Orbit Measurement Model

7/31/2019 Orbit Measurement Model

1/56

1

ChoosingGum:

AMeasurementModelforOrbit

PamelaPrieto

May1,2012


2/56

2


3/56

3

Introduction

TheWrigleyCompanywouldliketoincreaseitsmarketshareamongcollege

students,especiallyasitpertainstosalesofitslineofOrbitgum.Thefollowingquestion

willdrivethisresearch:Whatarethefactorsthatinfluencecollegestudentstobuychewing

gum?Ofspecificinterestarethereasonswhycollegestudentswillchooseaparticulargum

whenthemarketseemstobereplenishedwithmanycomparableoptions.Througha

reviewofpastliteratureaswellasananalysisonstudents'gumpurchasinghabits,the

presentstudywillreportonvalidandreliablemeasuresthatwilleffectivelyanswerthe

researchquestion.


4/56

4

Background

TheClient

TheWrigleyCompanyhasbeenastapleofAmericanentrepreneurshipsincethe

early1890s.ItwasfoundedbyWilliamWrigleyJr.whobegansellingsoapandbaking

powderandfirstintroducedchewinggumasanincentiveforsellingtheseproducts

("HeritageTimeline,"2012)TheoldestbrandsofgumintroducedbytheWrigleyCompany

areJuicyFruitandWrigley'sSpearmint,bothofwhichwerelaunchedin1893("Heritage

Timeline,"2012).

OperationsoftheWrigleyCompanywereheadquarteredinChicagosWrigley

Buildingsincethecompany'sinception,andthebuildingisastapleofthecity'sskyline

("HeritageTimeline,"2012).In1910,however,thecompanybegantoexpand

manufacturingtoothercountries,beginningwithCanadaintheearly1900s.Today,the

company'sreachextendsallovertheworld,withproductionfacilitieslocatedacross

Europe,AsiaandAustralia,andtheirGlobalInnovationCenterservesastheglobal

headquarters("HeritageTimeline,"2012).

TheadvertisingeffortsofWilliamWrigleysincethecompany'searlyhistoryare

consideredtobesomeofthemostimpactfulofthemassmediaindustry("BetterOral

Health,"n.d.;Robinson,2004).Wrigleyadsappearedprominentlyinsubwaycars,

billboardsandnewspapersandbythelate'20s,thecompanywasthenation'sfifthlargest

advertiser,placingbehindcompanieslikeCoca-ColaandGeneralMotors(Robinson,2004).

Wrigleyadvertisingintheearlycenturyfocusedontwothemes,bodilyandpsychological

benefits,suchashealthygums,freshbreathandasenseofcalmandrelaxationthrough

chewinggum(Robinson,2004).


5/56

5

Manypopularbrands,suchasLifeSavers,AltoidsandCremeSaversbecamepartof

Wrigleyintheearly21stcentury,andin2008,thecompanywasacquiredbyMars,

Incorporatedina$23billiondealthattransferredresponsibilityforMarsnon-chocolate

confections,includingtheSkittlesandStarburstbrands("HeritageTimeline,"2012;

Leggett-Flynn,Perille&Hart,2008).Wrigleyalsogainedcontrolofthreeproduction

facilitiesinMexico,AustraliaandtheCzechRepublic(Leggett-Flynn,Perille&Hart,2008).

Today,Wrigleyisthenumberonemakerofchewinggumintheworld("Profile,"2012).

TheProduct

AlthoughitwasreleasedintheUnitedStatesuntil2001,Orbitgumhasalong

historyinthemaking.DuringWorldWarII,WrigleyshippedallproductionoftheirJuicy

Fruit,SpearmintandDoublemintgumstothetroopsoverseas.Becausetheyhadno

chewinggumavailabletociviliansbackhome,thecompanybeganplansforanewproduct

calledOrbitgum.Afterthewarendedin1946,however,thethreeestablishedbrandswere

returnedtohomemarketandplansforOrbitgumwerediscontinued("Orbit,"2012).

Itwasntuntil1976thatWrigleybeganproductionandintroducedOrbitintothe

Europeanmarket,particularlyinGermany,SwitzerlandandHolland("Orbit,"2012).This

wasthefirsttimethatthecompanymarketedasugar-freebrand.Later,in2001,Orbitwas

introducedtotheAmericanmarketwithasloganpromisingajustbrushedcleanfeeling,

whichhelpedthebrandbecomethefastestgrowinginthegumcategory("Orbit,"2012).

Thefollowingyear,WrigleyintroducedOrbitWhiteasateeth-whiteningalternative.

In2007,OrbitreceivedAmericanDentalAssociationsSealofAcceptanceforits

capabilitytohelpfightandpreventcavities("Orbit,"2012).Finally,in2009,Wrigley


6/56

6

launchedOrbitMist,thelatestinnovationintheOrbitfamilycontainingmicro-pelletsthat

provideahydratingfeelingwhenchewed.

Today,thereare24differentvarietiesofOrbitgum,availableinthebrandsclassic

form,inMistorWhite,andindifferentpresentations,includingslimspacksandthe60-

pieceBig-EPack.

TheCompetition

WrigleysmajorcompetitorisCadbury,whosemostpopularchewinggumsinclude

Trident,DentyneandBubblicious.Cadburyisanestablishedcompanyspecializinginthe

manufactureofconfections,chocolateinparticular.Thecompanywasestablished

Birmingham,England,intheearly1800sandhasalonghistoryofconfection

manufacturingallovertheworld.

In2003,CadburyenteredthechewinggumbusinessbyacquiringAdams,an

establishedmanufacturerofbrandssuchasTridentandStride("OurStory,"2009).This

purchasepropelledCadburyintothetopchewinggummarket.In2010,theAmericanfirm

KraftFoodssuccessfullyacquiredCadburyafteranaggressivebidtotalingmorethan$18

billion(BBC,2010).

TheTridentbrandisOrbitsmaincompetitor,rangingsecondinsaleslastyearin

thesugarlessgumcategory,withdollarsalesamountingto$36,700("UnitedStatestop,"

2012).KraftFoodsreportsthatthebrandgrew4.8percentgloballyin2011andthatits

globalmarketshareis29percent("Trident,"2012).

Tridentwaslaunchedinthe1960sandwasoneoftheworldsfirstsugar-free

chewinggums("Trident,"2012).Thebrandwasthefirstguminspace,chewedby


7/56

7

astronautsaboardthe1964Geminispaceflights("Trident,"2012).Today,fivecategories

ofTridentgumareavailable,includingtheirXtraCareandWhitevarieties.

TheIndustry

Thehistoryofchewinggumdatesbackmanygenerationsandacrossmanycultures,

includingtheGreeksandMayans("Storyofgum,"2004).However,thestoryofmodern

chewinggumbeginsinthe1860sduringtheBattleoftheAlamo,whenMexicanGeneral

AntonioLopezdeSantaAnahiredThomasAdams(aNewYorkinventor)todevelopa

substituteforrubber("Storyofgum,"2004;"Story,"n.d.).ThoughAdamsfailedin

producinganewformofrubber,heinadvertentlydevelopedthefirstmodernchewing

gum,whichhemarketedasAdamsNewYorkNumber1("Story,"n.d.).

Sincethen,newformsofchewinggumhavebeendevelopedandthemodern

chewinggumindustrycontinuestopushtheenvelopeonsuchinnovations.Additionally,

chewinggumisapopularproductdespiteeconomicdownfallsbecauseofitslowprice

pointsandinterestfromconsumers(Mintel,2010).Despitetherecessionofrecentyears,

chewinggumandotherbreathfreshenershaveseenagrowthinsales(Mintel,2010).


8/56

8

LiteratureReview

GumasanImpulsivePurchase

Gumisaconfectionthathasgenerallybeenregardedasanimpulsepurchaseby

bothindustryandacademicsources(Mintel,2010;Robinson,2004;Cassell,2010;

"Category,"n.d.).Theplacementofgumnearthecheckoutaislesatgroceryand

conveniencestoresfurtherconveystheideathatpeoplegenerallydon'tgotostores

specificallytobuygum,butmakethedecisionatthepointofpurchase(Robinson,2004).

Additionally,availabilityofacandyproducthasalsobeenfoundasakeydriverforimpulse

purchases(Patwardhan,Flora&Gupta,2010;"Category,"n.d.)

Impulsivebuyingbehavioroccurswhenaconsumerexperiencesasuddenurgeto

buysomethingimmediately(Rook,1987).Importantdistinctionshavebeenmadebetween

impulsivepurchasesandcontemplativeones.Rook(1987)outlinedsomeofthe

characteristicsofimpulsivebuyingasbeingspontaneousandemotional,ratherthan

cautiousandrational.Contemplativebuyingislikelytobepartofaregularroutine,while

impulsivebuyingtendstobedisruptivetotheconsumer'sstreamofbehavior(Rook,

1987).

Ingeneral,impulsiveshoppingservesahedonicpurpose,associatedmorewiththe

pleasurablefeelingsinvolvedinthepurchasethanwiththeutilitarianqualitiesofthe

product(Rook,1987;Kacen&Lee,2002).Inareviewofliteratureaboutimpulsive

shoppingbyVirvilaite,SaladieneandBagdonaite(2009),theauthorsdeterminedthat

candyisamongtheproductsthatcantriggeranimpulsiveresponseinconsumers.They

statethatcandycanactasastimulusforimpulsivepurchases(Virvilaite,Saladiene&

Bagdonaite,2009).Rook(1987)alsoproposedthatimpulsivepurchasesarenotonly


9/56

9

commonforsmall-ticketitems,suchassnacksandcandy,butthattheimpulseextends

acrossproductcategories.

Thefactorsthatmotivatepeopletobuyimpulsivelyhavealsobeenwidelystudied

byresearchers.InacademicstudybyMowenandSpears(1999),theauthorsexploredthe

personalitytraitsthatinfluencecollegestudentsandtheirpropensitytoshop

compulsively.TheauthorsstudiedtherelationshipsbetweentheFive-FactorModelof

Personality,aswellastheaddedtraitsofmaterialismandneedforarousal,andthe

behaviorofcompulsiveshopping.Compulsiveshoppingisanextremeformofimpulsive

shopping(Mowen&Spears,1999).Theauthorsfoundthatcertainpersonalitytraitssuch

aslowemotionalstabilityandmaterialismwerepositivelycorrelatedwithcompulsive

consumptionamongcollegestudents.Inturn,materialismwasdrivenbyahighneedfor

arousal,whichwasinfluencedbyanopennesstonewexperiences.

Researchershavealsoexploredthelinkbetweenculturalinfluencesandimpulsive

behavior.AstudybyKacenandLee(2002)investigatedhowimpulsivepurchasesby

collegestudentsvariedacrosscollectivistandindividualistcultures.InastudyofAsianand

Caucasianuniversitystudents,theauthorsfoundthatthelinkbetweentheimpulsiveness

traitandimpulsivebuyingbehaviorwasmorestronglyassociatedwithincollegestudents

inindividualistgroupsthanthoseincollectivistgroups(Kacen&Lee,2002).Theauthors

alsomeasuredself-conceptrangingfromindependenttointerdependentandfoundthatfor

Caucasiancollegestudents,themoretheyperceivedthemselvesasindependent,themore

theywerelikelytoengageinimpulsivebuyingbehavior(Kacen&Lee,2002).


10/56

10

LoyaltytoBrandsofGum

Industrypublicationsandmarketresearchhasfoundthatgumenjoysahighlevelof

brandloyalty,especiallyamongyoungconsumers(Mintel,2010;"Category,"n.d.).Ina

surveyconductedbyMintel(2010),itwasfoundthatmorethanhalfoftherespondents

ages18-24reportedthattheyusuallyboughtthesamebrandofgum.However,compared

tootheragegroups,theywerealsothemostlikelytobewillingtotrynewbrandsforthe

variety(Mintel,2010).Thisbrandloyaltyisalsotrueforconfectionsingeneral.Industry

researchfoundthat68percentofconsumersaregenerallyloyaltooneormorebrandsof

candy(Blischok,2010).

Researchershavevastlystudiedthetopicofbrandloyaltyinanefforttobetter

defineandmeasureit.JacobyandKyner(1973)arguedthatrepeatpurchasingbehavioris

notsufficienttomeasurebrandloyaltyunlessitsatisfiessixconditions.Theirconceptual

definitionofbrandloyaltyis:

(1)thebiased(i.e.,nonrandom),(2)behavioralresponse(i.e.,purchase),(3)

expressedovertime,(4)bysomedecision-makingunit,(5)withrespecttooneor

morealternativebrandsoutofasetofsuchbrands,and(6)isafunctionof

psychological(decision-making,evaluative)processes.(p.2)

JacobyandKyner(1973)believedthatmarketersshouldbemoreconcernedaboutthe

reasonsbehindrepeatbehaviorsratherthanthefrequencyinwhichtheyoccur.

AstudybyChaudhuriandHolbrook(2001)attemptedtounderstandthesereasons

byexaminingthechainofeffectsstartingfrombrandtrustandbrandaffectandresultingin

brandperformanceinavarietyofproductcategories,includingcandy.Theyfoundthat

trustandaffectionforabrandaretwoseparateconstructsthatcombinetoinfluencetwo


11/56

11

differentkindsofbrandloyalty:purchaseloyalty(abehavior;i.e.,repurchasingthesame

brand)andattitudinalloyalty(adegreeofdispositionalcommitmenttothebranditself).

Thisloyalty,inturn,influencesmarketshareandtherelativepriceofacandyproductin

themarketplace.

AppealsofGum

Intheearlydaysofthegumindustry,manufacturersofgumstruggledwiththe

public'sideaofgumassociallydistasteful(Robinson,2004).Aschewinggumbecamea

moreacceptablesocialpractice,however,advertisingstartedtoreflectthepossible

benefitstoconsumers,suchasoralhealth,stressrelief,thirstquenching,aidingindigestion

andevenweightloss(Robinson,2004;Newman,2009;Mintel,2010).Advertisingisan

importanttooltohelpconsumersdifferentiateacrossbrandsofsimilarproductsandhas

beenusedextensivelybythechewinggumindustrytoshowcasetheadvantagesofchewing

gum(Kottman,1977;Robinson,2004).Kottman(1977)suggeststhatcertaintechniques

arerecurrentinadvertisingofparityproducts,suchasdramatizationofabenefitresulting

fromusingtheproductascanbeseenincommercialsforWrigley's5Gum,andassociating

thebrandwithacharacter,suchastheDoublemintTwinsandtheOrbitGumGirl.

Advertisingwasalsofoundtobeanimportantfactorwhenbuyingother

confectionaryitems,suchaschocolates.InananalysisofCadburyDairyMilk'sIndian

market,Kazemi(2010)foundthatTVadswerethemosteffectivemediumforadvertising

intheIndianmarketwhereCadburyDairyMilkwastheindustryleader.Thestudyalso

found,througharandomsampleof600urbanrespondents,thatqualitywasthesecond

majorfactorinfluencingpreferenceforaparticularbrandofchocolates.


12/56

12

Thefollowingitemsarecharacteristicsthatarecommonlyusedinadvertising

acrossbrandsofchewinggum.

Dentalappearance.

Teethwhiteningisanimportantsellingpointasmarketerstrytocapitalizeonthe

socialimportanceofahealthydentalappearance.Ofthe10best-sellingsugarlessgumsin

2009,twowereteethwhiteninggums(Newman,2009).Researchershavefoundthat

dentalappearanceconveysimportantsocialcharacteristicsamongpeople.AstudybyEli,

Bar-TalandKostovetzki(2001)foundthatdentitionplaysamajorroleindailylife,asit

helpsshapepeople'sperceptionsofeachother.Intheirstudy,theyfoundthatahealthy

dentalappearancewasassociatedwithhigherlevelsofperceivedsocialandprofessional

success.Chewinggummarketersarecapitalizingontheimportanceofwhiteteethand

industryresearchpointstoteethwhiteningasonetypeoffunctionalitythatmaybehelping

increasethesalesofsugarlesschewinggum(Mintel,2010).

Healthbenefits.

Otherthanbenefitstodentalappearance,thecontributionofgumtotheoverall

healthofthechewerisacharacteristicthatsetsitapartfromothertypesofconfections.

Sugar-freegumshavebeenespeciallysuccessfulatincorporatinghealthclaimsintotheir

brandingefforts.Currently,fivebrandsofgumhavereceivedapprovalfromtheAmerican

DentalAssociationtocarrytheSealofAcceptancefortheircontributiontooralhealthin

thereductionofcavities(ADA,2012).Otherchewinggumsalsopromisetokillgermsthat

causebadbreath(Newman,2009;Beirne,2008).

TheparentcompanyoftheWmWrigleyCompany,MARSInc.,hasfocuseditsefforts

offindingthebenefitsofchewinggumbyestablishingtheWrigleyScienceInstitute.With


13/56

13

fundingfromtheWSI,HetheringtonandBoyland(2007)conductedastudythatfoundthat

chewinggumreducesthedesireforsweetsnacksandtheamountconsumedduring

snacking.Thismessagehasbeenapartofchewinggumadvertisingsincetheonsetofthe

industry(Robinson,2004).Otherbenefitstoutedbyadvertisersofgumincludestressand

tensionreliefandincreasedawarenessandconcentration(Robinson,2004).

AstudybyChang(2007)exploredtheroleofmessageframingindental-healthcare

advertising.Theauthorfoundthatforproductsthatwerefamiliartoconsumers,positively

framedhealthcaremessagesweremoreeffectiveinthepersuasiontopurchasethose

healthcareproducts,andthatnegativemessageswerebetterforthepromotionofhealth

detectionproducts.Fornewproducts,positivemessagesweremoreeffectiveforboth

preventionanddetectionproducts(Chang,2007).Thisstudyexemplifiestheimportant

roleofadvertisingeffortsinthesaleofproductsthatincludehealthclaims.

AnotherstudybyMcIntyreandBaid(2009)analyzedconsumers'attitudestoward

indulgentsnacksandtheirhealthieralternatives.Theauthorsconductedvariousfocus

groupsandfoundthatmanyadults(includinggroupsofstudents)showedatleastsome

concernforhealth-relatedattributeswhenchoosingsnackproducts.McIntyreandBaid

(2009)alsofoundthatconsumersareopentopurchasinghealthiersnacksaslongasthey

don'thavetosacrificetheaffectiveandindulgentexperienceassociatedwiththetreat.

Innovativeflavors.

Anotherfactorbelievedtoinfluencesalesofgumisproductinnovation.Mintel

(2010)reportsthatinnovationsinflavorareastrongpredictorforincreasedsalesthrough

2014.Thegumindustryhasseenaparticularlylargegrowthinfruitflavorsas

manufacturershaveopeneduptotheideaofmovingawayfromintensemintflavorsand


14/56

14

towardsweeterofferings(Cassell,2010).Newgumshavealsoincorporatedflavorsthatare

regardedtoprovideadditionalbenefitstotheconsumer,suchasTrident'sVitalitywith

citrusandvitaminCandStrideSparkcontainingvitaminsB6andB12(Newman,2011;

Blankenship&Batchilder,2011;"TridentGum,"2012).Durationofagum'sflavorisalso

important,andwasemphasizedbyconsumersasanareathatgummanufacturersshould

workon(Mintel,2010).Thus,flavorisacentralattributeacrossbrandsasconsumershave

generallybeenopentoquicklyadoptnewflavorprofiles(Mintel,2010).

Thetopicofearlyadoptionhasresearchimplicationsthathavebeenpreviously

exploredbyscholars.Inabroadreviewoftheconcept,MidgleyandDowling(1978)argued

thatwhilemuchoftheearlyresearchoninnovationfocusedonthesusceptibilityto

interpersonalinfluences,atruermeasureofinnovativenesswouldbethedegreetowhich

individualsmakeinnovativedecisionsindependentlyoftheinfluenceofothers.They

arguedthatinnateinnovativenessexistsinacontinuumwithinindividuals,asaninverse

functionofthethresholdamountofinformationrequiredfrominterpersonal

communication(Midgley&Dowling,1978).

ClarkandGoldsmith(2006)foundresultsthatwereconsistentwithMidgleyand

Dowling'stheoreticalframework.Theirstudyfoundanegativerelationshipbetween

innovativenessandcollegestudents'tendencytoconform(normativeinfluence,or

susceptibilitytointerpersonalinfluence).However,ClarkandGoldsmith(2006)alsofound

thatinnovativenessalsocorrelatespositivelywithsusceptibilitytoinformational

interpersonalinfluence,signalingthatfactualandrelevantinformationwouldbeamore

efficientmessagethanwouldpersuasion-ladenmessagingwhentryingtoreachcollege

studentsexhibitingtraitsofinnovativeness.


15/56

15

Finally,researchbyAroean(2011)examinedtherelationshipbetweeninnovativeness,

playfulconsumption(astateoffunandexcitementthatenhancescreativityand

imagination)andbrandswitching.Theauthorfoundthatinnovativenessisapredictorof

bothexperiencesofplayfulrewardsandatendencytobrandswitch(Aroean,2011).The

authoralsofound,however,thatplayfulconsumptionwasnotapredictorofbrand

switching,indicatingthatforinnovativeconsumerstoexperienceplayfulrewardsthey

requiresomeleveloffamiliaritywithabrand(Aroean,2011).Finally,andmost

importantlyforthepresentstudy,theauthorfoundthatagewasasignificantpredictorin

brand-switching,indicatingthatyoungerconsumersaremorelikelytoexplorenewbrands

asapathtoinnovativenessthanareolderones(Aroean,2011).

Packaging.

Likeformanyotherproducts,innovationinpackagingisalsoanimportantappeal

forconsumersofgum.Researchhasfoundthatpackagingcharacteristics,suchascolor,

typography,shapesandimages,canaffectconsumers'perceptionsofaproductstrategy

(Ampuero&Vila,2006).Theroleofcoloronproductchoicehasalsobeenfoundtobemore

influentialinyoungergenerations(Akcay,Sable&Dalgin,2012).

Morespecifically,inastudybyPatwardhanetal.(2010)theauthorsexploredthe

driversforpurchasingchocolate.Theyfoundthatpackagedesignandshapewere

importantconsiderationsforconsumerswhenmakingthedecisiontobuydiscretionary

items.Thiswasalsotrueforsoap,anothercommonlyboughtitem(Patwardhanetal.,

2010).

Mintel(2010)reportedthatasconsumers'lifestyleschange,sowilltheneedfor

gumpackagingtobemoredurableandportable.Theirresearchindicatesthatpackaging


16/56

16

thatresealsbetterissomethingconsumerswouldlikemanufacturerstofocusonwith

regardstogumpackaging.Otherareasforimprovementarepacksofgumthatareeasierto

openandthatarebetterfortheenvironment(Mintel,2010).

Finally,Mintel(2010)alsoreportedthatalthoughlevelsofselfishnesswithgumare

high,asizableportionofgumchewersregularlygivegumawaytofriendsandfamily.

Thoughyoungadults18-24aretheagegroupmostlikelytokeeptheirgumforthemselves,

theremightbeopportunitiesforpackageinnovationbasedonpeople'sgeneralwillingness

tosharegum(Mintel,2010).

Lowpricepoints.

Ithasbeennotedintheliteraturethatthelowpriceofgumisonereasonforthe

confection'ssustainabilityacrosstimeandconsumers'likelihoodtowanttoseekvarietyin

gumconsumption(Robinson,2004;Cassell,2010;Mintel,2010).ResearchbyPatwardhan

etal.(2010)alsosuggeststhatpriceisamajorconsiderationfordiscretionaryitems

similartogum.FurtherresearchbyNarasimhan,NeslinandSen(1996)foundthatgum

andmintsweremoreresponsivetopricepromotionsthanotheritemsthatarestrongly

impulseoriented.Thus,thisresearchwillexploreamongthepredictorsfoundinthe

precedingliteraturetheconstructofpriceconsciousnessasitrelatestogumpurchases.

TheoreticalFramework.

Whilethereviewofliteraturepresentedinthisreporthasindicatedanumberof

intrinsicandextrinsicpredictorsthatmightinfluencethepurchaseofgum,atheoretical

frameworkisimportantforguidingtheresearchandfororganizingthepreviousfindings.

ThetheoryemployedforthepresentstudywillbeAjzen's(1991)theoryofplanned

behavior.


17/56

17

Thetheoryofplannedbehaviorisanextensionofthetheoryofreasonedaction

formulatedin1980byAjzenandFishbein(Ajzen,1991).Thetheorypositsthataperson's

behaviorisguidedbythreekindsofsalientbeliefs:behavioral,normativeandcontrol

beliefs.Behavioralbeliefshavetodowithconsequencesresultingfromaparticular

behavior;normativebeliefsarerelatedtothelikelihoodofapprovalordisapprovalofa

behaviorfromimportantindividuals;andcontrolbeliefs,whichdealwithsourcesand

opportunitiestoperformacertainbehavior(Ajzen,1991).

Ajzen(1991)arguedthatthesebeliefsdrivepositiveornegativeattitudesaboutthe

behavior,thesubjectivenormsrelatedtothebehavior,andtheperceivedcontroloverthe

behavior.Theseattitudesdriveanindividual'sintentiontoperformthebehavior,whichin

turnleadtotheactualizedbehavior.Ajzen's(1991)modelalsoaccountsforinfluences

outsideofthethreebehavioralnodesasdriverstoactualizeabehavior,includingactual

behavioralcontrol.Thisdiffersfromperceivedbehavioralcontrolbecauseitisameasure

ofwhetherapersoncanactuallyperformthebehavior,andnotoftheirperceptionoftheir

abilitytodoso(Ajzen,1991).

Figure1.Conceptualmodelofthetheoryofplannedbehavior.


18/56

18

Thetheoryofplannedbehaviorisapplicabletothisstudyoflikelihoodtopurchase

Orbitgumbecauseofitsvalueinpredictingconsumerbehavior.Thedecisiontochooseone

brandofgumoveranotherisaconsciousresultoftheinterplaybetweenthesebeliefsand

attitudes,whichdrivetheintentionandleadtotheactualbehaviorofgumpurchase.Thus,

thetheoryofplannedbehaviorisaneffectivemodeltofollowforthisstudy.


19/56

19

ProposedPredictors

Basedontheprecedingreviewofliteraturewhichecompassesscholarly,industry

andmediasources,severalproposedpredictorswereestablished.Thesepredictorshave

beengroupedintoseveralcategories:consumer-relatedvariables,brand-relatedvariables,

product-relatedvariables,andconsumerdemographics.Thesefactorswilloffervaluable

insightintounderstandingthefactorsthatinfluencecollegestudentschoicetopurchasea

particularchewinggum.

Consumer-RelatedVariables

ImpulsiveShopping

Scholarlysources:Robinson,2004;Patwardhan,Flora&Gupta,2010Industrysources:Mintel,2010;Cassell,2010;"Category,"n.d.

MaterialismScholarlysource:Mowen&Spears,1999

NeedforarousalScholarlysource:Mowen&Spears,1999

OpennesstoexperienceScholarlysource:Mowen&Spears,1999

LevelofindependenceScholarlysource:Kacen&Lee,2002

Innovativeness

Scholarlysources:Midgley&Dowling,1978;Clark&Goldsmith,2006Brand-RelatedVariables

BrandloyaltyIndustrysources:Mintel,2010;"Category,"n.d.;Blischok,2010

BrandtrustScholarlysource:Chaudhuri&Holbrook,2001

BrandaffectScholarlysource:Chaudhuri&Holbrook,2001

AttitudetowardadvertisingScholarlysource:Kottman,1977;Robinson,2004;Kazemi,2010

Product-RelatedVariables

ProductqualityScholarlysource:Kazemi,2010

InnovativenessofflavorIndustrysources:Cassell,2010;Mintel,2010;Mediasource:Newman,2011Scholarlysource:Aroean,2011


20/56

20

PackageattributesAttractivenessPracticality

Scholarlysources:Patwardhanetal.,2010;Akcay,Sable&Dalgin,2012Industrysource:Mintel,2010

PriceScholarlysources:Robinson,2004;Patwardhanetal.,2010;Narasimhan,NeslinandSen,1996Industrysources:Cassell,2010;Mintel,2010

CustomerDemographics

AgeScholarlysource:Aroean,2011

GenderIndustrysource:Mintel,2011

Race

Scholarlysource:Kacen&Lee,2002Education

Targetaudience

BecausethetheoreticalframeworkforthisreportistheTheoryofPlanned

Behavior,itisimportanttoseehoweachvariablefitswithinthetheory.Thefollowing

contraststhepreviouscategoriesbecausethevariablesareorganizedwithinthe

dimensionsofthetheory,asopposedtotopically.Thesectionalsoincludesanyvariables

thatfalloutsideoftheTPBmodel.

BehavioralBeliefs

ProductqualityPackageattributes

AttractivenessPracticality

Brandloyalty

BrandtrustBrandaffect

AttitudetowardtheBehavior

AttitudetowardadvertisingNormativeBeliefs

Levelofindependence


21/56

21

SubjectiveNormsControlBeliefs

PerceivedBehavioralControl

PriceConsciousness

AdditionalVariablesProposedbytheResearcherImpulsiveShoppingMaterialismNeedforarousalOpennesstoexperienceInnovativenessAgeGenderRaceEducation


22/56

22

DevelopmentofMeasures

Inordertohelpidentifythedriversbehindcollegestudentschoiceofchewinggum,

thefirstgoalofthisprojectwastocreateasetofconstructsthatwouldaccuratelymeasure

eachofthepredictorslistedabove.Todothis,multiple-itemmeasureswerecreatedfor

andpre-testedfor15oftheproposedpredictorsidentifiedintheprevioussection.

Additionally,single-itemmeasureswerecreatedforotherpredictors,thedependent

variablerelatedtotheresearchquestion,andfordemographicvariables.

Multiple-itemmeasuresweredevelopedtoassessthevalidityandreliabilityofthe

constructsusedtomeasure15oftheselectedpredictors.Themultiple-itemmeasureswere

developedfromacombinationofsources,includingacademicsourcesfromthereviewof

literatureaswellasfromvariousvolumesoftheMarketingScalesHandbook.Otheritems

weredevelopedbytheresearcherandmost,especiallythoserelatingtoproductandbrand

variables,wereadaptedtofitthecontextofchewinggumchoiceandpurchase.

Thesemultiple-itemmeasuresweredesignedfollowingtheprinciplesof

measurementtoensuresimplicityandclarityofunderstanding,andtominimizeany

additionalburdenplacedonsurveyrespondents,whichmightleadtofaultymeasurement

oftheconstructs.Theprinciplesofmeasurementincludepayingextraattentionto:

Form

Languagemeasureswerepresentedinstraightforwardstatementsinalanguage

styleappropriatefortheaudience

Lengthmeasureswereshorttoavoidconfusionandemphasizemeaning

Focusmeasurescontainedasinglethemetoavoidexplicitandimplicitdouble-

barreledquestions


23/56

23

Content

Meaningmeasuresprovideaframeofreferencetomeasuretheresearchconcept

AssumedKnowledgemeasuresdidnotfunctionontheassumptionthatrespondents

knewthemeaningofabstractorconcreteconcepts

WordChoicemeasureswerephrasedinclear,appropriatelanguage

Structurethoughsomemeasureswerenotstatedintheaffirmative,nodouble

negativeswereused

Orderspecialattentionwaspaidtoitemplacementtoavoidbiasingrespondents;

additionally,itemswerearrangedfromgeneraltospecificconcepts

Strategies

NeutralStanceaneutralorneitheragreenordisagreeanswerchoicewas

includedforeverymeasuretoavoidforcedchoices

Hypotheticalseveralhypotheticalstatementswereincluded,bothaspartofthe

dependentvariable(Ifyouweretopurchaseapackofgumtomorrow,whatbrand

wouldyouchoose?)andtomeasurehabitsofstudentswhodontcurrentlyhavea

favoritebrandofgum(Ifyoudonothaveafavoritebrandofgum,pleaseanswerthe

questionsinrelationtothebrandofchewinggumyoubuymostoften)

Open-Endedopen-endedquestionswerereservedonlyforitemswhoseanswersfell

inanumericalcategory,suchasageandnumberofpacksofgumpurchased

Recalltoreduceburdenresultingfromaskingrespondentstorecallpast

information,theresearchprovidedaparticulartimereferencepoint;respondentswere

alsoprimedbeforeeachquestionbyintroducingthemtothecontentwithineach

section


24/56

24

Multiple-ItemMeasures

Ofthecompletelistofproposedpredictors,15multiple-itemmeasureswereusedin

thepre-testforthisstudy.ThemeasuresselectedfallbothwithinandoutsidetheTheoryof

PlannedBehaviorasindicatedintheprevioussection.Thefollowingtablesdepictthefirst

stepsindevelopingthesurveyinstrumentbydelineatingtheconstructsthatmeasurethe

proposedpredictorsaswellastheitemsthatwereusedtomeasureeachconstruct.Items

withan(R)indicatetheneedforreversecoding.

Construct:ImpulsiveshoppingDefinition:Aconsumer'stendencytobuyspontaneously,unreflectively,immediatelyand

kinetically.Source:DefinitionandallitemsadaptedfromRookandFisher(1995).

StronglyDisagree

Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree

Ioftenbuythingsspontaneously

"Justdoit"describesthewayIbuythings.

"Iseeit,Ibuyit"describesme.

Icarefullyplanmostofmypurchases.(R)

Construct:MaterialismDefinition:Thedegreetowhichapersonisorientedtowardpossessingmaterialgoodsasameansofpersonalhappiness.Source:DefinitionanditemsadaptedfromBrunerIIandHensel(1992).

StronglyDisagree


Oneofmydreamsinlifeistobeabletoownexpensivethings.

Peoplejudgeothersbythethings

theyown.

Moneycantbuyhappiness.(R)

IthinkothersjudgemeasapersonbythekindsofproductsIown.

Construct:NeedforArousalDefinition:Thelevelofstimulationandarousalapersonprefers.


25/56

25

Source:AllitemsadaptedfromMowenandSpears(1999).

StronglyDisagree


Ireallylikesurprises.

Iamdrawntoexperiencesthathave

anelementofdanger.

Peopleviewmeasanunpredictableperson.

Iactivelyseekoutnewexperiences.

IgetboredwhenIamcontinuallyaroundthesamepeopleandplaces.

Ilikethetriedandtrue,ratherthanthenewanddifferent.(R)

Construct:InnovativenessDefinition:Aperson'sperceivedtendencytotrynewthings.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadaptedfromBrunerIIandHensel(1992)andBrunerIIandHensel(1996).

StronglyDisagree


WhenIseeanewproductontheshelf,Ioftenbuyitjusttoseewhatit'slike.

Ioftentrynewproductsbeforemyfriendsdo.

Iliketotrynewthings. Iamusuallyamongthefirsttotrynewproducts.

Iprefertobuyfamiliarproducts.(R)

Construct:OpennesstoExperienceDefinition:Thedegreetowhichpeopleareinquisitiveabouttheworldaroundthem.Source:DefinitionadaptedfromKibeomandAshton(2012).MeasuresadaptedfromKibeomandAshton(2012)andMowenandSpears(1999).

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

AgreeIenjoyadmiringnature.

Iamacreativeperson.

Ienjoyfindingnewsolutionsforcommonproblems.

Iliketogettoknowunusualpeople.

Ienjoypastimesthatrequiremeto


26/56

26

usemyimagination.

Construct:LevelofIndependenceDefinition:Thedegreetowhichpeopleperceivetheirself-identityasindependent,rather

thanasconnectedtoothers.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadoptedfromBrunerII(2009).Measures4,6and7createdbytheresearcherforthisstudy.

StronglyDisagree


Ishouldbejudgedbymyownmerit.

Iprefertobeself-reliantratherthandependentonothers.

Mypersonalidentity,independentfromothers,isveryimportantforme.

Iwouldchangethingsaboutmyselfinordertofitin.(R)

Itisimportanttometoactasanindependentperson.

Beingpartofagroupisveryimportanttome.(R)

Idontusuallychangemyopinionstosatisfyothers.

Construct:BrandLoyaltyDefinition:Thedegreetowhichaconsumerexpressesdevotiontoaspecificbrand.Source:DefinitionadoptedfromBrunerII(2009).MeasuresadaptedfromMintel(2010).Item4developedbytheresearcherforthisstudy.

StronglyDisagree


Ialmostalwaysbuythesamebrandofgum.

OnceIfindabrandofgumIlike,Iusuallystickwithit.

ItrynewbrandsofgumbecauseI

likethevariety.(R)

EvenifItrydifferentflavorsofgum,Igenerallysticktothesamebrand.

Construct:BrandTrustDefinition:Thedegreetowhichaconsumerbelievesabrandofgumistrustworthy.


27/56

27

Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadoptedfromBrunerII(2009).Item3developedbytheresearcher.

StronglyDisagree


Thisbrandofgumdeliverswhatit

promises.

Thisbrandofgumdoesntpretendtobesomethingitisnt.

Thisbrandofgumneverdisappoints.

Thisbrandmakestrueclaimsaboutitsgum.

Construct:BrandAffectDefinition:Abrandspotentialtoelicitapositiveemotionalresponseintheconsumerasaresultofitsuse.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadoptedfromChaudhuriandHolbrook(2001).

StronglyDisagree


IfeelgoodwhenIusethisbrandofgum.

Thisbrandofgummakesmefeelhappy.

Usingthisbrandofgumgivesmepleasure.

Construct:AttitudetowardAdvertisingDefinition:Aconsumersevaluationofadvertisingforaspecificbrandofgum.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadoptedfromBrunerII(2009).

Theadsforthisbrandofgumare:

StronglyDisagree


Enjoyable

Humorous

Funtowatch

Entertaining

Original

Construct:ProductQualityDefinition:Aconsumersperceivedqualityofaproduct.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadoptedfromBrunerII(2009).

Thisbrandofgumis: StronglyDisagree Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree

Longlasting


28/56

28

Ofgoodquality

Consistentlygood

Construct:InnovativenessofFlavor

Definition:Aperson'stendencytotryinnovativeflavorsofgum.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadaptedfromBrunerIIandHensel(1992)andBrunerIIandHensel(1996).

StronglyDisagree


Ioftentrynewflavorsofgum.

Iliketotrygumwithnewcombinationsofflavors.

Iusuallysticktomyfavoriteflavorofgum.(R)

Idontliketobuyexoticflavorsofgum.(R)

Construct:ImportanceofPackageAttributes(Attractiveness)Definition:Thedegreeofimportanceaproductspackagingcharacteristicshavetoaconsumer.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadaptedfromBrunerII(2009)andMintel(2010).

Whenchoosinggum,Ilookfor

packagesStronglyDisagree


Thathaveattractivecolors

Withdesignsthatcatchmyeye

Thathaveanunusualshape

Construct:ImportanceofPackageAttributes(Practicality)Definition:Thedegreeofimportanceaproductspracticalpackagingcharacteristicshavetoaconsumer.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadaptedfromBrunerII(2009)andMintel(2010).

Whenchoosinggum,Ilookfor

packagesStronglyDisagree


Thatresealbetter

Thatareeasytoopen

Thatarebetterfortheenvironment

Thatmakeiteasytoshare

Construct:PriceConsciousnessDefinition:Thedegreeofimportancethatpriceplayswhenpurchasinggum.Source:DefinitionandmeasuresadoptedfromBrunerII(2009).


29/56

29

StronglyDisagree


IusuallycheckthepriceofgumbeforeIbuyit.

Iusuallybuythemostinexpensive

packageofgumavailable.

IusuallypurchasegumwhenIseeitisonsale.

Inevercheckthepricesofdifferenttypesofgum.(R)


30/56

30

Single-ItemMeasures

Inadditiontotheaforementionedmultiple-itemmeasures,thesurveyinstrument

alsoincludesseveralsingle-itemmeasures.Theseitemsmeasuredemographicvariables,as

wellasvariablesrelatingtouseofchewinggumtogainabetterunderstandingofthetarget

consumers.Althoughthesemeasurescannotbetestedforvalidityorreliability,theywere

deemedanimportantinclusioninthestudy.Theyarelistedasfollows.

Variable:Historyofgumpurchase

Definition:Theamountofgumanindividualpurchasedinarecentamountoftime.

Measures:Inthepast3months,abouthowmanypacksofgumdidyoupurchase?

___________

Ifyoudidnotbuychewingguminthepast3months,pleasetelluswhenthe

lasttimeyouboughtapackofgumwas.

6monthsago 1yearago 2yearsago Morethan2yearsago

Variable:Favoritegumflavor

Definition:Whethertheindividualhasapreferredflavorofgum.

Measures:Doyouhaveafavoriteflavorofgum?

Yes Ifyes,whatisyourfavoriteflavorofgum?__________________________

No Ifno,whatistheflavorthatyoubuymostoften?_____________________

Variable:Importantgumattributes

Definition:Attributesthatanindividualvaluesintheirpurchaseofchewinggum.


31/56

31

Measures(eachofthefollowingisasingle-itemmeasureona5-pointLikert-

typescale):Pleasetellushowimportantthefollowingitemsarewhenyou

purchasegum.It'simportantthatthegumIbuy

Whitensteeth

Issugarfree

Strengthensteeth

Helpsreducecavities

Helpsmereducestress

Hasaddedvitamins

Helpsincreasemyenergy

Doesnotcontainartificialsweeteners

Freshensbreathwell

Usesonlynaturalsweeteners

Killsgerms

Helpssuppressmyappetite

Satisfiesmycravings

Islowoncalories

Variable:Favoritebrandofgum

Definition:Whethertheindividualhasapreferredbrandofchewinggum.

Measures:Doyouhaveafavoritebrandofgum?

Yes Ifyes,whatisthenameofyourfavoritebrand?______________________

No Ifno,whatisthenameofthebrandyoubuymostoften?_____________


32/56

32

Variable:Exposuretoadvertising

Definition:Whethertheindividualremembershavingrecentlybeenexposedto

theirfavorite(ormostcommon)brandofgum

Measure:Inthepast3months,doyourememberseeinganyadvertisingforthis

brandofgum?

Yes Ifyes,pleasetelluswhereyousawtheseadsmostoften(TV,

magazines,etc.).____________________________________________________

No

Variable:Likelihoodtopurchaseaparticularbrandofgum(dependentvariable)

Definition:Towhatextenttheindividualislikelytobuyaparticularbrandofgum.

Measures(eachofthefollowingisasingle-itemmeasureona5-pointLikert-

typescale):Ifyouweretobuyapackofgumtomorrow,pleasetellusyouhow

likelyyou'dbetochooseeachofthefollowingbrands.

(Checkoneperbrand.)IfIweretobuyumtomorrow,I'dbuy.

StronglyDisagree

Disagree FeelNeutral

Agree StronglyAgree

Orbit

Trident

5Gum

Eclipse

Extra

Other:______________________

Variable:Age

Definition:Aperson'sage.

Measure:Howoldareyou?____________


33/56

33

Variable:Gender

Definition:Aperson'sgender.

Measure:Areyoumaleorfemale? Male Female

Variable:Academicstatus

Definition:Aperson'sacademiclevel

Measure:Whichofthefollowingdescribesyourcurrentacademiclevel?

Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate

Variable:Race/Ethnicity

Definition:Therace/ethnicitythatapersonidentifieswith.

Measure:Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesyou?

White African-American Hispanic/Latino Asian Other________


34/56

34

DevelopmentofSurvey

Themeasurespresentedintheprevioussectionwereusedtolaunchapre-test

surveyquestionnaire.Apreliminarysurveywasqualitativelyanalyzedbytheprimary

researcheraswellasbyaseniorsupervisingresearcher.Thefollowingsectionscontainan

overviewofthedifferentsectionsthatcomprisethefinalinstrumentusedinthepre-test.

Forallintervalquestions,afive-pointLikert-typescaleofagreementwasused.

Respondentswereaskedtoindicateonlyonceiftheystronglydisagreed,disagreed,felt

neutral,agreedorstronglyagreedwitheachitem.

IntroductionSection

Thepre-testquestionnairewaspresentedasaStudentOpinionSurvey.Asmall

introductoryparagraphinformedstudentsthatthissurveywasseekingstudents'opinions

onavarietyoftopics.Studentswerethankedinadvancefortakingthetimetotakethe

questionnaireandwereassuredthattheirresponseswouldbekeptanonymous.

PartsOnetoThree

Thefirsttwosectionsofthequestionnairemeasuretheconsumer-relatedvariables.

Theyareplacedatthebeginningofthesurveybecausetheyarethemostgeneral,limiting

theamountofbiastheycancreatewithintherespondent.

PartOnecontainsmeasuresfortheconstructsNeedforArousal,Materialismand

OpennesstoExperience.Aprimingstatementaskedrespondentstoindicatehowmuch

eachitemdescribedthemonafive-pointLikert-typescaleofagreement.

PartTwoaskedrespondentstomakeevaluationsontheirperceptionsofthemselves.It

containedonlytheitemsforthemultiple-itemconstructLevelofIndependence.Students

wereprimedwiththesentence,"Thefollowingquestionsareabouthowyouseeyourself.


35/56

35

Pleaseindicatehowmuchyouagreeordisagreewitheachstatement."Again,answer

choicesrangedfromstronglydisagreetostronglyagreeonafive-pointLikert-typescale.

PartThreenarrowedthetopicdowntoshopping.Thissectionincludedthemeasuresfor

InnovativenessandImpulsivenessalsoonafive-pointLikert-typescaleofagreement.

Thefirstthreesectionsofthesurveydidnotyetintroducethetopicofchewinggumso

thattheconsumer-relatedvariablescouldbemeasuredwithouttheinfluenceofthe

product.Thistechniquefollowstheprinciplesofmeasurementdealingwiththeimportance

ofquestionordertoavoidbiasingtherespondents.

PartsFourthroughEight

Thefollowingsectionsaskedrespondentstothinkabouthowtheypurchasechewing

gum.InPartFour,respondentswereaskedtorecallhowmanypacksofgumtheyhad

purchasedinthelastthreemonths,orthelasttimetheypurchasedgumiftheyhadnot

donesointhepastthreemonths.PartFiveaskedrespondentstorelatetheroleofflavorin

theirpurchasesofgum.ThissectionincludedthevariablesInnovativenessofGumand

FavoriteFlavorofGumandaskedrespondentstonametheirfavoriteflavorofgum.The

researcheranticipatedthefactthatsomerespondentsmightnothaveafavoriteflavorof

gumandadaptedthemeasurebyaskingrespondentstoincludetheflavorofgumtheybuy

mostofteniftheydonothaveafavoriteflavor.

PartSixiscomprisedofseveralsingle-itemmeasures.Thesemeasuresaimtodetermine

individualcharacteristicsthatconsumersvaluewhenshoppingforchewinggum.Initially,

thesemeasureswereorganizedasmultipleitemswithintopicallyrelatedconstructs.

However,uponaqualitativeanalysisandafteraconsultationwiththesupervising


36/56

36

researcher,itwasdeemedthattheseitemsdidnotshareenoughoverlapinmeaningtobe

consideredmultiple-itemconstructs.

PartSevenasksrespondentstoevaluatethePriceConsciousnessconstruct.Theitems

wereorganizedinatableprecededbythefollowinginstructions:"Thinkingabouttheway

youpurchasegum,pleaseanswerthefollowingquestionsaboutprice."PartEightwas

presentedinasimilarmanner,withaprimingstatementaskingrespondentstoanswer

questionsinrelationtohowtheypurchasegum.PartEightincludedthemultiple-item

measuresforPackageAttributes,bothAttractivenessandPracticality.

PartsNinetoEleven

Thesesectionsaskedrespondentsaboutaparticularbrandofgumeithertheirfavorite

brandorthebrandtheybuymoreoften.Again,theresearcheranticipatedthatsome

respondentsmightnothaveafavoritebrandofgumandgavethemtheoptiontostatethe

brandtheybuymostofteninstead.

PartsNineandTenmeasuredseveraldimensionsofthebrand-consumerrelationship.

First,respondentswereaskedthemultipleitemstotheconstructBrandLoyaltybefore

beingaskediftheyhadafavoritebrandofgumandwhatthatbrandwas.Next,

respondentsansweredquestionsrelatingtotheconstructsBrandAffectandBrandTrust

onthesamefive-pointLikert-typescaleofagreementmentionedearlierinthissection.

Finally,PartElevenaddressedadvertising.First,respondentswereaskedtorecallifthey

hadseenadvertisementsfortheparticularbrandtheyhadindicatedinPartNine(their

favoriteormost-boughtbrand).Arecentperiodoftimeofthreemonthswaschosento

decreasetheburdenplacedontherespondentassociatedwithinformationrecall.Anopen-

endedquestionthenaskedrespondentswheretheyhadseentheseadvertisements.Finally,


37/56

37

respondentswereaskedtoevaluatetheadstheyrememberedonfivedimensions,as:

enjoyable,humorous,fun,entertainingandoriginal.

PartTwelve

Thissectioncontainedthedependentvariableforthisproject:Likelihoodto

PurchaseaParticularBrandofGum.Theinstructionspositedahypotheticstatementtothe

respondentsaskingthemtoevaluatewhichbrandofgumtheywouldchooseiftheywere

tobuyapackofchewinggumtomorrow.Therespondentswereaskedabout"tomorrow"

tohelpgroundthedecisionandavoidresponsesthatreflectedtoomuchofanabstraction

intheirdecision.Thetopfivebrandsofchewinggumwerepresented:Orbit,Trident,5

Gum,EclipseandExtra.Afinalspacewasleftblanktoallowrespondentstofillinanyother

brandthattheywouldbelikelytopurchase.

Respondentswereaskedtorespondonceforeachbrandpresented.Theprompting

statementwasphrasedas"IfIweretobuygumtomorrow,I'dbuy."Respondentswere

thenaskedtoindicatehowmuchthey'dagreetobuyeachofthebrandspresentedona

five-pointLikert-typescalerangingfromstronglydisagreetostronglyagree.

PartThirteenDemographics

Thefinalsectionofthepre-testsurveyincludedquestionsrelatedtodemographics.

Itwasinthissectionthatstudentsindicatedtheirage,gender,academicstatusand

race/ethnicity.Themeasureforagewasleftasanopen-endedratio-levelvariabletoallow

forthemaximumlevelofvariationatthetimeofanalysis.Theotherswerenominal

variables,exceptforacademicstatus,whichwasanordinalmeasurerangingfrom

"freshman"to"graduatestudent."


38/56

38

Thesesingle-itemmeasureswerestrategicallyandpurposefullyplacedattheendof

thequestionnairetohelpeasetheburdenplacedontherespondent.Bythetimethey

arrivedatthissection,mostoftheitemsmeasuringthepredictorshadalreadybeen

presented,thusanticipatingthetroubleofanyunfinishedquestionnaires.Atthe

completionofthissection,respondentswereonceagainthankedfortheirtime.


39/56

39

AnalysisofMeasures

Aftercompletingthesurveyinstrument,themeasureswereanalyzedthrougha

two-partprocess.Thefirstevaluationwasaqualitativeassessmentwithotherresearchers.

Thesecondwasaquantitativepre-testconsistingofdatacollectionfromaconvenience

sampleof62collegestudents.

QualitativeAssessment

VariousresearchersatBostonUniversityperformedapreliminaryanalysisofthe

survey.Theinstrumentwasfirstevaluatedbyseveralresearchcolleaguestakingacourse

insurveydesign.Minorchangesweremadetoseveralitemsfollowingtheirsuggestions.

Thishelpedensureclarityandunderstandingwithinthesurveyandallowedtheresearcher

togainanotherperspective.

Next,thesupervisingresearcher,aprofessionalwithmorethan20yearsof

experienceinresearchmethodsandsurveydesign,servedasthemainconsultantforthis

project.Aninitialassessmentoftheliteraturereviewyieldedrecommendationstonarrow

thescopeoftopicscovered.Additionally,thedifficultytomergetheTheoryofPlanned

Behaviorwiththenumerouspredictorsproposedposedaparticularproblem.However,

afterrevisionsweremadetothescopeoftheliteraturereview,theTheoryofPlanned

Behaviorwasdeemedanappropriateframeworkonwhichtobasethispre-test.

Subsequently,thesupervisingresearcherrevisedtheproposedconstructsandtheir

items.Asmentionedbefore,thesingleitemsrelatingtothecharacteristicsthatconsumers

considerwhenpurchasingchewinggumwereproposedasmultiple-itemmeasuresof

topicallyrelatedconstructs.However,afteradiscussionwiththesupervisingresearcherit


40/56

40

wasdeterminedthattherewasnotenoughoverlapinmeaningamongtheseitemstobe

consideredmeasuresoftheproposedconstructs.

QuantitativePre-Test

Thedatacollectionforthepre-testwasconductedonApril18and19,2012,inthe

GeorgeShermanUnionatBostonUniversity.Aconveniencesampleof62studentswas

collectedfromundergraduatesandgraduatestudentswhowereofferedacookieasatoken

ofappreciationfortheirtime.

Followingthecollection,eachquestionnairewasassignedanidentificationnumber

andacodebookwascreatedforeachofthemeasures.Five-pointLikert-typescaleswere

assignedscores,with1beingthelowestscoreofagreementand5beingthehighest.

Reverse-codeditemsasidentifiedearlierinthisreportwereenteredintoSPSSasstatedon

thesurveys,butwererecodedbytheresearcherbeforeanyanalyseswereconducted.The

restofthedatawasenteredintothesoftwareasitwascodedinthesurvey.

AssessmentofContentValidityandReliability

Twomaingoalsguidedtheprocessofanalyzingthemultiple-itemmeasures.First,

anassessmentofcontentvaliditywasnecessarytoensurethatalltheitemsmeasured

thoseconceptstheyweresupposedtomeasurefullyandaccurately.Additionally,content

validitywasimportanttodeterminethatwhateachitemwascapturingwasaunique

meaning.Thesecondgoaloftheanalysiswastodetermineifthemeasureswerereliable.

Thesereliabilityassessmentsindicatewhethertheitemswithineachconstructwill

measurethesameconceptthesamewayovertime.

Theanalysisbeganwithfrequencydistributionstodetermineifanyoutliersor

codingerrorswerepresent.ItwasfoundthatthequestionsrelatedtoAttitudetoward


41/56

41

Advertisingwereonlyansweredby20oftherespondents.Theseitemswerethusexcluded

fromfurtheranalysis.Then,aninter-itemcorrelationmatrixwascreatedtodeterminethe

overlapinmeaningbetweentheindividualitems.Followingthis,aprincipalcomponents

rotatedfactoranalysiswasconductedtoevaluatetheproposedmultiple-itemmeasures.

Finally,reliabilityoftheitemswasdeterminedbyfindingtheCronbach'salphaforeach

constructanditsmeasures.

Inter-ItemCorrelationMatrix

Aninter-itemcorrelationmatrixwasdevelopedtoevaluatetheoverlapinmeaning

ofalltheitemsinthemulti-itemmeasures.Variousproblemspresentedthemselvesatthis

stageoftheanalysis.First,manyoftheitemshadahighPearson'scorrelationwithitems

thatdidnotbelongtothesameconstruct.However,afterconsultingwiththesupervising

researcher,itwasdeterminedthatthesehighcorrelationswerenotaproblemaslongas

theydidn'treacha.7scoreonPearson'sscale.

Additionally,twoitemsimmediatelystoodoutasproblematic.Theitems"Ienjoy

admiringnature"and"Iprefertobuyfamiliarproducts"yieldedverylowandeven

negativescoresforPearson'scorrelationcoefficient.Theresearcherusedthehardcopies

ofthesurveystoverifythattheseitemshadbeenenteredandreversedcoded

appropriately.Sincetherewasnoerrorinthecodingordataentry,itwasdecidedthat

thosetwomeasureswouldbeexcludedaltogetherfromthefactoranalysis.Table1depicts

theinter-itemcorrelationmatrixoftheconstructInnovativenessasanexampleofthelow

correlationsthatwerefoundatthisstage.Thehighlightedrowdepictstheproblematic

measure.


42/56

42

Otheritemsalsoraisedredflagsbecauseoftheirlowcorrelations.Particularly,the

followingitemswerered-flaggedatthisstageintheprocess:"Moneycantbuyhappiness,"

"Iprefertobeself-reliantratherthandependentonothers,"and"Idontusuallychangemy

opinionstosatisfyothers."Theseitems(onefromtheMaterialismconstructandthetwo

latteronesfromLevelofIndependence)werekeptforverificationwiththefactoranalysis.

Otherproblematicitemsthatwerealsokeptforthefactoranalysiswere:Ireallylike

surprises,"IactivelyseekoutnewexperiencesandIgetboredwhenIamcontinually

aroundthesamepeople,"allfromtheNeedforArousalconstruct.

Table 1. Inter-itemCorrelation forInnovativeness

INN I often trynew products

before myfriends do.

INN I am usually amongthe first to try new

products.

INN When I see a newproduct on the shelf, I often

buy it just to see what it's like.

INN I liketo try new

things.INN I am usually among thefirst to try new products.

.764 .369 .296

INN When I see a newproduct on the shelf, I oftenbuy it just to see what it's like.

.389 .369 .152

INN When I see a newproduct on the shelf, I oftenbuy it just to see what it's like.

.238 .296 .152

INN I prefer to buy familiarproducts.

.132 -.023 -.144 -.030

Listwise N = 62

Additionally,thevariablesrelatedtobrand(Loyalty,Trust,Affect)showedahighPearson's

correlationamongthem.Itwasobviousthattheseconstructswerehighlyrelated,sothe

decisionwasmadetorunthemseparatelyinthefactoranalysistoavoidanyproblemswith

thefactorloadings.


43/56

43

PrincipalComponentsFactorAnalysis

Afterthoroughanalysisoftheinter-itemcorrelationmatrixandaftermakingthe

decisiontoomitandredflagvariousitems,thedatawasreadytobeanalyzedthrougha

principalcomponentsfactoranalysiswithVarimaxrotation.Thefactoranalysisconsisted

ofseveralsteps.First,ananalysiswasconductedwithallthevariablestogetanoverall

senseofhowstronglytheitemsloadedwiththeirownconstruct.Thiswasonlya

preliminaryfactoranalysisandalthoughmostoftheloadingslookedokay,itwasobvious

thatsomeunrelatedfactorswereloadingtogether.Throughaqualitativeassessment,the

researcherdeterminedthatthefirstfactoranalysiswouldberunwithfiveofthe

constructs:LevelofIndependence,Materialism,Impulsiveness,PackageAttributesof

AttractivenessandBrandLoyalty.Theresearcherranthefactoranalysiswiththe

extractionoffivefactorsandfoundthatmostfactorloadingswereveryhighandthatitems

wereloadingintheappropriatefactor.However,threeitemswithinLevelofIndependence

andonewithinPackageAttributesofAttractivenesshadverylowfactorloadings.The

analysiswasconductedagainwithouttheproblematicitemsandthefactorloadingsproved

satisfactory.ThetwoversionsoftheseanalysesarepresentedinTables2and3.

Table 2. Factor Analyses for Level of Independence

Factor Analysis #1Factor Analysis #2

LOI It is important to me to act as an independent person. .859 .878LOI I prefer to be self-reliant rather than dependent on others. .754 .812LOI My personal identity, independent from others, is very important for me. .780 .793LOI I would change things about myself in order to fit in. .415

LOI Being part of a group is very important to me. .398 LOI I dont usually change my opinions to satisfy others. .380

Table 3. Factor Analyses for Package Attributes-

Attractiveness

Factor Analysis#1

Factor Analysis#2


44/56

44

PckATT That have attractive colors .827 .890PckATT With designs that catch my eye .441 .871PckATT That have an unusual shape .838

ThenextgroupofconstructstogothroughfactoranalysiswascomprisedofNeedfor

Arousal,Innovativeness,PackageAttributesofPracticality,BrandTrustandProduct

Quality.Aprincipalcomponentsfactoranalysiswasconductedwithasix-factorextraction.

Atthispoint,itwasfoundthatitemsfromNeedforArousalandInnovativenesswere

loadingtogether.Anassessmentofthemeasuresconcludedthataperson'sneedfor

arousalmightdrivetheirinnovation-seekingbehavior.Thus,itwasdecidedthatthetwo

constructswouldbeanalyzedseparately.ItwasalsofoundthattheconstructsforBrand

TrustandProductQualitywerealsoloadingtogetherintheanalysis.Theresearcher

consultedwithacolleague,anduponfurtherexaminationdeterminedthatthetwo

constructswereinfactmeasuringthesamething.BecauseProductQualityfocusedonlyon

brandandnotonaparticularchewinggumproduct,thetwoconstructsweremergedintoa

newvariablecalledBrandQuality.Basedontheindividualitems,thisnewvariablewas

closerindefinitiontotheBrandTrustthedegreetowhichaconsumerbelievesabrand

ofgumistrustworthy.

Thefactoranalysiswasrunagainwithouttheinnovativenessvariablewithmore

favorableresults.However,severalitemswithineachgroupingwerestillproblematic,as

exemplifiedinTable4.Afterrerunningtheanalysiswithouttheproblematicmeasures,

newitemsappearedaslowintheirfactorloading.Thefactoranalysiswasthenrunathird

timewiththesegroupingsuntilthedesiredfactorloadingswerereached.Thesearevisible

inTable5,alongwiththetotalvarianceexplainedwitheachfactoranalysis.

Table 4. Factor Analysis Second Group NFA I really like surprises. .222 .319 -.074 .580NFA I am drawn to experiences that have an element of danger. -.116 -.307 -.026 .593


45/56

45

NFA I actively seek out new experiences. .021 .094 -.537 .412NFA I like the tried and true, rather than the new and different. -.120 -.526 -.196 .331NFA People view me as an unpredictable person. -.341 .202 -.320 .620NFA I get bored when I am continually around the same people. .001 -.011 .155 .485PRI I usually check the price of gum before I buy it. -.060 .406 .766 .002PRI I usually buy the most inexpensive package of gum available. -.125 .305 .703 -.088PRI I usually purchase gum when I see it is on sale. -.104 .548 .416 .169PRI I never check the prices of different types of gum. -.247 .007 .768 .241PckPR That are easy to open .038 .713 .143 .261PckPR That are easy to reseal .098 .728 .303 .287PckPR That are better for the environment -.136 .803 -.096 -.123PckPR That make it easy to share -.035 .766 .071 -.229BrTr This brand of gum delivers what it promises. .631 .121 -.061 -.412BrTr This brand of gum never disappoints. .463 -.353 -.065 -.130BrTr This brand of gum doesnt pretend to be something it isnt. .659 .160 -.120 -.426BrTr This brand makes true claims about its gum. .655 -.097 .043 -.098PQ I buy this brand because it is of good quality. .788 .184 -.153 .085PQ This brand of gum is consistently good. .843 .053 -.061 .213PQ This brand of gum is long lasting. .749 -.220 -.176 .109 Total Variance Explained: 57.84%

Table 5. Factor Analysis Second Group NFA I really like surprises. .298 .335 .039 .610NFA I am drawn to experiences that have an element of danger. -.081 -.350 .011 .700NFA People view me as an unpredictable person. -.281 .222 -.239 .696PRI I usually check the price of gum before I buy it. -.055 .310 .813 -.091PRI I usually buy the most inexpensive package of gum available. -.135 .244 .749 -.128PRI I never check the prices of different types of gum. -.193 -.075 .821 .108PckPR That are easy to open .080 .666 .237 .309PckPR That are easy to reseal .141 .704 .386 .281PckPR That are better for the environment -.127 .835 -.014 -.079PckPR That make it easy to share -.055 .824 .128 -.198BrTr This brand of gum doesnt pretend to be something it isnt. .613 .194 -.173 -.470BrTr This brand makes true claims about its gum. .660 -.092 .001 -.155PQ This brand of gum is long lasting. .748 -.201 -.183 .098PQ I buy this brand because it is of good quality. .799 .186 -.157 -.060PQ This brand of gum is consistently good. .874 .003 -.023 .120 Total Variance Explained: 67.17%

Thelastsetoffactoranalyseswererunwiththeremainingmultiple-itemmeasures:

OpennesstoExperience,Innovativeness,InnovativenessofFlavorandBrandAffect.This

processtookonlytwoanalysesandwastheleastproblematic,despitethesimilarity

betweentheinnovativenessconstructs.Atotaloffouritemswereremovedtoobtainstrong

factorloadingsfromeachconstruct.TheprocessisillustratedinTables6and7.

Table 6. Factor Analysis Third Group OTE I enjoy finding new solutions for common problems. .254 .065 -.120 .547OTE I enjoy pastimes that require me to use my imagination. -.103 -.039 .065 .604


46/56

46

OTE I am a creative person. .041 .077 .154 .795OTE I like to get to know unusual people. .064 -.004 -.259 .562INN I am usually among the first to try new products. .010 .105 .883 .017INN I often try new products before my friends do. -.125 .194 .906 .043INN When I see a new product on the shelf, I often buy it just to see what it's like. .296 .044 .579 -.359INN I like to try new things. .343 -.152 .393 .419INoF I often try new flavors of gum. .890 .144 -.066 .058INoFI like to try gum with new combinations of flavors. .868 .251 -.106 .092INofF I usually stick to my favorite flavor of gum. .726 -.341 .206 .111INoF I dont like to buy exotic flavors of gum. .740 -.240 .095 -.012BrAff This brand of gum makes me feel happy. -.081 .866 .119 -.011BrAff I feel good when I use this brand of gum. -.074 .842 .232 .117BrAff Using this brand of gum gives me pleasure. .083 .889 -.031 -.046 Total Variance Explained: 65.5%

Table 7. Factor Analysis Third Group OTE I enjoy pastimes that require me to use my imagination. -.041 -.057 .106 .718OTE I am a creative person. .071 .100 .117 .709OTE I like to get to know unusual people. .110 .006 -.265 .614

INN I am usually among the first to try new products. .033 .095 .887 .088INN I often try new products before my friends do. -.109 .182 .917 .069INN When I see a new product on the shelf, I often buy it just to see what it's like. .269 .022 .606 -.438INoF I often try new flavors of gum. .876 .142 -.066 -.048INoFI like to try gum with new combinations of flavors. .885 .250 -.102 .093INofF I usually stick to my favorite flavor of gum. .754 -.350 .215 .153INoF I dont like to buy exotic flavors of gum. .747 -.228 .066 -.017BrAff This brand of gum makes me feel happy. -.089 .862 .133 -.044BrAff Using this brand of gum gives me pleasure. .091 .896 -.036 -.013BrAff I feel good when I use this brand of gum. -.066 .842 .236 .127 Total Variance Explained: 71.18%

Uponcompletingthesefactoranalyses,thefinallistofconstructsandtheiritems

werereadytogothroughatestoftheirreliability.Themeasuresthatpassedthefactor

anaysistothenextstepwere:

NeedforArousal

Ireallylikesurprises

Iamdrawntoexperiencesthathaveanelementofdanger.

Peopleviewmeasanunpredictableperson.

OpennesstoExperience

Ienjoypastimesthatrequiremetousemyimagination. Iamacreativeperson.

Iliketogettoknowunusualpeople.

Materialism

Oneofmydreamsinlifeistobeabletoownexpensivethings.

IthinkothersjudgemeasapersonbytheproductsIown.

Moneycantbuyhappiness.


47/56

47

LevelofIndependence

Itisimportanttometoactasanindependentperson.

Iprefertobeself-reliantratherthandependentonothers.

Mypersonalidentity,independentfromothers,isveryimportantforme.

Impulsiveness

Ioftenbuythingsspontaneously.

"Iseeit,Ibuyit"describesme.

Icarefullyplanmostofmypurchases.

"Justdoit"describesthewayIbuythings.

Innovativeness

Iamusuallyamongthefirsttotrynewproducts.

Ioftentrynewproductsbeforemyfriendsdo.

WhenIseeanewproductontheshelf,Ioftenbuyitjusttoseewhatitslike.

InnovativenessofFlavorofgum

Ioftentrynewflavorsofgum Iliketotrygumwithnewcombinationsofflavors.

Iusuallysticktomyfavoriteflavorofgum.

Idontliketobuyexoticflavorsofgum.

PriceConsciousness

IusuallycheckthepriceofgumbeforeIbuyit.

Iusuallybuythemostinexpensivepackageofgumavailable.

Inevercheckthepricesofdifferenttypesofgum.

PackageAttractiveness

Thathaveattractivecolors.

Withdesignsthatcatchmyeye.

PackagePracticality

Thatareeasytoopen.

Thatareeasytoreseal.

Thatarebetterfortheenvironment.

Thatmakeiteasytoshare.

BrandLoyalty

Ialmostalwaysbuythesamebrandofgum.

OnceIfindabrandofgumIlike,Iusuallystickwithit.

ItrynewbrandsofgumbecauseIlikethevariety. EvenifItrydifferentflavorsofgum,Igenerallysticktothesamebrand.

BrandAffect

Thisbrandofgummakesmefeelhappy.

IfeelgoodwhenIusethisbrandofgum.

Usingthisbrandofgumgivesmepleasure.

BrandQuality(newvariable)


48/56

48

Thisbrandofgumdoesntpretendtobesomethingitisnt.

Thisbrandmakestrueclaimsaboutitsgum.

Ibuythisbrandbecauseitisofgoodquality.

Thisbrandofgumisconsistentlygood.

Thisbrandofgumislonglasting.

ACronbach'salphawascomputedforeachoftheseconstructs.Onlyoneconstruct's

measuresresultedinanunacceptableCronbach'salpha.Noitemsprovidedanalphawitha

differencehigherthan.1iftheyweredeleted.ThefindingsaresummarizedinTable8.

Mostofthealphaspresentedherehadastronglevelofreliability,withmanycontaining

alphasof.7and.8;onlyOpennesstoExperienceresultedinnon-reliablemeasures.

Additionally,theconstructforPackageAttributesAtrractivenessonlyresultedintwo

measures,limitingthereliabilityanalysisforalackofcomparativeproperties.

Table 8. Reliability Analysis of Constructs

Item Alphaifitemdeleted

NeedforArousal(Cronbach'sAlpha=.554) NFA I really like surprises. .474

NFA I am drawn to experiences that have an element of danger. .527NFA People view me as an unpredictable person. .356OpennesstoExperience(Cronbach'sAlpha=.487) OTE I enjoy pastimes that require me to use my imagination. .438OTE I am a creative person. .268OTE I like to get to know unusual people. .450Materialism(Cronbach'sAlpha=.573) MAT One of my dreams in life is to be able to own expensive things. .332MAT I think others judge me as a person by the products I own. .499MAT Money cant buy happiness. .570LevelofIndependence(Cronbach'sAlpha=.786) LOI It is important to me to act as an independent person. .630

LOI I prefer to be self-reliant rather than dependent on others. .753LOI My personal identity, independent from others, is very important for me. .753Impulsiveness(Cronbach'sAlpha=.834) IMP I often buy things spontaneously .790IMP "I see it, I buy it" describes me. .794IMP I carefully plan most of my purchases. .791IMP "Just do it" describes the way I buy things. .786InnovativenessofFlavor(Cronbach'sAlpha=.853) INoF I often try new flavors of gum. .789


49/56

49

INoFI like to try gum with new combinations of flavors. .780INofF I usually stick to my favorite flavor of gum. .830INoF I dont like to buy exotic flavors of gum. .845PriceConsciousness(Cronbach'sAlpha=.794) PRI I usually check the price of gum before I buy it. .642PRI I usually buy the most inexpensive package of gum available. .737

PRI I never check the prices of different types of gum. .769PackageAttractiveness(Cronbach'sAlpha=.807) PckATT That have attractive colors N/APckATT With designs that catch my eye N/A

PackagePracticality(Cronbach'sAlpha=.810) PckPR That are easy to open .782PckPR That are easy to reseal .720PckPR That are better for the environment .773PckPR That make it easy to share .764BrandLoyalty(Cronbach'sAlpha=.850) BrLoy I almost always buy the same brand of gum. .751

BrLoy Once I find a brand of gum I like, I usually stick with it. .738BrLoy I try new brands of gum because I like the variety. .889BrLoy Even if I try different flavors of gum, I generally stick to the same brand. .831BrandAffect(Cronbach'sAlpha=.855) BrAff Using this brand of gum gives me pleasure. .800BrAff This brand of gum makes me feel happy. .797BrAff I feel good when I use this brand of gum. .794BrandQuality(Cronbach'sAlpha=.807) BrTr This brand of gum doesnt pretend to be something it isnt. .784BrTr This brand makes true claims about its gum. .787PQ I buy this brand because it is of good quality. .747PQ This brand of gum is consistently good. .735PQ This brand of gum is long lasting. .793


50/56

50

RevisionstotheSurvey

Basedontheprecedingqualitativeandquantitativetestingofthesurvey

instrument,specificrevisionscouldbemadetoachievemoresatisfactoryresults.Obstacles

tosurveydesignwerepresentateverystageofitsimplementation,butsuggestionsto

overcometheseobstacleswerepresentedinthisreportaswell.Throughasystematicand

analyticrevisionofthemeasures,thefollowingrecommendationsforfuture

implementationofthisstudyarepresented:

Measuresthatwerered-flaggedatallstagesoftheanalysisshouldbethoroughly

revisedtoincreaseoverlapinmeaningwhilestillmeasuringauniqueconcept.

TheconstructsforAttitudetowardAdvertisingneedfurtheranalysis,asthe

samplethatwascollectedfortheseitemswasmuchtoosmall.Anappropriate

samplesizewouldbenecessarytoevaluatethesemeasures.

SpecialattentionshouldbepaidtotheconstructProductQuality,whichinthis

instrumentresultedasanothermanifestationofBrandTrust.

MeasuresforPackageAttributesAttractivenessyieldedonlytwoitems.More

relatedmeasuresareneededforevaluatingthereliabilityofthisconstruct.

Thesingle-itemmeasuresaskingrespondentsabouttheimportantattributesof

gumcouldeasilybecondensedintocategoriestosavespaceandreducethe

burdenontherespondent.


51/56

51

Conclusions

Thisprojectgaveimportantinsightastotheappropriatemeasurementtechniques

anddevelopmentsneededtosuccessfullycapturethevariationwithinaparticular

population.

Athoroughreviewofliteratureledtotheproposedandpotentiallysignificant

predictors.Thesepredictorswerethentranslatedintoconstructsandbrokendowninto

overlappingbutuniqueitemswithwhichtomeasuretheconstructscreated.Through

variousstatisticaltools,includinganinter-itemcorrelationmatrixandtheprincipal

componentsfactoranalysis,theresearcherwasabletodiscernwhichitemswereeffective

inaccuratelyandreliablymeasuringtheproposedpredictors.

Inordertoeffectivelyanswertheresearchquestionposedintheintroductiontothis

report,theWrigleyCompanywouldbenefitfromadministeringarevisedversionofthis

surveytoarandomsampleoftheirtargetpopulation.


52/56

52

References

Akcay,O.,Sable,P.,&Dalgin,M.H.(2012).Theimportanceofcolorinproductchoice

amongyoungHispanic,Caucasian,andAfrican-AmericangroupsintheU.S.A.

InternationalJournalofBusinessandSocialScience,3(6),2-6.

AmericanDentalAssociation.(2012).ADASealProductCategory.Retrievedfrom

http://www.ada.org/5266.aspx?category=Sugar+Free+Chewing+Gum+for+Reducin

g+Cavities

Ampuero,O.,&Vila,N.(2006).Consumerperceptionsofproductpackaging.Journalof

ConsumerMarketing,23(2),102-114.

Aroean,L.(2012).Friendorfoe:Inenjoyingplayfulness,doinnovativeconsumerstendto

switchbrand?JournalofConsumerBehaviour,11,67-80.

BBCNews.(2010).CadburyagreesKrafttakeoverbid.Retrievedfrom

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8467007.stm

Beirne,M.(2008).Gumcategoryembracesgermwarfare.Adweek.Retrievedfrom

http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising-branding/gum-category-embraces-

germ-warfare-104655

Betteroralhealth.info.(n.d.)AboutWrigley.Retrievedfromhttp://betteroralhealth.info/

orbit_us/about-wrigley/about/index.htm

Blankenship,K.,&Batchilder,M.(2011).Stride,theridiculouslylonglastinggum,

introducesStrideSpark-anewgumwithBvitamins.[PressRelease].Retrieved

fromhttp://www.kraftfoodscompany.com/mediacenter/country-press-

releases/us/2011/us_pr_02102011b.aspx

Blischok,T.(2010,August).Continuedgrowthprojectedforconfections.CandyIndustry.


53/56

53

BrunerII,G.C.(2009).MarketingScalesHandbook:ACompilationofMulti-Item

MeasuresforConsumerBehavior&Advertising(V5),Carbondale,IL:GCBII

Productions.

BrunerII,G.C.,&Hensel,P.J.(1992),MarketingScalesHandbook:ACompilation

ofMulti-ItemMeasures(V1),Chicago:AMA.

BrunerII,G.C.,&Hensel,P.J.(1996),MarketingScalesHandbook:ACompilation

ofMulti-ItemMeasures(V2),Chicago:AMA.

Cadbury.(2009).[GraphillustratingthehistoryofCadbury].OurStory.Retrievedfrom

http://cadbury.co.uk/cadburyandchocolate/ourstory/Pages/ourstoryFlash.aspx#/

Cassell,D.(2010,March).Freshandexciting.RetailConfectioner.Retrievedfrom

Chaudhuri,A.,&Holbrook,M.B.(2001).Thechainofeffectsfrombrandtrustand

brandaffecttobrandperformance:Theroleofbrandloyalty.TheJournalof

Marketing,65(2),81-93.

Chang,T.(2007).Health-careproductadvertising:Theinfluencesofmessageframingand

perceivedproductcharacteristics.Psychology&Marketing,24(2),143169.

Clark,R.A.,&Goldsmith,R.E.(2006).Globalinnovativenessandconsumersusceptibilityto

interpersonalinfluence.JournalofMarketingTheoryandPractice,14(4),275.

Eli,I.,Bar-Tal,Y.,&Kostovetziki,I.(2001).Atfirstglance:Socialmeaningsofdental

appearance.JournalofPublicHealthDentistry,61(3),150-154.

FordGum.(2004).TheStoryofChewingGum.Retrievedfrom

http://www.fordgum.com/story.html


54/56

54

Hetherington,M.M.,&Boyland,E.(2007).Short-termeffectsofchewinggumonsnack

intakeandappetite.Appetite,48,397-401.

InternationalChewingGumAssociation.(n.d.).TheStoryofGum.Retrievedfrom

http://www.gumassociation.org/default.aspx?Cat=1

Jacoby,J.&Kyner,D.B.(1973).Brandloyaltyvs.repeatpurchasingbehavior.Journalof

MarketingResearch,10(1),1-9.

Kacen,J.J.,&Lee,J.A.(2002).Theinfluenceofcultureonconsumerimpulsivebehavior.

JournalofConsumerPsychology,12(2),163-176.

Kazemi,F.(2010).Theroleofmediaonconsumerbrandchoice:Acasestudyofchocolate

industry.InternationalJournalofBusinessandManagement,5(9),147-154.

Kibeom,L.,&Ashton,M.(2012).Gettingmadandgettingeven:Agreeablenessandhonesty-

humilityaspredictorsofrevengeintentions.PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,

52(5),596-600.

Kottman,E.J.(1977).Theparityproduct:Advertising'sAchillesheel.JournalofAdvertising,

6(1),34-39.

Kraft.(2012).TridentGum.Retrievedfrom

http://www.kraftfoodscompany.com/brands/featured-brands/trident.aspx

Leggett-Flynn,C.,Perille,C.,&Hart,G.(2008).Mars,Incorporatedcompletesacquisitionof

WmWrigleyJr.Company.[PressRelease].Retrievedfrom

http://www.wrigley.com/global/press/news-details.aspx?id=1164

McIntyre,C.,&Baid,A.(2009).Indulgentsnackexperienceattributesandhealthychoice

alternatives.BritishFoodJournal,111(5),486-497.

Midgley,D.F.,&Dowling,G.R.(1978).Innovativeness:Theconceptanditsmeasurement.


55/56

55

JournalofConsumerResearch,4(4),229-242.

Mintel.(2010,February).Gum,mintsandbreathfreshenersU.S.Retrievedfrom

http://academic.mintel.com.ezproxy.bu.edu/sinatra/oxygen_academic/search_resu

lts/show&/display/id=482467

Mowen,J.C.,&Spears,N.(1999).Understandingcompulsivebuyingamongcollege

students:Ahierarchicalapproach.JournalofConsumerPsychology,8(4),407-430.

Narasimhan,C.,Neslin,S.A.,&Sen,S.K.(1996).Promotionalelasticitiesand

categorycharacteristics.JournalofMarketing,60(2),17.

Newman,A.A.(2009).Sellinggumwithhealthclaims.TheNewYorkTimes.Retrievedfrom

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/28/business/media/28adco.html

(2011).Newgumswithvitamins,herbsandvariedclaims.TheNewYork

Times.Retrievedfromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/09/business/media/

09adco.html

PalmerHarvey.(n.d.).CategoryHealthCheck:ChewingGum.Retrievedfrom

http://www.palmerharvey.co.uk/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=%2FAJ6tDywY2g%3D&t

abid=86&mid=611

Patwardhan,M.,Flora,P.,&Gupta,A.(2010).Identificationofsecondaryfactorsthat

influenceconsumersbuyingbehaviorforsoapsandchocolates.IUPJournalof

MarketingManagement,9(1),55-72.Retrievedfrom

http://search.proquest.com/docview/500821291?accountid=9676

Robinson,D.J.(2004).Marketinggum,makingmeanings:WrigleyinNorthAmerica,

1890-1930.Enterprise&Society,5(1),4-44.

Rook,D.W.(1987).Thebuyingimpulse.JournalofConsumerResearch,14(2),189-199.


56/56

Rook,D.W.,&Fisher,R.J.(1995).Normativeinfluencesonimpulsivebuyingbehavior.

JournalofConsumerResearch,22(3),305-313.

Sharma,P.,Sivakumaran,B.,&Marshall,R.(2010).Exploringimpulsebuyingand

varietyseekingbyretailshoppers:Towardsacommonconceptualframework.

JournalofMarketingManagement,26(5-6),473-494.

UnitedStatestop10sugarlesschewinggumbrandsrankedbydollarsales,unitsales,

marketsharepercentages,andpercentchangeforyearendingMarch20,2011.

(2012).ChainDrugReview,33(9):55,May23,2011.

Virvilaite,R.,Saladiene,V.,&Bagdonaite,R.(2009).Peculiaritiesofimpulsivepurchasingin

themarketofconsumergoods.EngineeringEconomics,2,101-108.

Wm.WrigleyJr.CompanyCompanyProfile.(2012).YahooNewsNetwork.Retrievedfrom

http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/11/11648.html

Wrigley.(2012).[GraphillustratingthehistoryoftheWrigleyCompany].HeritageTimeline.

Retrievedfromhttp://www.wrigley.com/global/about-us/heritage-timeline.aspx.

(2012).[GraphillustratingthehistoryofOrbitgum].Orbit.Retrievedfrom

http://www.wrigley.com/global/brands/orbit.aspx

Documents

Orbit Measurement Model