedplaces.Heintroduceduniformityandemotionsinthestory.Hewasalsogoodat

nudeart.

His

best

works

are

Expulsion

of

Adam

and

Eve

from

the

garden

(now

in

the

Santa

MariaChurch,Florence)andThetributemoney.Hewasalsothefirsttohighlightthethickness

inlightandshade.Hediedat27yearsofage.

b) FraLipoLippi:Hewasthememberofareligiousbrotherhood,butyethispaintingshadhuman

appeals.HeusednormalFlorentinestodepictsaints.Hisportraitswereveryvividashecould

drawtheinnersoulverywellonapersonsface.Thus,hecommencedthepsychologicalanalysis

inthefieldofart.

c) SandroBotticelli(14451510):Hisworkscarriedpsychologicalmeasurementandanalysis

further.Moreover,hispaintingreflectedthebeautyofthesoul.Therewasayearningforthe

divineinhispaintingwhichgaverisetopensivesadness.TwoofhisbestworksareAllegoryof

Springand

Birth

of

Venus.

All

of

these

were

based

upon

classical

mythology

and

showed

yearningforancientGreeceandRome.

d) LeonardoDaVinci(14521519):Heisthemosttalentedofthemall.Hewasaversatileperson

whoexcelledateverythinghetouched(music,science,sculptures,maths,philosophy).Hisbest

qualitywashiszealforknowledge:hepushedforwardexplorationswithunmatchedskillsand

penetrations.Hewastheillegitimatechildofalawyerandanoblewomanandwasbornin

Florence.HewasfirstsenttoVerrocchiowhowasthechiefFlorentinesculptorofthattime.But


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bythetimehewas25yearsold,hecaughttheeyeofLorenzotheMagnificent,whopatronized

himforquitesometime.Butaftersometime,DaVincibecamedissatisfiedwiththeartisticview

ofLorenzoandsohewenttoMilantobepatronizedbytheSforzafamily,whereheproduced

someofhisbestworks.HisworkmarkstheHighRenaissance(late1400sandearlyyearsof

1500).

Vincisartistic

approach

included:

Impatienceagainstclassicalmodelimitation.Hisworkswereoncloseobservationofthe

nature.

Hebelievedartshouldbebasedonscientificstudyofnature.

Hedidntwanttoconfinehisintereststothesurfaceasheknewnaturessecretswere

verywellhidden.Sohetriedtoconcealhismessages.

Hewasfascinatedbythegrotesqueandtheunusualinnatureandponderedoverthem.

Hissubjectmatterincludedexceptionsofhumantypes.Example:facesthatwould

revealterror,beauty,hypocrisy,sincerity,etc.Sotherewasahighqualityofrealism.

Realityrepresentedsymbolicallyandphilosophically.

Hismasterpieceswere:

TheVirginoftherocks:Showshistechnicalskillsandpassionforscienceandhisbelieve

inorder.Thefigureswerearrangedingeometriccomposition.

TheLastSupper:PaintedonthewallsoftheSantaMariaChurchinMilan.Thiswasa

studyofthepsychologicalreactionswhenacalmChristrevealedtohisdisciplesthat

someoneinthatroomwouldbetrayhim.Thepaintingshowsthereactionsofthe

peopletothis:surprised,guilt,horrified.

MonaLisa:ItliterallymeansmyladyLisa.Itwastheportraitofanactualwomanand

reflectsthe

varying

moods

of

the

woman

through

her

smile.

It

supposedly

satisfies

all

explanations.Vinciintroducedanewstylewherehepunctuatedthedarkerareaswith

littlespotsoflighttogivethefaceapensivelook.Heplayedwithlightandshadetoo

andthusmanifestedthelawsoftheuniverse.ItisnowsituatedattheLouvreinParis.

ArtsofHighRenaissance(LateQuattracento):

Inthisperiod,therewasanewschoolofpaintingemerging:theVenetianschoolofpainting.These

paintingsappealedtothesensesratherthantheintellect.Therewasnophilosophicalorpsychological

theme.ThepaintingsshowedtheluxuriousandpleasurelovinglifestyleofVenice.Thepaintingswere

mainlyoflandscapesusingcolorstomakeitmoreattractive.ExamplesareVenetiansunsetsand

moonlights,palaces,clothes,jewelriesetc.Thesereflectedthetasteofthewealthyclass.Somefamous

nameswere:

a) Titian(14771576)

b) Giorgione(14781510)

c) Tintoretto(15181594)


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ArtofCinquecento:

Bythistime,theevolutionofartwasatitspeak.ThefirstsignofdecaycomesinasRomebecomesthe

centerofart,butyettherewasFlorentineinfluence.Someofthemostfamousnamesare:

a) RaphaelSanti(14831520):HewasthemostpopularpainterofItalianRenaissanceand

consideredbymanyastheprinceofItalianpainters.HewasntdisturbedlikeVinci(withhis

mentalcomplexities)orMichelangelo(withhisemotionaltorment).Heappealedinthecharm

andsimplehumanismratherthanemotionalthinking.Ononehandhewasanardentadmirerof

DaVinciandcopiedmanytechnicalaspectsofhimandontheotherhandhestucktohis

thoughtsofsweetnessandpietyinstilledbyhisearlierteachers.Heglorifiedformandcolorfor

theirownsakesandnotforgivingthewholethingintellectualmeanings.Hewasdifferentfrom

bothVinciandMichelangelobecauseheconcentratedonlyonpaintingwhereastheotherswere

moreversatile.Hedevotedhimselftothecultivationofanidealtypeofbeauty.Hisgreatest

worksareSchoolofAthensandSistineMadonna.

b) MichelangeloBuonarotti(14751564):Michelangelohadadifficultchildhoodashehadtolive

throughpovertyandwasalsoharassedbygraspingrelatives.Moreover,hehadatempestuous

mentality(selfdestructive).Hewasalsoasculptorandanarchitect.Inhisearlyyears,he

workedasaprotegeofLorenzotheMagnificent. Heisconsideredasoneofthemosttragic

figuresintheartworld.Hewantedtoshowauniversalconceptionoftragedyintheorderof

things.Hegrewupwithdarksentimentswhichshowedinhisarts.Healsoemphasizedon

intensehumanismandinanimateobjectswerenoteventhereinthebackgroundsofhis

paintings.HisbestachievementswereaseriesoffrescosontheceilingofSistineChapel.Itwas

anextremelylaboriousjobandheworkedonitfor4.5yearscovering6000squareft.with400

figuresabout10ft.instature.Theywereseriesintheepicoftheevolutionofhumanraceasper

the

Christian

legends.

Some

of

the

names

are:

God

creating

earth,

God

dividing

light

from

darkness,CreationofAdam,FallofManetc.ButhismostfamouspaintingisTheLast

Judgment(finished22yearsafterthefrescos)onthealtarsbackwall.Itisreferredtoasthe

mostfamouspaintingintheworld.AlthoughtheconceptisChristian,thespiritisPagan

(muscularChristandnudefigures).Thereweresuggestionsoftheruthlessdeity(universal

tragedy).

SculpturesofRenaissance:

Inthemedievaltimes,sculpturewasnotconsideredtobeseparatefromarchitecture.Nowin

Renaissance,itwasestablishedasaseparateartandithaditswayofreflectingsecularthinking.Twoof

thebiggest

names

in

this

respect

are:

a) Donatello(13861466):HeoccupiedthatspaceinsculpturewhichMasacchioheldinpainting.

Heintroducedindividualisminsculptures.SomeofhisbestworksareDavidandGoliath

showingthestatueofDavidstandingoverslainGoliath.Thisshowednaturalismand

glorificationofthenude.Healsoproducedthefirstmonumentalequestrianstatuewhichacted


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asthesymbolofpower,successandglory.ThestatueofGattamelataisanexample,which

waswroughtinbronze.

b) MichelangeloBuonarotti(14751564):Heisconsideredtobethegreatestsculptorofthat

period.Hispersonalpreferencewasalsomakingsculpturesoverpainting.Hewasa

perfectionist:wheneverhewasnotsatisfiedwithasculpture,hebrokeit.Thisshowedasense

ofhopeless

pessimism.

His

works

show

aprogression

in

his

style

from

his

early

life

(where

his

stylewascopiedfromclassicalobservations)tohismaturestage(blendofnaturalisticand

classicalmodels). Hefocusedontragicthemeshereaswell.Hismotivatingfactorwasto

expressthoughtsinstone.Heuseddistortion(abnormalityinthehumanfigure)togivepowerful

effects.Mostofbestworkswereforthetombsofleaders.

Forexample,thetombofPopeJulius2ndhadtwofigures:boundslave(showingpowerand

talentrestrainedbyfate)andMoses(showstherageoftheprophetonthechildrenofIsrael).

AnotheroneisthetombofMediciwhereheproducedacoupleofallegoricalfigures:Dawn(a

womanawakenedfromdreamlesssleepintosuffering,showingthesorrow)andSunset(a

powerfulmanwhoseemstobesinkingundertheloadofhumandespairandmisery).Buthis

intendedmasterpiece

was

Pieta

which

was

astatue

done

in

marble.

It

shows

Virgin

Mary

holdingthedeadbodyofChristinanexpressionofpitytowardsthepeoplewholosthim.This

wasintendedpossiblyforhisowntomb.

ArchitectureofRenaissance:

ThearchitectureofRenaissancewasmorerelatedtothepastthatthepaintingsandsculptures.Dueto

thestrongrevivaloftheLatinculture,theRomanandRomanesquestyleshadactedasinspirations.The

greatestarchitectstookideasfromthemonasteriesandchurchesofthatera.OneexampleisFilippo

Brunellecschi,aFlorentinewhojourneyedtoRometostudytheancientbuildings(theirsecrets,beauty

and

grandeur).

Someofthetechniqueswere:

i) Squarefloorplans

ii) Domes(whichwereattimesusedasbelltowers)

iii)

Columns(withalotofheight)

iv) Archesandstairs

FinestexampleofthisisSt.PetersChurchinRome,whichwasbuiltunderthepatronageofPopeJulius

2ndandPopeLeo10th.Itwasdesignedbythemostcelebratedarchitects:Michelangelo,Raphael,

Bramante,

etc.

It

was

decorated

with

the

most

expensive

paintings

and

sculptures

and

remains

as

the

mostmagnificentchurchofalltime.

WhydidRenaissanceend?

Therearenoclearanswerstothis.Butthemostprobablereasonisthefactorthatgaveititsplaceinthe

veryfirst(economicsupremacy).Thiswasbroughtaboutby:


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i) Ageofexploration:Bynow,thediscoveryofthenewworldhadcomeintoplay.Anew

worldisdiscoveredintheearly16thcentury(America).Thisledtoashiftinthecentreof

tradefromtheMediterraneantotheAtlanticcities.SoeconomicsupremacyoftheItalians

startedtogodown.TheItalianmoney,whichactedasthelifeandbloodoftheculture,was

drainedawaybythisshiftasthismeantlesspatronage.

ii)

Politicalinstability:

Renaissance

was

brought

about

amidst

political

instability.

Now,

this

broughtaboutitsdownfall.Jealouslyamongcitystatesbroughtaboutdespotsanddictators

whoattimesusedgangsterstocontrolthepublic.Someofthefirstrulersbackatthestart

ofRenaissancewerestrongandcompetentandsotheyroseaboveallthepoliticalturmoil.

Buttheirsuccessorswereweakastheyweremoreinterestedinenjoyinglife.Sotheylost

control.AnexampleisPiero,Lorenzossuccessor,whobecomesthedictatorofFlorence.He

wascharming,butstupid.

iii) SelfishmiddleclassandSavonarolasrole:Renaissancemadepeopleacquirewealth

throughprovidingthemwithopportunities.Previously,theyhadtobelinkedtothechurch

ofnobility.ButinRenaissance,businessflourishedandcreatedthemiddleclass.However,

percentagewise

this

middle

class

was

small

in

number.

So

the

few

who

became

rich

were

notinterestedinfurtherpatronizingotherpoor,talentedpeople.Theydidnotlookback

andthusthesystemofuniversaleducationwasabsent.Sothemasspeoplewerestill

ignorantandsusceptibletosuperstitions.ThiswaswhenamancalledSavonarolacomesto

play. Hewasbornin1452andwasthesonofaspendthriftperson.Borninthecityof

Ferrara,hisearlyeducationwasmorefocusedonreligionthankstohismotherand

grandmother.At19,hefallsinlovewithhisneighborsdaughterfromanaristocraticfamily

andaftergettingturneddown,hebecomesamonkinamonastery.Duringthepolitical

turmoil,heactedasapreacherandwasbrilliantatit.Heattractedpeopletohissermons

andpreachedabouttheotherworldlygoods.Heestablishedstrictrulesandthusbeginsto

controlthecity.Hetookawayluxuryitemslikebooks,paintings,etc.termingthemasworks

ofdevil.HewaslatercondemnedandputtodeathbytheChurch.


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COMMERCIAL

REVOLUTION

Timeperiod:13thcenturytoearly18thcentury

Place:Europe

Prior

to

revolution:

Theeconomywaslandbasedandwasrunbymanorialsystem(estatesystem).InEnglandforexample,

farmerswouldworkunderknights.Notonlywouldthesefarmersworkonland,theywouldalsobe

summonedwhentheknightshadtofightfortheroyalties.Therewasbartersystemwhichwas

predominant.Thissystemcollapseddueto:

a) Riseofcapitalism

b) Blackdeath

FeudalismwasbeinggraduallyreplacedbysecularismandcapitalisminEurope.Secularismmeant:

a) Separationofreligionfrompolitics

b) Separationofreligionfromstates

OverviewofCommercialRevolution:

CommerceinEuropeincreasedinthestartoflatemiddleage.Thestimulusinthiscasewasvoyagesof

explorationbyEngland,Spain,etctoAsia,AmericaandAfrica.Onefeatureofthisperiodwaschartered

companywhichpromotedmercantilism(promotionofbusinessinordertogetricherinanationalway

believingthatthericheranationis,themorepowerfulitis.ThisledtheEuropeanstogooverseasfor

trade).Mercantilismwasasignificantdriverofcolonialism(colonyexistsforthebenefitofthemother

country).Bubbleswerecreatedtomonopolizethecompanyoftheparentcountry.Also,economic

specializationincreasedasnewinstitutionssuchasstatebanksandinsurancecompanieswerebeing

established.

Thecommercialrevolutionwasthensucceededbyindustrialrevolution.

CausesofCommercialRevolution:

a) Falloffeudalismandmanorialsystem

b) Gradualdemiseofthetradeguilds:Previously,businessusedtobecarriedoutthroughthese

tradeguildswiththepermissionoftheknights.Theywereassociationofmerchants,artisans,

blacksmiths,winemakers,bakers,etc.thatwouldcontrolthepracticeofthecraftsinaparticular

town.Themainfeatureofthemwasthattheyweremonopolisticinnatureandthattheirmain

objectivewasoftentoimprovetheeconomicandsocialconditionsofthemembers.Theguild

usedtocontrolhoursworkedandwagesandusedtotrainapprentices.Tobeapartoftheguild,

onehadtostartasapprentice,thengetpromotedtojourneymanandfinallybecomeguild

master.Guildsflourishedinbetween11thand16thcentury.Butnow,guildswerebeingreplaced


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Emergenceoftotalitarianism,nazismandfascism:

Interwarperiod

FailureofWWIandpeacetreatiestoresolvetheproblemsthatcausedthewarinthefirstplace

Unjusttreatiesledtopoliticalinstabilityandextremism

Emergence

of

the

three

ideologies

Totalitarianism:

Itisapoliticalsysteminwhichnearlyeveryaspectofpublicandprivatelifeisregulatedbythestate.

Someofitsfeaturesinclude:

a) Unlimitedpowerofstate

b) Rulebyasinglepoliticalparty

c) Rulingpartycontrolledbyoneperson(personalitycult)

d) Suspensionoffreedomanddemocraticrights

e)

Violent

suppression

of

all

opposition

Itcanbeofthreetypes:fascism,nazismandbolshevism.

Fascism:

Representsextremeright

Introduced

first

in

Italy

under

Mussolini

Reaction

of

Italian

rightists

against

rise

of

socialism

Weaknessofdemocraticforces

RisingpopularityofFascistpartyamongupperandmiddleclasses

Controlled

Italy

for

over

20

years

Containsallthefeaturesoftotalitarianism

Creationofacorporatestateinanattempttomergeeconomicandsocialinterestsof

differentclassesandgroupswiththeinterestsofthestate.

RiseofNazism:

DefeatinWWIandhumiliationbyVersaillestreaty

Failureofparliamentarydemocracy

Economicdifficultiesduetothewarandthegreatdepression

Rise

of

socialism

was

a

fear

held

by

the

German

upper

and

middle

class

Nazi

party

under

Hitler

took

power

in

1933

FeaturesofNazism:

Allthefeaturesoftotalitarianism

Racialpride(pureAryans)

Claimingtobethebestrace(Germans)


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Jews

condemned

as

inferior

people:

they

were

hated

and

were

to

be

physically

eliminated

Genocide

of

Jews

(Holocaust):

5.6

million

to

5.9

million

of

them

killed

including

1.5

million

children

Differencebetweenfascismandnazism:

Both

were

essentially

Fascist

ideologies

Nazismwasamoredevelopedandextremeversion

Militarism:

Adoptionofmilitarismasstatepolicybytotalitarianismideologies:warisseenasthesolutionto

allproblems

Militarypowergiventhehighestprioritysuppressionofliberty

Chauvinism:

Extreme

form

of

nationalism

Promoted

by

the

Nazis:

Claim

of

German

racial

supremacy

Usedasadangerousweaponfordominatingothernations

CausesofWWII:

Unresolvedconflictbetweenoldandnewimperialistcountries

FailureofthetreatyofVersailles

AggressivepoliciesfollowedbyGermanyandItalyrapidincreaseofmilitarystrength

Lackoftrustandcooperationamongantifascistforces

Policy

of

appeasement

WWII:

Germany

attacked

Poland

on

Sep

1,

1939

BritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanyonSep3,1939

GermanyattackedUSSRinJune,1941

Conclusion:

Totalitarianism:extremelyharmfultohumancivilization,violenceandsufferingfrompeopleall

around

the

world

WWII:55millionpeoplekilledandover1000billionUSDofeconomiclosses

Explosionoftwoatomicbombs

Broughtinnewphaseofcivilization


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Reformation: Breakup of the Church

At the open of the 16thcentury, Roman Catholic Church was the most important organization of the

Western Europe. Every person was born in the church. The language was Latin and the churches were

conducted by this language. The pope was the Head of the Church. He was the supreme lawgiver, thesupreme judge and the supreme administrator. He gave edicts/bulls/decrees. He could give exemption

from religious rules. He was the ultimate judge of religious lawsuits. He was the supreme administrator

of the church.

Under his supreme authority, there was an elaborate organization for administration. Under the pope,

there were cardinals (selected by the pope). Together they were called Sacred College of Cardinals. They

elected the next Pope. Before 1586, the number of cardinals was 53. In 1586, the Pope decreed that the

number of cardinals should not exceed 70. In this hierarchy, the arch bishop was after the cardinal. Heused to be the head of the province and the head of a cathedral of a large city. His duty was to establish

religious laws.

After this, the bishops headed the sub-division of a province. They were also appointed by the pope.

After them, the heads of the village-level churches were called priests. The clergy used to do their work

through sacraments. It is a power to clean up wrongdoings, given by the God/

There were seven Sacraments. These were:

I. Baptism

II. Confirmation

III. Penance

IV. Marriage

V. Ordination

VI. Eucharist

VII.

Extreme Unction

Baptism is done to clean the previous sins. Through confirmation, you are confirmed as a member of the

church. You are freed from the sins that you have done after Baptismthis process is called penance.

Extreme Unction is when death is confirmed for a person, a soul is prepared for the next life through

cleansing.


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Marriage and ordination were optional, the other five were mandatory for every Christian. There priest

is rendering a religious tie in the marital bond through a marriage. Ordination is the process of entering

into a church and becoming a priest.

The people who disobeyed the laws of the church were excommunicated from the church. He would bedeprived of the benefits of Sacraments. At times they were caught and killed by burning. They didnt

have protection against the Church.

Age of Reformation:

At later stages, renaissance was followed by another movement called reformation.

1stPhase: Protestant Revolution (started 1517)

2ndPhase: Catholic/Counter Reformation (around 1560)

Between these two phases, there was reformation. These two together are called reformation.

There is a relationship between renaissance and reformation. There were certain areas where

renaissance and reformation were working together. But the statement that reformation is a part

(religious aspect) of renaissance would be historically inappropriate.

There were economic causes like capitalism, the rise of the middle class, etc. in both these movements.

In both the movements, people tried to go back to the original roots. Despite these resemblances, the

reformation was not merely a religious aspect of the renaissance. The essence of renaissance was to

enjoy this life. The essence of reformation was to think about the spiritual life, rather than the content

of the flesh. During reformation, they thought human nature is generally corrupt. But the renaissance

people thought human nature is good. The renaissance people emphasized on reasoning, tolerance, etc.

but the reformers emphasized on faith and conformity. In this aspect, we can say that reformation was

not a part of renaissance.

How it started:

In reality, there were more to reformation rather than only religious aspects. There were new political

and economic aspects related to the reformation.


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Religious causes:

The thing that triggered this movement was the abuses that were going on in the catholic churches.

Nobody would even question this fact and people knew that massive abuses were going on in the

churches. For example, people appointed as clergy people were not eligible for those posts; they wereignorant about what they had to do, they didnt even know the Latin language and the Gods prayer.

Moreover, a large number of the church people lead a scandalous life.

The popes were leading grand lives. The cardinals were keeping taverns, gaming horses, etc. After the

renaissance, people started questioning these. There were also a vowof Chastity that had to be taken

by the church people. Pope Alexander the Sixth had 8 illegitimate children.

Pope used to sell religious offices to other people. These people try to earn back this money after

getting into these posts through corruption. Another thing was dispensation this is a kind of

exemption from the law of church. This had to be taken from the local religious leaders. The church

people used this exemption for their economic benefits. Example: exemption from fasting, having an

illegitimate marriage, etc. Sale of dispensations, abuses from the church, all of these led to a terrible

situation.

The Sale of Indulgences:

It was the most vicious abuse. Indulgence is remission of all or part of your sins. After getting

indulgence, you can get exemption from the punishment of your sins.

Treasure of merit was drawn up in the 13thcentury. Jesus and the other saints did many good works ad

earned excess merits from God. The pope could draw from these merits and use it for the people who

contributed for the betterment of the church, for strengthening the church.

The renaissance pope had moved forward from the core and they had insatiable greed. They saw that

sale of indulgences could be a profitable business. Leo X almost gave this right to banking/financing

houses to sell these indulgences. They presented this indulgences to the ignorant people as if it were a

passport to heaven.

By the 16thcentury, this became a nefarious and gigantic abuse of the common people. Some people

realized that what the popes were doing was not right. The churches also misused the Veneration of

Sacred Relics.


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It was an important material of Catholic Worship. Objects used by Virgin Mary, Jesus, etc. had

miraculous power this was believed by the catholic people. Some people wanted to earn benefit from

these. People were easily convinced into these and thus were cheated. These people who were cheating

the common gullible people, were somehow connected to the church. Therefore, the rage was against

the church.

But these abuses didnt lead to the split of the church, some pious Catholics were already taking

measured against these abuses. The main reason behind the split was the clash between the main 2

theologies. One was Augustinian Theologythe main idea of it wasthere is an omnipotent God.

Nothing happens without the divine decree. Human nature is depraved, he is dependent on God. So

the main idea of this theology wasyou are helpless. You cant do anything to change your fate that is

pre-determined by God.Whatever we are doing, we are doing it for the other world. It was prevalent in

countries like Germany, where progress was little bit slower. Gradually, in the abundant cities of Europe,

this theory was replaced by a more modern theory. With the progress, this pessimistic philosophy was

replaced. This Augustinian theory made the presence of organized church unnecessary as there wont

be any urge of the people to go to church. No sinner would go to the priest to confess his sins.

So, there was a new way of thinking, by Peter Lombard and St Thomas Aquinas. It said, Man was given

by God, a freedom of reasoning to choose good or evil. Man cannot do this unaided. They need some

support from heavenly grace. Sacraments were means of communication of the grace ofGod. Except

for Baptism, you need a priest for all other sacraments.

Protestant Reformation was a rebellion against the second set of theology. The misuse of power

affected the conscience of common people. This 2ndtheology was never accepted officially. Reformers

wanted to go back to the old system (Augustinian Theology)

Political Causes of Protestant Revolution:

There were 2 causes: Growth of nationalism, and Rise of Despotic Government.

There was a growing sense of independence among the people outside Italy. Pope now increasingly

came to be viewed upon as a foreigner. They started to feel that the pope was interfering. Statute of

Provisors and Praemunire. was passed in the parliament in the middle of the 14thcentury in England.

For this growth of nationalism, there was better control of the churches of their own country.


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Pragmatic Sanction of Bourgeoisie was passed by the King of France. He thus abolished all the Papal

powers in his country and this power was transferred to civil magistrates.

For a despotic ruler, it was in his gain if the power of church got weakened. These rulers were

supporting the Protestants and the national sentiments. These rulers were willing to work to cut downthe power of the church.

Economic Causes:

The foremost cause was the possession of the wealth of the churches. They also wanted to tax the

wealth of the Pope. At the time, the church was the largest land owner of Western Europe. One-third of

the land of Germany and one-fifth in France were owned by the church. These lands were granted to

church by the kings, nobles, etc. and also came as a gift from common pious people.

Legacy hunting was also a favorite work of the church. Pope Alexander passed a decree that No Will

will be accepted if it is not made with the presence of a priest. These wills were made at the most

vulnerable time (at the death bed). This accumulation of wealth became a great possession of the

church.

Under the rules of despotic rulers, there were more wars and they needed a lot of money to maintain

the huge defense force. The church used to enjoy the wealth without any tax. It transmitted to the

common people and their tax burden increased. So the negative feeling continue to develop in the

minds of the common people.

There were some papal taxes as well. One tax was called Peters pence and it was imposed on all

Christian population. There was another tax called Tithe it means 1/10thof the income of the

Christian people needed to be to the local church for maintenance. There were numerous taxes other

than these two. These taxes were collected from different countries and were sent to Italy. This was

spent behind the lavish lives of the pope and the church people of Italy.

Why did the Protestant revolution begin in Germany?

I. Germany was somewhat backward during the time. Renaissance touched it lightly. So, the

legacy of the dark ages remained stronger in Germany. Therefore the dependence on religion

was also high. So, the society was more conservative.

II.

The Catholic practices were very high, and so were the abuses.


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III. Germany didnt have a strong ruler back then and it was divided as well. Therefore they couldnt

protest against those abuses.

IV. Church in Germany had the largest amount of land and it constituted the best agricultural land.

During this time the issue of transition (money economy, wage economy, etc.) was coming up.

The lower classes and the upper middle classes were suffering. But nobody could protest against it. By

the dawn of the 16thcentury, Germany was right for a religious revolution. All they needed was a leader

to guide them. Then Martin Luther came up as the leader.

Martin Luther was born in 1483. His parents were peasants. His upbringing was not ideal. He was

whipped at home for trivial mistakes. He was at times whipped until blood came out. There was a

picture of demons and witches in his mind. Some of the superstitions stayed until the end of his life.

At the age of 18, he went to University of Erfurt to study law. He was a hard working student. In 1505,

an incident changed his life. He was overtaken by a storm. He thought that God was going to strike him

dead. He vowed that he would spend his life as a monk if he were alive. Then he joined an Augustinian

Church. Then he started to meditate about his life. He thought that he had done numerous sins and then

tried to engage his spiritual activities.

He spent his days without food and tortured himself. But these increased his aguish. He found that faith

and faith alone, was more important than the salvation of soul. In 1517, John Tetzel, a Dominican Friar,

appeared in Germany as the hawker indulgence. He sold indulgences as tickets to heaven. Luther was

appalled at the brazen fraud. At a statement; he hung a notice against sale of indulgence on October 21,

1517. He also sent them some of his friends. Now all over Germany he was considered to be a leader

sent by God against these clergy.

At the time, Pope decided to take action and ordered the head of Augustinian Church to make Luther

withdraw his statement in 1518. Luther refused to do so. More and more people asked different

questions to Luther and thus different statements came up which was against the current practices of

Church.

Now the church wanted to persecute Luther but it didnt happen for 2 reasons. Pope was busy with the

elections within the church and the upper middle class was supporting Martin Luther. Luther was

excommunicated from the church.


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Ultimately, a different church was set up. It was called Lutherian Church/Protestant Church. Luther

replaced Latin with German as the Church Language. He removed the celestial hierarchy. He removed all

the sacraments except for Baptism and Eucharist. He gave the priest permission to marry. Luther

emphasized on faith rather than good work for salvation. Theory of Transubstantiation was replaces

with Theory of Onsubstantiation. In Old Catholic belief, it was said that church would be supreme over

state. Luther abandoned this theory.

This particular form of Protestantism was not very famous outside its native land. It spread in Norway,

Denmark, Switzerland, etc.

After Luther, the famous leader of Protestantism was Ulrich Zwingli. He took the holy order at the age of

22. He entered there for his literary interests. In 1519, he went through a change. The Black

Death/Plague in Europe and the impacts of Luther had an effect on him. Ultimately, he was killed in1529. He was considered the father of Protestantism in Switzerland.


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CALVINISM

Ulrich Zwingli

- An independent reform in Switzerland by Ulrich Zwingli.

- Born on New Years Day, 1484 in a village of Toggenburg.

-

Ulrich had no childhood problems like Luther rather he was free from grinding poverty andspiritual struggles.

- He took a masters degree from the University if Basel in 1506.

-

His deep interest in the classics caused him to become a priest as he would be able to continue

his humanistic studies.

- Was in charge of Glarus for ten years, then Einsiedeln.

- He didnt attack indulgences and pilgrimages with the impetuosity of Luther, however, but

rather sought to ridicule them out of existence.

- 1518 he became the vicar at the cathedral church of Zurich.

- Obtaining immense power and influence from his position, in 1519 he forced Bernard Samson (a

seller of indulgence) to leave Zurich.

-

While he probably would have denied any influence from Luthers work, Ulrichs work of reform

bears the impress of Luthers ideas.

- In 1523 he debated with the city council over sixty-seven points of reform: asserted the sole

authority of the Bible and affirmed the doctrine of salvation by faith, rejected all characteristics

peculiarities of the catholic creed such as the papacy, mass, invocation of saints, fasts, festivals,

pilgrimages, monastic orders, the priesthood, auricular confession, absolution, indulgences,

penances, and purgatory.

- He won over the councils support and major changes were brought to Zurich.

- Zwingli and Luther were in agreement over all doctrines except Lords Supper.

- Luther believed in the literal meaning of the statement This is my body.

-

Zwingli believed it as only a relic of Catholicism.- The both never agreed even after a discussion in Marburg (1529) after which Luther said that

they were of different spirit even when Zwingli extended a hand of fellowship.

- There has always been hostility between the Protestants and Catholics, while a treaty was made

in 1529, the imminent war broke out in 1531, and Zwingli was defeated on October 11 same

year. Ulrich died in the war.

John Calvin

-

Calvin was born on July 10, 1509, in Noyon, France, where his father Gerald Calvin held the

posts of secretary of Noyon bishopric and attorney for the cathedral chapter.

- Calvin was destined to be a priest by his father.

-

Calvins clerical education was funded by two incomes granted to him until his father decided he

should study law.

- Though legal studies was uncongenial to him, it left a mark on his mind which could be seen in

form and content of his theology.

- After the death of his father in 1531, he started studying humanism. He published a

commentary on Senecas Da Clementia in 1532.


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- After the study Calvin had a sudden conversion after which he severed his connections with

the church in 1534.

- He shifted to Switzerland and spent early month of 1536 in Basel publishing The institutes of

the Christian religion, which helped him rank among reformers.

- The first edition had only 6 chapters but contained the basic foundation of Calvinism, in 1559, a

later edition had 80 chapters. For materials, Calvin was indebted to Luther.- 1541 Calvin even translated the book from Latin to French in order to win over Francis I,

however it failed and the book was declared as heretical and burned in Paris in 1542.

-

Calvin and Luther both insisted upon the sole authority of the Bible in matters of faith and

conduct, upon sinfulness of man and his impotence to save himself, and upon doctrine of

justification by faith.

- They differed in, Calvin sought to suppress everything not directly sanctioned in the Bible, and

Luther permitted everything not specifically forbidden in it.

-

Calvin followed the Old Testament and concept of Gods majesty while Luther followed the New

Testament and the concept of love for God.

- Calvin took a midway interpretation of Lords Supper, teaching a spiritual presence.

-

The central and peculiar dogma of Calvinism is the doctrine of predestination. This doctrine

states that some people are predestined to be in salvation while the rest was to suffer for their

sins.

- Calvin determined that those who are predestined for salvation would be those who zealously

endeavor to fulfill to the last iota of moral laws as in the Bible.

- However their duty doesnt stop there but they are supposed to reform others around. Thus a

Calvinist has a divine mission.

-

Calvin went to Geneva in 1536, where a reformer named William Farel induced him to stay and

create a protestant community (a model Christian community).

- Together they were so severe that a rebellion in 1538 caused both to leave Geneva. However in

1541 Calvin was requested to come back as Geneva was filled with disorder.- In September 1541, Calvin entered Geneva again and under his supervision the famous

Ecclesiastical Ordinances were prepared consisting of 6 (later 12) clergyman and twelve elders

to supervise the moral of the citizens of Geneva.

- Geneva became a theocracy under Calvins rule, who formulated the laws, founded entirely on

the Bible to regulate the life of every citizen in its minutest details. The Bible was the final

authority not only in religion but also politics.

- Activities such as church attendance, behavior, dress, amusements, and luxuries were all

regulated by the law.

- Women were imprisoned for wearing an exaggerated headdress, dancing was prohibited,

musicians were permitted to stay if they dont play dance music, and plays were to only be of

subjects related to the Bible. Parents were forbidden from giving names of saints and legendary

heroes.

- Geneva became outwardly a city if God.


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LUTHERANISM

MartinLutherwasnotinitiallyareformerbutratheraconservativeChristian,withthefearof

Godinstilledinhimdeeply.

BorninEisleben(villageinSaxony),in10thNovember,1483,sonofpeasantminer.

Hischildhoodwasnthappybecauseofseveritybothathomeandschool.Mainreasonthat

strictChristianlawswerethere(legallaws)

HencehewascontinuouslytorturedbyaneverpresentfearofGod,whomheconceivedasthe

implacablejudgewhoinexorablypunisheseveryinfractionofHislaws.

Hisfatherwantedhimtobealawyerinordertoincreasetheirsocialstatus.

At18,hewenttoErfurtandtookadegreeofMasterofArtsin1505andthenpursuelaw.

ButsincehestillwantedtopleaseGod,hewentandjoinedAugustinianFriars,amendicant

orderofmonks.

AtthemonasteryhedevotedhimselftoGodbytheactivitiesoffasting,prayers,andscourging.

Howeverhewasstillnotatpeace.PeacefinallycametohimasaresultofhisstudyoftheBible

andwritingsofSt.Augustine.

When

he

learned

that

man

is

saved

from

the

wrath

of

God

not

by

faith

and

good

works,

but

solelybyfaithinGodsmercyandgrace.

Howeverthisdidntbringamonumentalchangeinhislifeandhekeptonhisway.

1n1508,MartinwascalledtoUniversityofWittenberg,wherehetaughtfirstlyphilosophyand

latertheBible.

1511hewenttoRomewherehewasdisturbedbytheabuseshesawintheHolyCity.Although

hisfaithwasntshaken,butthevisitlateronrousedhimtolaunchavigorousattackontheevils

henoticed.

InRomehepursuedtheusualcourseofvisitingthemostcelebratedshrinesinordertotake

advantageoftheindulgencesgrantedtopiouspilgrims.(Talkabouttheparentdeadthing).

1515appointedtotheofficeofdistrictvicarandplacedinchargeof11monasteries.Hewould

havelived

alife

of

apious

Catholic

had

it

not

been

for

some

provocations.

Provocation1:JohnTetzel,aDominicanFriar,nearWittenbergwassellingindulgenceswithout

penitenceofthebuyer.

IndulgencesaccordingtotheChurcharegrantedtothosewhoparticipateinacrusadeorfor

actsofpersonalpiety.Howeverlateronitwasbeingsoldformoney.

ForLutherthissaleofpromiseofforgiveness,grace,andheavenwithoutinsistenceupon

penitence,wasanunmitigatedevilagainstwhichhehadtoact.

Sohevoicedhisconcernsbythe95thesesandhepostedonthedoorofCastleChurchin

WittenbergonNovember31,1517.

The95theseshadanelectriceffectonthemasspublicandwasprintedanddistributed

throughoutGermany

with

unprecedented

speed.

Aheateddisputearousedasonepartyfeltsympathywhileotherwerefaithfulchurchmen.

Consequences:ThepopewouldhaveignoredthisasmonkishquarrelbutlatercalledLutherto

Rometoanswerforhisarrogance.

ThroughmediationbyFredericktheWise(electorofSaxony),thetrialwassetonGermansoil

andLutherhadtogotoAugsburgin1518.

HemetwithCardinalCarjetanwhotoldhimtoretracthisopinionsandLutherrefused.

ThencamecardinalMiltitzwhomadeadealofkeepingbothpartiesquiet.


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Provocation2:Dr.EckchallengedLuthertoadebate(famousLeipzigDisputationof1519).

ThedebatelastedforaweekinwhichDr.EckgotLuthertoadmitthatburningHuss(burnedby

theCouncilofConstancein1415)waswrong.

TheadmissionexposedLuthertochargeofheresy.

EckappliedforabullofexcommunicationwhichwasansweredbytheChurch.

June

16,

1520

the

Church

condemned

forty

two

propositions

taken

from

Luthers

writings,

orderedtoburnallofhisbooks,forbadehimtopreach,anddemandedrecantationofhiserrors

within60daysunderpainofexcommunication.

LutherburnedthebullpubliclyandseveredtieswiththeChurch(indicationofhowstrongthe

resistancetoPopewasinsomepartsofGermany).

Throughthemeansoftheprintingpresshewrotemanythesesbutthreeofthemstoodout

publishedin1520.

Theses1:AddresstotheNobilityoftheGermanNation.AcallforGermanstouniteand

demolishthepowerofthepope.PoliticalandsocialmanifestationofLutheranReformation.

CreationofGermanNationalChurch,abolitionofmendicantorders,theimprovementofmoral

conditionsamongstpriests,reductioninnumberofholydays.

Theses

2:On

the

Babylonian

Captivity

of

the

Church.

To

search

criticism.

Rejected

all

sacraments

butbaptismandLordsSupper.AttackedthreeabusesofLordsSupper1)withdrawalofthecup

fromthelaity2)doctrineoftransubstantiation3)teachingthatmassissacrifice.

Theses3:TheFreedomofaChristianMan.Expoundedtheideaofpriesthoodofallbelievers.

Conditionswerefavorableforthemovement.CharlesVwhocouldhavestoppeditwastoobusy

withaffairsofhisvastempire.

Bythetimehedid(1521),Luthercouldnolongerbecondemnedwithoutahearing.Hewas

summonedtotheDietofWormsthesameyear.

ThejourneytoWormswasinnatureofatriumphaseveryoneacclaimedandencouragedhim.

AtWormshewasaskedtwoquestions;didyouwritethesebooks?Willyouretractthem?

He

answered

to

first

one

and

then

was

given

24hrs

for

the

second

answer

in

which

he

said

no.

OnhisreturnhewastakentoWartburgcastlebyFredericktheWiseforhissafetyandstayed

thereforayear.

Therehewrotelettersofadviceandencouragement,commentaryonthePsalms,andOn

MonasticVows.HealsowrotetheGermanversionoftheBible.

HereturnedtoWittenbergtocalmdownaviolentmovementtakingplace.

1525LuthergotmarriedtoKatharinevonBora,anexnunwhohadrunawayfromaconvent

afterreadingOnMonasticVows.

LutherreturnedtohisoldlifeinWittenbergintheAugustinianMonastery.

HemadechangessuchasserviceswerenowinGerman(notLatin).Wrotetwosummariesofthe

Lutherandoctrinesforreligiouseducationofcommonpeople.

Till

1524

Lutheran

movement

gained

strength

in

Germany

but

later

lost

alot

of

its

support

due

to:

ThePeasantsWar:inwhichpeasantswerechallengingthenobilities,thoughtLutherwasgoing

tobetheirhero,triedtopassa12articledemand,thingsgotviolentandLutherleft,Luther

encouragedthenobilitiestokillpeasants,Lutherlostsupportofpeasantsandnobilityafterthe

war.


37/61


38/61

Counter Reformation:

By the year 1560, Protestantism had spread across Europe, Northern and Western Germany,

Scandinavian Countries, Scotland, Switzerland, Poland, etc. even in Italy and Spain, where Catholicism

was prevalent.

To regenerate Church and Attract people to Catholicism, the counter/catholic reformation started. And

it was very successful. Catholicism was again prevalent in northern and western Germany, Spain, Italy,

etc.

This reformation was started by the Pope through 3 agencies:

1. The Council of Trent:

it was a religious council for the priests. It was called in 1542 and sat after 21 years. It came upwith some concrete solutions in 1563. It had 2 streams of thinking. One was of the Popes he

was against any kind of compromise in issues of religion. It should provide specific answers to

Protestant questions. The rulers beliefs were different. These rulers didnt wasnt any

interruption in their ruling, there was politi

Documents

Overview of Europian History