ORIA Education

His tory & Her i tage

AREA 35

For centuries, rugs have been an integral part of life in

Tibet and every family has them. In this country of

practical people, rugs are intended to be functional

and utilitarian and in fact are often worn to shreds,

then replaced rather than repaired. A well-loved rug

might be copied or cut up with its usable pieces reas-

signed to a mat or used under a saddle. There is a

Tibetan saying: one man, one rug; each man and each

rug has a life expectancy.

The lack of “heirlooms” and the plunder that fol-

lowed the Chinese invasion of Tibet in the late 1950s

are difficulties often cited by scholars seeking the his-

tory of Tibetan rug making. Yet evidence exists from

folkloric and religious citings which go back at least

to the 7th century in legends, including one told about

a lama who meditated on a square rug decorated with

sacred symbols; to actual rug fragments carbon dated

to the 15th century.

The story of woolcraft began very early accord-

ing to Kesang Tashi, the author of Of Wool and

Loom—The Tradition of Tibetan Rugs, owner of

InnerAsia Rugs based in Hanover, NH and founder of

the Khawachen Arts and Craft Center in Lhasa. “Look

at the geography: very high up, average elevation

11,000 feet and the land is desolate and harsh, cold,”

he said. “In order for Tibetans to survive they were

endowed with vast stretches of grassland as well as

sheep and yaks. Very early on they learned how to

domesticate the sheep in order to get the wool,” said

Mr. Tashi. “Yak hair is used to make tents that are

very thick and heavy, practically permanent houses

for nomads. From that very functional, rudimentary

shelter of flatweave tents, the flatweave gradually

evolved and branched out.”

11000000 MMOONNKKSS OONN RRUUGGSSBuddhism, introduced from the Indian subconti-

nent in the 7th century, unified Tibet and became the

official state religion in the 8th century. Now rugs

were not only used in the home, but also in Buddhist

monasteries. There, signs of deterioration on a rug

might indicate where a stand for texts had rested, or

where a lama’s heel had laid in repose while studying

that text. There might be holes where monks sat again

and again to meditate.

As monasteries proliferated, especially between

the 16th and 19th centuries, so did the manufacture of

rugs and sacred Tibetan Buddhist art. Some rugs

found in monasteries are thought to have been made

in China for sale in Tibet; in fact, rug production for

export to Tibet might have been the impetus to the

development of rug making in China.

IINN TTIIBBEETT,, OONNEE MMAANN,, OONNEE RRUUGGby Ellyne Raueber

OPPOSITE, TOP Two Tibetan weavers at work, creating a rug. Courtesy of InnerAsia Rugs, Hanover, NH/Khawachen, Lhasa, Tibet.

OPPOSITE, BOTTOM Craft spinning in Tibet. Courtesy of InnerAsia Rugs, Hanover, NH/Khawachen, Lhasa, Tibet


36 Summer 2013

It is probable that by the 19th century many

monasteries had organized workshops that met some

of the monasteries’ own needs. Weavings, which in

wealthy monasteries were frequently replaced, were

also purchased, or donated in lieu of taxes. Monks and

lamas enjoyed these traditionally beautiful works in

their private rooms as well as in the great halls, which

often held thousands of monks at a time. Some esti-

mate that there were some 300,000 monks in Tibet at

any given time.

WWAANNGGDDEENN AANNDD DDRRUUMMZZEETsukdruks are blankets that were woven by

nomadic women who used horizontal backstrap

looms to produce narrow strips which were then sewn

together. “The tsukdruk is probably one of the earliest

wool weaves having some kind of a pile,” said Mr.

Tashi. He explained that tsukdruks gradually evolved

into wangdens which then evolved into drumses, the

Tibetan word for rug.

Wangden rugs, too heavy for horizontal looms

and therefore woven on vertical looms, are character-

ized by their square shape, looser weave, thicker pile,

“warp-faced” rug backing, and often, a dense and

shaggy fringe on all four sides. These early Tibetan

pile rugs were in great demand by monasteries, valued

for the insulation and warmth they provided to medi-

tating monks of Buddhist—or even Bon, pre-

Buddhist—traditions. “If I were a wangden weaver,”

said Mr. Tashi, “and I organized some relatives to

weave wangdens to sell, instead of just for family use,

the obvious place to go to sell is the monastery

because they had the money and would buy in bulk.

Many wangdens ended up in the monastery, which is

why you see many with Buddhist symbols.”

The wangden rug is named after its town of ori-

gin, Wangden. “That is further west of the Gyantse,

the area probably the most renowned when the

drumse or the pile carpet as we know it began to flour-

ish,” explained Mr. Tashi. “It all started very simply:

ABOVE Tiger rug, Tibet, late 19th century. Sold April 1, 2003.Photograph courtesy of Sotheby’s, Inc. ©


AREA 37

less color, very little design, and a primitive loose

weave that gradually evolved from a flatweave to

wangden. Then it got to a stage called “knife cut,”

then it jumped to drumse characterized by a tighter

weave, a more complex design, and more colors.”

Some drumse have fringe and a soft warp back-

ing, popular elements that added extra warmth. Mr.

Tashi’s antique Tibetan rug collection, now part of the

Newark Museum’s extensive Arts of Asia Collection,

has a few pieces of drumse weave with, he said, “a

look of warm and frizzy frills on the edge because the

weaver really liked it. The beauty of Tibetan rugs is

that it is very individualized and people weave what

they like.”

Logical deduction as well as historical records

can date the drumse to as far back as the 11th century

when Tibet’s famous poet, Melarepa, used the word.

“Melarepa taught by bursting into spontaneous verses

about impermanence, among other things. He

referred, in this incredible heightened sense, to final-

ly meeting his Guru. He described how the Guru was

sitting on a khaden, the stuffed cushion, and covering

that was a drumse,” said Mr. Tashi.

SSIITT,, SSLLEEEEPP,, MMEEDDIITTAATTEELong, narrow runners, often with defined squares

to show where each monk should sit, were laid out in

monastery assembly halls where services were held;

while high ranking monks sat on three-foot square

drumses or wangdens used on low platforms or on

thrones. Borrowing from a Chinese tradition, rugs

with auspicious designs were used to cover pillars in

monasteries, while coarsely-knotted rugs covered

entryways. Less common are purely decorative rugs

found hanging on monastery walls and covering pil-

lows.

Some say that in monasteries, the sacred motifs

were used to ground and protect the monks; while in

homes they provided uplifting decoration and

warmth. “It is subject to interpretation,” said Mr.

Tashi. “For laity to sit on a serious religious symbol

would appear to be disrespectful, but if the Dalai

Lama is sitting on a rug made for him with all of these

symbols, it was meant for him; so it then becomes a

question of doctrine.”

The practical 3x6 drumse, used as a sleeping rug,

is found throughout Tibet. “In, for lack of other

words, a middle class family, there would be multiple

rugs. In the sitting room they would have minimally

three beds and possibly up to six or eight beds. They

would each have a pair of rugs on top of them,” Mr.

Tashi said. He explained that the bed would double as

a daytime sofa with the addition of two three-foot-

long gabneys, or stuffed backrests the covers of which

were rugs. Wealthy homes might have six, seven or

eight rugs piled one atop another.

SSAADDDDLLEE UUPPSaddle sets, blankets and horse trappings—acces-

sories and adornments used on horses, mules and

yaks—were another rug category to be found in

everyday life. They often featured medallions and

“frog feet” in central patterns. Saddle sets, rarely

found intact today, allowed for one rug under the sad-

dle and one on top as a cushion for the rider. After

Britain invaded Tibet in 1904, saddle rugs were fash-

ioned in a butterfly shape with rounded edges, just

like the cloths used by British troops.

Mr. Tashi noted that today, Tibetans who are

financially successful are buying horses and equip-

ping them with traditional Tibet saddle rugs. There

also is a revival of polo (polo is the Tibetan word for

ball). With antique saddle rugs prohibitively expen-

sive, Mr. Tashi is producing a collection at the

Khawachen Arts and Craft Center in Lhasa, which he

opened in the hope of continuing the tradition of

Tibetan rug weaving and other Tibetan arts. Created

for the domestic market, saddle rugs will be shown

this year at a rug exhibition in Amdo.


38 Summer 2013

WWEEAAVVIINNGGTibetans use a distinctive weft wrapping tech-

nique. There are fragments of rugs from the third and

fourth century found elsewhere that have a loop simi-

lar to that used in Tibet, but none in more recent his-

tory, except in Tibet. Yarn is looped over a gauge rod

once and then looped around, usually, two warps; then

around the rod again. The size of the rod establishes

the gauge/length of the pile. When a row of loops is

completed, a sharp instrument is used to cut the yarn

along the groove where the rod meets the warp. The

weaver can then remove the rod that is no longer

wrapped in the yarn. The result is a row of pile that

resembles overlapping shingles. With some excep-

tions for very early rugs, vertical looms are used.

No one really knows why Tibetans use this

method. Fragments from non-Tibetan rugs like some

found in Eastern Turkestan, use similar looping meth-

ods; but those methods were discontinued, except in

Tibet, where they continue to differentiate Tibetan

rugs from other rugs.

CCOOLLOORRThe Himalayas are beautiful, but not colorful so

color in objects was important. In fact, the use of

brighter color is one tool used to determine if a rug is

Tibetan rather than Chinese. A variety of natural dyes

were originally used including madder for reds, the

rare orange, and browns; lac for brighter reds like

crimson and magenta; and imported indigo for blues.

Walnut husks were used for browns, especially when

madder was unavailable. Color sources for yellow, in

an array of plant dyes, were rhubarb leaves; possibly

turmeric and safflower; and saffron, also used for

orange. Where designs were minimalist, abrash might

have been used as a design element.

With the advent of synthetic dyes, colors became

more vibrant. Synthetic dyes were easier to use, espe-

cially when deep, rich colors were the goal, which

they were in this colorless terrain where combinations

of red, blue and yellow were often used. The change

occurred between 1885 and 1890. Some believe that

the use of synthetic dye differentiates antique from

more modern Tibetan rugs. It should be noted, how-

ever, that the introduction of synthetic dye was

uneven, with some weavers in Lhasa, Shigatse and

Gyantse using natural dyes into the 1940s and some

synthetic dyes not reaching some villages until many

years later.

DDEESSIIGGNNAntique Tibetan rug designers had more freedom

than artists who were creating sacred works. They

reimagined religious symbols; copied existing designs

from fragments or from memory, leaving room for the

error of inventiveness; and created one-of-a-kind rugs

by combining design elements in new ways, some-

times arriving at the atypical and original. Designs

were inspired by Buddhism, mythology and textiles.

Rugs intended for Buddhist Monasteries most

often followed a set of design rules applied to reli-

gious art and therefore would not be used for anything

other than ritual practice. They featured Buddhist

symbols like the double dorje (thunderbolt and/or dia-

mond in Sanscrit) embodying the force of the thun-

derbolt and the indestructibility of the diamond; rep-

resenting firmness of wisdom and spiritual power.

The endless knot is equated to the cycle of life; and

the swastika, later defiled by the Nazis, is the Sanskrit

symbol for auspicious.

OPPOSITE, TOP Geometric Pattern Carpet; Tibet; early 20th century; wool warp and weft; 27/27.25 x 27.875/27.75 in.; Collectionof Robert and Lois Baylis. Photograph courtesy of The Rubin Museum of Art.

OPPOSITE, BOTTOM Checkerboard rug, Tibet, late 19th century, 2.10x5.8. Sold for $16,000 on April 15, 1998 at Sotheby’s.Photograph courtesy of Sotheby’s, Inc.©.


AREA 39


40 Summer 2013

Rug makers borrowed, reinterpreted and applied

to rugs textile designs from other cultures; or from

their own textiles, like tigma, a Tibetan tie-dyed

design of crosses that could be used to create a beau-

tifully fluid field pattern. “It is in textile, but then it

got reinterpreted in pile. You would get tigma and tex-

tile pieces from the backstrap,” said Mr. Tashi. “For a

long time now in Tibet tigma has been called gyalo—

which literally means return from China—because it

was originally exported abroad and then, because it

was so successful there, the Tibetans said, ‘wow, now

I see why: it is so elegant;’ so they began using the

design again.”

Weaving also took place on the large estates of

the landed gentry. An increase in trade at around the

end of the 19th century brought economic growth and

wealth to monasteries and land owning families who

often then emulated Chinese lifestyle. “In the 1920s

and ‘30s there was a rug weaving renaissance. Rugs

were being woven all the time, but that is when rugs

went up a notch in terms of complexity, choice of

design and color, and became very ornamental,” said

Mr. Tashi. “Aristocrats would have weavers from

Gyntse and elsewhere come to their estates in Lhasa

in the fall and weave so that the rugs would be ready

for the New Year.”

The rugs were objects of beauty that also added to

a household’s wealth. Rugs could be taken from a

stored surplus when there was a need to give an

important gift, something that had the cachet of hav-

ing been woven on the estate. It was not uncommon

for the head of the household to get involved, select-

ing a brocade with designs thought translatable to

rugs. “Many fancied themselves designers and would

work with the weavers,” said Mr. Tashi. “These tex-

tiles came from China. Ming design seems to have

been favored by Tibetans because of the very good

relations they had at that time and because they had

the quality of simple elegance.”

Mary Jo Otsea, Worldwide Director of the

Carpets Department at Sotheby’s, also mentioned

rugs made at this time. “A lot of them were made at

BELOW Leopardskin Carpet; Tibet; early 20th century; wool warp and weft; 62 x 34 in.; Collection of Robert and Lois Baylis.Courtesy of The Rubin Museum of Art.


AREA 41

the turn of the last century and have fugitive dyes that

bleed,” she said, “but they can be charming and pret-

ty.” Ms. Otsea does not feel that these rugs are finely

woven or wear particularly well. “But, she said, “we

did sell a checkerboard rug in 1998 for $16,000.”

AATT TTHHEE RRUUBBIINNIn the summer of 2011, The Rubin Museum of

Art, New York, NY which holds one of the world’s

most important collections of Himalayan art, present-

ed Patterns of Life, The Art of Tibetan Carpets. The

carpets in this exhibit date from the early 20th centu-

ry and show the beauty of the rugs woven during the

rug renaissance noted by Mr. Tashi. A wonderful

small, square drumse with the talismanic crosses of

the tigma design is represented, as is a carpet with a

floral motif, popular in Tibetan design.

In the category of geometric designs, the medal-

lion became the most common design feature, usually

using a three-medallion motif—with the central

medallion being different from the other two—that

originated in East Turkistan; but sometimes featuring

only one naturalistic central medallion. The checker-

board, another common Tibetan rug design, also

serves as an astrological chart and can be found on

monastery walls. The design, found on tsukdruk

looped pile strips as well, may be one of the oldest

Tibetan rug designs.

AANNIIMMAALLSS IINN DDEESSIIGGNNAnimals appear as an important design element.

Phoenixes and dragons, considered demonic in

Central Asia, are more playful in Tibet. Tibetans

equate dragons, which were said to live in both heav-

en and earth, with strength and power while phoenix-

es are believed to be protective. There are many folk-

loric meanings to their appearance together on a rug:

one is a blessing of harmony, domestic and marital.

These symbols often appeared in 20th century multi-

colored rugs which were sold commercially.

In terms of Tibetan rug collecting, tiger rugs are a

popular choice. “The most consistently valuable

BELOW Four Auspicious Animals Carpet; Tibet; early 20th century; wool warp and weft; 23.75 x 29 in.; Collection of Robert andLois Baylis. Courtesy of The Rubin Museum of Art.


42 Summer 2013

Tibetan rugs are the tiger skin rugs, the ones with the

very stylized tiger stripes, the very abstract ones; peo-

ple love them,” Ms. Otsea said. Tigers are a symbol of

power, strength, and fearlessness. Whole tigers,

flayed tigers, and tigers abstracted down to striped

prints comprise a rug design subset. They are said to

provide protection and are found on throne backs and

panels used on monastery halls, as well as in homes,

where they may be more decorative than protective.

Single or paired tigers frolicking are referred to as

“happy tigers.” (On exhibit at The Rubin Museum

were a black tiger striped print on an orange field, and

a sleeping rug that shows a tiger in a bamboo grove on

one side and on the other side, a mythical snow lion

with mountains in the background.)

Cranes are a symbol of good luck, as are snow

lions, considered guardians in the Tibetan culture.

Elephants, symbolically auspicious animals, are

rarely found on rugs. Frog footprints show up as a

design element, although no one knows how the

design originated.

RRUUGGSS FFOORR SSAALLEEWhen the Chinese invaded Tibet in the late 1950s

it was the end of an era of peace. Some posit that an

enormous number of rugs were looted or confiscated

by Chinese soldiers. Tibetans hid rugs and those who

fled brought rugs out. There was a flood of rugs; and

then there was a dearth. Antique rugs do continue to

be found and valued; and there need be no worry that

Tibetan rugs and rug making will disappear as an art

and craft form.

Rugs are being produced today at the Khawachen

Arts and Craft Center in Lhasa, and elsewhere in

Tibet. At the same time, weavers who left Tibet creat-

ed rug weaving centers in other countries like Nepal,

Bhutan and India, and, together with many American

manufacturers, including ORIA members, are creat-

ing newly designed rugs of great beauty, using age-

old skills. As some weavers are able to weave designs

from memory or just by looking at patterns, older, rec-

ognizably Tibetan motifs will continue to appear on

these new rugs, as will more contemporary designs,

all of which will be the heirlooms of tomorrow.

BELOW Tibetan weaver high up on a loom. Courtesy of InnerAsia, Hanover, NH/Khawachen, Lhasa, Tibet.


AREA 43

Once again, carpets have been rotated in The New

York Metropolitan Museum’s Art of the Arab Lands,

Turkey, Iran, Central Asia and South Asia Galleries.

Walter Denny, Senior Consultant to the Met and

Professor of Art History and Adjunct Professor of

Middle Eastern Studies at the University of

Massachusetts at Amherst, commented on the white-

ground medallion carpet from 16th-century Ushak in

western Anatolia currently on view at the Museum.

Professor Denny said: “Among the dozens of sur-

viving examples of early Ushak carpets with medal-

lions, this example is noteworthy for its unusual col-

oration, superb artistic quality, extraordinary state of

preservation, and the presence of a white background

field ornamented with chintemani—three small round

‘spots’ and two parallel wavy ‘bands’ that together

constitute a symbol of good luck.

“Originally arising from a Buddhist tradition—

the word chintemani is Sanskrit for ‘auspicious

jewel’—these spots and stripes by the 16th century

had become a virtual symbol for the Ottoman Empire,

appearing in Ottoman ceramic wares, wall tiles, car-

pets, woven and embroidered costumes, marquetry

made from wood, mother-of-pearl and ivory, and

Ottoman metalware and stonecarving.”

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is located at Fifth

Avenue and 82nd Street in New York City. It opens at

9:30 Tuesday through Sunday and closes at 5:30,

except for Friday and Saturday when it stays open

until 9:00 pm. Check www.metmuseum.org or call

212-535-7710 for further information.

New On View At The Metby Ellyne Raeuber

Ushak Medallion Carpet on White Ground, first half 17th century, Turkey. Wool (warp, weft and pile); symmetricallyknotted pile; 25’5x12’7. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift ofCaroline and Joseph S. Gruss, 1984. Image: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Documents

ORIA Education