DefinitionOnline advertising, also calledonline marketingorInternet advertising, is a form of marketing and advertising which uses the Internet to deliverpromotionalmarketing messages to consumers. It includes email marketing,search engine marketing(SEM), social media marketing, many types ofdisplay advertising(includingweb banneradvertising), andmobile advertising. Like other advertising media, online advertising frequently involves both a publisher, who integrates advertisements into its online content, and an advertiser, who provides the advertisements to be displayed on the publisher's content. Other potential participants include advertising agencies who help generate and place the ad copy, anad serverwho technologically delivers the ad and tracks statistics, and advertising affiliates who do independent promotional work for the advertiser.Online advertising is a large business and is growing rapidly. In 2011, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and nearly exceeded those of broadcast television.In 2012, Internet advertising revenues in the United States totaled $36.57 billion, a 15.2% increase over the $31.74 billion in revenues in 2011. U.S. internet ad revenue hit a historic high of $20.1 billion for the first half of 2013, up 18% over the same period in 2012.Online advertising is widely used across virtually all industry sectors.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_advertising Online advertising is a marketing strategy that involves the use of the Internet as a medium to obtain website traffic and target and deliver marketing messages to the right customers. Online advertising is geared toward defining markets through unique and useful applications.Since the early 1990s there has been an exponential increase in the growth of online advertising, which has evolved into a standard for small and large organizations. Online advertising is also known as Internet advertising. http://www.techopedia.com/definition/26362/online-advertising

Advantage of online advertising A major advantage of online advertising is the quick promotion of product information without geographical boundary limits. A major challenge is the evolving field of interactive advertising, which poses new challenges for online advertisers.

Online advertisements are purchased through one of the following common vehicles: Cost per Thousand (CPM): Advertisers pay when their messages are exposed to specific audiences. Cost per Click (CPC): Advertisers pay every time a user clicks on their ads. Cost per Action (CPA): Advertisers only pay when a specific action (generally a purchase) is performed.Examples of online advertising include banner ads, search engine results pages, social networking ads, email spam, online classified ads, pop-ups, contextual ads and spyware.

http://www.techopedia.com/definition/26362/online-advertisingBenefits of online advertisingOnline advertising, however, is much less expensive and reaches a much more wider audience and will probably give you more profit than traditional advertising. It has a lot of advantages that traditional advertising havent even dreamed about. This new form of advertising gives such wide possibilities, that it makes your head spin: video advertising, advertising on social networks, mobile advertising, e-mail advertising, banner advertising, Google Search advertising and a lot more. These are the benefits of online advertising:Less expensive. A main benefit of online advertising is that it has a much affordable price when compared with the traditional advertising costs. On the internet, you can advertise at a way more inexpensive cost for a much wider audience.Wider geographical reach. Online advertising gives your campaigns global coverage, which helps your online campaigns reach more audiences. This will definitely help you achieve superior results via your online advertising strategy.No rigorous payment. This is another appealing benefit of online advertising. In traditional advertising you have to pay the full amount of money to the advertising agency, no matter the results. In online advertising however, you have to pay only for the qualified clicks, leads or impressions.Easy result measurement. The fact that its so easy to measure makes online advertising more appealing than the traditional advertising methods. You can find a lot of effective analytics tools in order to measure online advertising results, which helps you know what to do and what not to do in your following campaigns.More targeted audiences. In comparison with traditional advertising, online advertising helps you to easily reach the targeted audience, which leads to your campaigns success.http://www.onbile.com/info/advantages-of-online-advertising/The disadvantages of online advertising are less, but they exist:Intrusive ads. The nature of a lot of online advertising ads and campaigns is intrusive, thats why browsers pop-up blockers can frequently prevent ads from being presented. Almost all browsers now block pop-ups. There are also extensions available for the Chrome, Opera and Firefox browsers, which will block ads on websites. More and more consumers use these methods to avoid seeing so much the advertising.Copyright problem. Your advertising materials are automatically available for everyone in the world. They can copy it, regardless of the legal limitations. Trademarks, pictures and logos can be copied and used for commercial purposes. In traditional advertising, such as TV, radio and newspaper advertising, where pictures must be replicated, copying the content is much more difficult.Advantage of online advertisingThe number of internet users is on a rapid rise worldwide and the internet is being used by people of all age and types. Internet has become one of the major medium for communication, entertainment and is indeed in the process of replacing traditional entertainment, promo products, and informative medias. Some businesses are finding that handing out a promo product such as pens, business cards, and mugs are too costly and yield little results. Likewise, traditional marketing forms such as television, radio, newspaper, magazines, etc., are becoming a thing of the past.Internet has also undoubtedly become a major and effective medium for advertising and it can clearly be predicted that the online advertising and marketing is very soon going to replace the advertising through traditional medias such as television, radio, newspaper and magazines. Most of the companies and organizations are relying on digital advertising and marketing techniques to improve their overall sales and revenue.The advantages of online advertising are many when compared with the traditional advertising and marketing techniques. Theonline advertising and marketingscenario is drastically entering a wider area and in the coming years one cannot even think of a business promotion without the help of internet advertising. Here I have picked around 10 advantages of online advertising (not in that order) when compared with the traditional offline advertising.

1) Wider CoverageThe online advertising gives your ads a much wider global coverage and this helps in making your online advertisements reach more audiences, which may ultimately help you in getting better results through your online advertising campaign. With internet advertising, you can also specify the range of your advertisement coverage which helps you to enjoy a better advertisement campaign.2) Targeted AudiencesWhen compared with offline advertising, online advertising always helps you to reach the targeted audience and this helps in making your campaign more profitable and getting more relevant leads.3) AffordableAnother main advantage of online advertising or marketing is the much affordable price when compared with the traditional advertising costs. With a much lesser cost you can advertise on the net for a wider range of audience and geographical locations.4) Easy to Track and Measure ConversionMeasurability and easiness to track the conversion makes online advertising miles ahead on the traditional advertising methods. A lot of effective analytics tools are available to measure online advertising campaigns which helps in more improvisation of the ads.5) SpeedOnline advertising is faster than any of the offline advertising activities and you can start sending out your online ads to a wider audience, the moment you start your advertising campaign. So if you have a large targeted audience online at the time of triggering your online advertisements, then your ad will be served to majority of the audience in no time.6) InformativeIn online advertising, the advertiser is able to convey more details about the advertisement to the audience and that too at relatively low cost. Most of the online advertising campaigns are composed of a click-able link to a specific landing page, where users get more information about the product mentioned in the ad.7) Flexible PaymentPayment flexibility is another added advantage of online advertising and marketing. In offline advertising you need to pay the full amount to the advertising agency irrespective of the results. But in online advertising there is the flexibility of paying for only qualified leads, clicks or impressions.8) Better ROISince online advertising is mainly focused on performance based payment, you ROI is sure to be far better when compared with offline advertising. You can also easily track and analyze the performance of your online advertisements and adjust them so as to improve your ROI.9) Easy Audience EngagementMost of the online advertisement platform makes is easy for the audience to engage with your ads or products. As an advertiser we would be able to get more feedback from the audience and thereby improve the quality of our ads going forward.10) Better BrandingAny form of advertising helps in improving the branding and online advertising stands a notch high in improving the branding of your company, service or product. If your digital advertising campaign is well planned, you have the chances of getting your brand name spread virally over a larger audience.As the benefits of advantages of digital marketing are not confined to the above points, you might be able to come up with more valuable points. But to make the post short and less boring, I have limited the list of online advertising advantages to 10. Hope you enjoyed the read.http://www.georgescifo.com/Disadvantages of Online Advertising Since many consumers spend time shopping online for everything from groceries and clothing to electronics and cleaning supplies, many businesses include online advertising in their marketing strategies. While the benefits of advertising online include the potential to reach a large market and the ability to measure results, online advertising also presents some disadvantages.Customers Ignore AdsConsumers are so used to seeing advertising on television, hearing radio commercials and flipping through advertisements in magazines, they've developed an aversion to all forms of advertising. This is also the case with online advertising, where consumers can avoid clicking banner advertisements, bypass ads in online videos they watch and close pop-up advertisements as soon as they come up on their screens. Customers are in control of which advertising messages they want to click and respond to.Viewing ProblemsWebsite downtime, lags in website or video loading and browser complications can reduce the number of times consumers see online advertisements and how well they see them. When technical issues occur, companies lose the opportunity to broadcast advertisements for their products and services and may lose potential sales. Viewing problems can occur because of problems with a website or if a consumer is using a smart phone or other mobile device to view a website, has a slow connection speed or does not have the correct applications and programs installed on his computers for proper viewing.

Expensive Ad PricesPricing for advertising online can range from inexpensive -- $20-a-month placements on local parenting blogs -- to thousands of dollars on popular sites such as the New York Times. The cost for banner, text and video ads vary depending on the amount of traffic and the type of readership a website or blog receives. Online advertising through pay-per-click campaigns and social media sites can also wreak havoc on a company's marketing budget, potentially yielding little to no return on investment.Consumers Get DistractedWhen customers visit a website, they typically have a goal in mind, whether it's to catch up on the latest celebrity gossip, read the news, chat with friends, download music or shop for a specific item. Websites present customers with various options that can easily distract them and pull their attention from your online advertisements.Too Many OptionsThe Internet offers a wide range of websites on which companies can place advertisements. This can be overwhelming, especially for small business owners. With so many options, it's difficult to narrow down the choices to the websites that will attract the most potential customers and sales. Once a company selects a website, it is then presented with a variety of ways it can advertise its products or services on the site, such as through banner advertisements, video marketing or by sponsoring a post. Companies have to determine which type of advertisement yields the best response from their target markets.http://smallbusiness.chron.com/The importance of internet advertisingIf you are a business owner or CEO, it is vital that you recognise the importance of online advertising in todays modern times. It is indeed a rat-race and with the scramble for customers on the rise, businesses all over the world have constantly tried over the past few decades to come up with new and effective means of getting their brand recognised and into the main stream. With the advent of the internet, these very same businesses saw a much quicker and easier solution to traditional advertising i.e. e-marketing. The internet is only going to get bigger and internet advertising allows businesses to trace what works and what doesnt and this provides the advertiser with a greater return on investment. Remember, if youre not doing it, then your competitor probably is.Online advertising and profile listing has far surpassed traditional mediums such as print and broadcasting and is indeed the staple within any industry today. With the vast amount of web users and online traffic present in todays global village, it seems fairly obvious that there can be no better way of exposing a company to the public and indeed the world. As an example, there are over a billion web users in the world right now! The numbers are indeed staggering and any company not listing their products or services online are going to be disappointed and left lagging behind. In order to keep their customer base healthy, businesses need to be consistently finding new mediums such as Snupit, to keep their name fresh, exposed and visible.The cost factor always plays a vital role in advertising and by marketing your company online, your business can always be assured of the most reliable, cheapest rates possible. It is a rather inexpensive form of marketing compared to traditional methods, where companies have to fork out millions unnecessarily. Sites such aswww.snupit.co.zaand others, provide the opportunity to list business profiles that contain links to the company website for example, and increased web traffic is always a good thing for any company. Detailed maps to your establishment are also a feature on these sites. Online corporate videos are far cheaper than television adverts and promoting your business online can be achieved with virtually a shoe-string budget.If your business is not marketed via the World Wide Web then you are virtually non-existent. With most procurement sites, you have the option of being listed for free. Listing a company is highly beneficial as it relies on keywords that people use to search for services and products and is hence target specific. It is affordable, traceable and tailored specifically to your target audience. If a company for example advertises offline, such as putting up a billboard down a side street, its rather difficult to know how effective that billboard was at driving traffic to that business. Snupit and similar sites allow you to choose between various packages that suit your budget and you are guaranteed to reach markets never reached before. Try it today.http://www.snupit.co.za/Types of ResearchProblem-Identification ResearchBy conducting new market research projects in your company, you might discover a potential dilemma or opportunity that you have not considered before. You could discover any of the following factors through problem-identification research:Brand Image: your customers perceptions of your brand. Its extremely important to be aware of how customers view your company. Determining which strategies you want to use to positively influence your brand image can be done through researching your consumers current perceptions and what they want from your company.Market Characteristics: the characteristics ofyour target market. You need to consider all aspects that drive your different customers to purchase. Your customers on the west coast are going to have different purchasing behaviors than those from the east coast. Recognizing these differences between subcultures, and meeting the needs of those differences, will help your business marketing strategies succeed.Market Potential: an estimate of your products potential profit. If you research how consumers might react to advertising or price changes in your product before you take action, you will be better prepared and market to your consumers more accurately.Market Share: percent of total product sales compared to your competitors. Market share gives you an estimate of the amount of market your company holds and can give you an idea of how youcompare to your competitors. It also can reveal some of your competitors' capabilities and strengths, so you can develop an appropriate strategy.Problem-Solving ResearchOnce you identify your marketing problem, you need to research how to solve it. The following research options will help you solve potential problems or capitalize on opportunities identified by your company:Distribution Research: determining where your product should be sold and how to get it there. Distribution Research helps you plan the best way to get your product from the manufacturer to the retail shelf. In addition to deciding which retailers should carry your product, you should determine where your inventory will be held.Market Segmentation: Grouping customers by similar backgrounds or similar purchase behaviors. Utilizing problem-solving research can determine how to most accurately accomplish this and even how to design advertisements to attract those groups. You will need to collect both qualitative and quantitative data to accurately understand your market segments.Pricing Research: determining the ideal price for your product. Setting the price for your product is one of the most important marketing steps. You need to keep the customer in mind as well as remember that the main goal is to maximize your profits. Consider whether or not customers can be gained through lower prices. Can you maximize profit through increasing price? How sensitive will your customers be if you begin slightly increasing price? All aspects need to be well thought-out. Researching customers reactions to price sensitivity is essential.Product Research: testing your new or revised products or completing test marketing. Researching secondary data or observing how your products will be used can allow you to effectively compete in the market. Testing different components can identify new products or discover ways to modify existing products, for example, updating a product to compete with newer products.Promotional Research: following up with the effectiveness of youradvertising strategies. If your company is using advertisements, there are factors you need to be checking up on. Unless you are evaluating your advertising budget, if your ads are useful in both retaining and gaining customers and researching what type of ads (online, commercial or print) are most effective, you truly cannot know whether youre wasting your companys money.Primary dataPrimary data is collected from a first-hand experience and is reliable and authentic. Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective. Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings, therefore its validity is greater than secondary data. Primary data is the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables that is collected by the investigator conducting the research. Secondary data on the other hand is reprocessing and reusing collected information. Both methods have their advantages and disadvantages and depending on the nature of the research, one has to be keen on which of these is most applicable.

Secondary dataData collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as secondary data. The review of literature in nay research is based on secondary data. Secondary data is data that is not collected by the person who is doing research. An example of secondary data is a community assessment done by another organization but used to substantiate

http://www.datacollectionservices.net/our-data-collection-services/primary-and-secondary-data-collection/Survey methodA survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonly used in psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on factual information about individuals, or it may aim to collect the opinions of the survey takers. A survey can be administered in a couple of different ways. In one method known as a structured interview, the researcher asks each participant the questions. In the other method known as a questionnaire, the participant fills out the survey on his or her own. Surveys are generally standardized to ensure that they have reliability and validity. Standardization is also important so that the results can be generalized to the larger population.

Mail SurveysMail surveys are sent to a preselected sample of people, with instructions on how to fill out the survey and return it enclosed.[1]It has historically been one of the cheapest and most efficient methods of survey distribution. Because the survey is not administered by a researcher, there is no problem of interviewer bias, and because the survey is taken in private with the assurance of anonymity, there is likely to be less social desirability bias and discomfort talking about private subjects. However it is not without drawbacks: because the survey is self-administered, participants cannot ask for clarification, and there is no way to definitely control the order the questions are answered in. Also, many participants will not fill out the survey, either because they have poor literacy or vision, or simply cant be bothered. In addition, this group of people is not an equal distribution of the sample, so the sample may become less representative than it was intended to be. To guard against sample bias, many institutions try to use personal touches such as addressing materials to the participants name rather than "To Resident," and by making the surveys easy and interesting.

Personal InterviewsPersonal interviews are conducted by an associate of the researcher or the actual researcher. These usually take place either at a research facility, their home, or a neutral, public place[1]These interviews have more flexibility than a paper survey, because, for instance, the interviewer can skip irrelevant questions, and both the interviewer and respondent can ask for clarification. The interviewer can also control the order of the questions if that is important. There also tends to be a higher response rate than with mail surveys because people are less likely to say no to a person than to throw away a paper. However, meeting and interviewing all participants in person is both expensive and time consuming. There is also the problem of interviewer bias: that either the interviewer will write down only part of the answer or change it to fit their interpretation, or that they will ask leading questions. Its important to train interviewers not to do this. Telephone InterviewsInterviews can also be administered by telephone. This reduces both cost and time from doing them in person, and means a wider population can be reached for sampling, including people far from the research base and people who work during the day[1]There can be problems with the breadth of population available by phone. In 2000, it was reported that 97% of all United States households have a telephone, so in many countries, the unavailable population is tiny. Also, with random-digit dialing, unlisted number are available to be sampled. There are a few problems: people of a higher socioeconomic status may have multiple phone numbers and therefore be overrepresented in a random-digit survey. People also have the ability to screen calls, and participants who answer a cell phone in the middle of the workday may be less likely to answer a long survey.

Internet SurveysSince the popularity of the internet, using it to distribute surveys cheaply and easily has become more and more common[1]Its easy to get many responses from a wide variety of demographic, and thanks to special-interest chat sites and message boards, its easy to poll people that fit a certain profile, such as cancer survivors or comic book fans. Unfortunately, there are still sample bias problems as not everyone has access to the internet. There is no way at the moment to take a random sample of all internet users. Another problem is that because researchers cannot control the survey environment, its impossible to tell whether participants are taking the survey seriously or frivolously, answer the questions of confused participants, or be sure that a single individual isnt taking the survey multiple times.

Sample size designA sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population . It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample . Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample, i.e. , the size of sample. SAMPLE UNIT- A decision has to be taken concerning a sample unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village etc.TYPE OF UNIVERSE The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items are finite.

Sampling technique

Nonprobability

Probability

Simple Random SamplingSystematic SamplingStratified SamplingCluster samplingOthers samplingConvenience samplingJudgmental SamplingQuota samplingSnowball Sampling

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING In this , the researcher according to his convenience selects various sampling units . Often those elements are selected in the sample , which happen to be in right place and at right time . JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING In judgmental sampling the judgment or opinion of same experts from the basis of sample method it is expected this samples would be suppose to know the population .

PROBABILITY SAMPLING- 1 Each and every unit of the population as the equal chance for selection as a sample unit. 2 Also called formal sampling or random sampling . 3 Probability sample allow us to estimate the accuracy of the sample.QUOTA SAMPLING 1 The population is divided into cells on the basis of relevant control characteristics . 2 A quota of sample units is established for each cell . 3 A convenience sample is drawn for each cell until the quota is met . 4 It is entirely non random and it is normally use for interview surveys .

PROBABILITY SAMPLING SAMPLE RANDON SAMPLING There are 2 type simple random sample : - 1 WITH REPLACEMENT Simple random sample the unit once selected has the chance for again selection. 2 WITH OUT REPLACEMENT Simple random sample the unit one selected can not be selected again. SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLE - 1 Order or unit in the sample frame based on some variables and then every Nnth number on the list is selected. 2 Gaps between elements are equal and constant. 3 N = SAMPLING INTERVAL STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING Population is divided into 2 or more groups called strata according to some criteria such as - geographical location , great level , age and income and sub samples are randomly selected from each strata . Elements with in each strata are homogeneous but are heterogeneous across strata. CLUSTER SAMPLING The population is divided into sub groups like families a simple random sample is taken to the sub groups and then all members of the cluster selected are survey. There are many point which are following as :- NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING The probability of each case being selected from the total population is not known units of the sample are chosen on the basis of personal judgment or convenience there are no statical technique for measuring random sampling error in a non probability sample . Data analysis technique

Data Analysisis the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures provide a way of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data..While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many times analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously collected and analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004). The form of the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative approach taken (field study, ethnography content analysis, oral history, biography,unobtrusiveresearch) and the form of the data (field notes, documents, audiotape, videotape).An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis of research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead casual readers (Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence the public perception of research. Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of non-statistical data as well.Considerations/issues in data analysis

There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to data analysis. These include:Having the necessary skills to analyzeConcurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis Drawing unbiased inference Inappropriate subgroup analysis Following acceptable norms for disciplines Determiningstatistical significance Lack of clearly defined and objectiveoutcome measurements Providing honest and accurate analysis Manner of presenting data Environmental/contextual issues Data recording method Partitioning textwhen analyzing qualitative data Training of staff conducting analyses Reliability and Validity Extent of analysisHaving necessary skills to analyze

A tacit assumption of investigators is that they have received training sufficient to demonstrate a high standard of research practice. Unintentional scientific misconduct' is likely the result of poor instruction and follow-up. A number of studies suggest this may be the case more often than believed (Nowak, 1994; Silverman, Manson, 2003). For example, Sica found that adequate training of physicians in medical schools in the proper design, implementation and evaluation of clinical trials is abysmally small (Sica, cited in Nowak, 1994). Indeed, a single course in biostatistics is the most that is usually offered (Christopher Williams, cited in Nowak, 1994).A common practice of investigators is to defer the selection of analytic procedure to a research team statistician. Ideally, investigators should have substantially more than a basic understanding of the rationale for selecting one method of analysis over another. This can allow investigators to better supervise staff who conduct the data analyses process and make informed decisions

Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis

While methods of analysis may differ by scientific discipline, the optimal stage for determining appropriate analytic procedures occurs early in the research process and should not be an afterthought. According to Smeeton and Goda (2003), Statistical advice should be obtained at the stage of initial planning of an investigation so that, for example, the method of sampling and design of questionnaire are appropriate.

Drawing unbiased inference

The chief aim of analysis is to distinguish between an event occurring as either reflecting a true effect versus a false one. Any bias occurring in the collection of the data, or selection of method of analysis, will increase the likelihood of drawing a biased inference. Bias can occur when recruitment of study participants falls below minimum number required to demonstrate statistical power or failure to maintain a sufficient follow-up period needed to demonstrate an effect (Altman, 2001).

Inappropriate subgroup analysis

When failing to demonstrate statistically different levels between treatment groups, investigators may resort to breaking down the analysis to smaller and smaller subgroups in order to find a difference. Although this practice may not inherently be unethical, these analyses should be proposed before beginning the study even if the intent is exploratory in nature. If it the study is exploratory in nature, the investigator should make this explicit so that readers understand that the research is more of a hunting expedition rather than being primarily theory driven.Although a researcher may not have a theory-based hypothesis for testing relationships between previously untested variables, a theory will have to be developed to explain an unanticipated finding. Indeed, in exploratory science, there are no a priori hypotheses therefore there are no hypothetical tests. Although theories can often drive the processes used in the investigation of qualitative studies, many times patterns of behavior or occurrences derived from analyzed data can result in developing new theoretical frameworks rather than determineda priori(Savenye, Robinson, 2004).

It is conceivable that multiple statistical tests could yield a significant finding by chance alone rather than reflecting a true effect. Integrity is compromised if the investigator only reports tests with significant findings, and neglects to mention a large number of tests failing to reach significance. While access to computer-based statistical packages can facilitate application of increasingly complex analytic procedures, inappropriate uses of these packages can result in abuses as well.

Following acceptable norms for disciplines

Every field of study has developed its accepted practices for data analysis. Resnik (2000) states that it is prudent for investigators to follow these accepted norms. Resnik further states that the norms are based on two factors:(1) the nature of the variables used (i.e., quantitative, comparative, or qualitative),(2) assumptions about the population from which the data are drawn (i.e., random distribution, independence, sample size, etc.). If one uses unconventional norms, it is crucial to clearly state this is being done, and to show how this new and possibly unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as well as how it differs from other more traditional methods. For example, Schroder, Carey, and Vanable (2003) juxtapose their identification of new and powerful data analytic solutions developed to count data in the area of HIV contraction risk with a discussion of the limitations of commonly applied methods.

If one uses unconventional norms, it is crucial to clearly state this is being done, and to show how this new and possibly unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as well as how it differs from other more traditional methods. For example, Schroder, Carey, and Vanable (2003) juxtapose their identification of new and powerful data analytic solutions developed to count data in the area of HIV contraction risk with a discussion of the limitations of commonly applied methods.

Determining significance

While the conventional practice is to establish a standard of acceptability for statistical significance, with certain disciplines, it may also be appropriate to discuss whether attaining statistical significance has a true practical meaning, i.e.,clinical significance. Jeans (1992) defines clinical significance as the potential for research findings to make a real and important difference to clients or clinical practice, to health status or to any other problem identified as a relevant priority for the discipline.Kendall and Grove (1988) define clinical significance in terms of what happens when troubled and disordered clients are now, after treatment, not distinguishable from a meaningful and representative non-disturbed reference group. Thompson and Noferi (2002) suggest that readers of counseling literature should expect authors to report either practical or clinical significance indices, or both, within their research reports. Shepard (2003) questions why some authors fail to point out that the magnitude of observed changes may too small to have any clinical or practical significance, sometimes, a supposed change may be described in some detail, but the investigator fails to disclose that the trend is not statistically significant .

Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements

No amount of statistical analysis, regardless of the level of the sophistication, will correct poorly defined objective outcome measurements. Whether done unintentionally or by design, this practice increases the likelihood of clouding the interpretation of findings, thus potentially misleading readers.

Provide honest and accurate analysis

The basis for this issue is the urgency of reducing the likelihood of statistical error. Common challenges include the exclusion ofoutliers, filling in missing data, altering or otherwise changing data, data mining, and developing graphical representations of the data (Shamoo, Resnik, 2003).

Manner of presenting data

At times investigators may enhance the impression of a significant finding by determining how to presentderived data(as opposed to data in its raw form), which portion of the data is shown, why, how and to whom (Shamoo, Resnik, 2003). Nowak (1994) notes that even experts do not agree in distinguishing between analyzing and massaging data. Shamoo (1989) recommends that investigators maintain a sufficient and accurate paper trail of how data was manipulated for future review.Environmental/contextual issues

The integrity of data analysis can be compromised by the environment or context in which data was collected i.e., face-to face interviews vs. focused group. Theinteractionoccurring within a dyadic relationship (interviewer-interviewee) differs from the group dynamic occurring within a focus group because of the number of participants, and how they react to each others responses. Since the data collection process could be influenced by the environment/context, researchers should take this into account when conducting data analysis.Data recording method

Analyses could also be influenced by the method in which data was recorded. For example, research events could be documented by:a. recording audio and/or video and transcribing laterb. either a researcher or self-administered surveyc. eitherclosed ended surveyoropen ended surveyd. preparing ethnographic field notes from a participant/observere. requesting that participants themselves take notes, compile and submit them to researchers.While each methodology employed has rationale and advantages, issues of objectivity and subjectivity may be raised when data is analyzed.Partitioning the text

During content analysis, staff researchers or raters may use inconsistent strategies in analyzing text material. Some raters may analyze comments as a whole while others may prefer to dissect text material by separating words, phrases, clauses, sentences or groups of sentences. Every effort should be made to reduce or eliminate inconsistencies between raters so that data integrity is not compromised.Training of Staff conducting analyses

A major challenge to data integrity could occur with the unmonitored supervision of inductive techniques. Content analysis requires raters to assign topics to text material (comments). The threat to integrity may arise when raters have received inconsistent training, or may have received previous training experience(s). Previous experience may affect how raters perceive the material or even perceive the nature of the analyses to be conducted. Thus one rater could assign topics or codes to material that is significantly different from another rater. Strategies to address this would include clearly stating a list of analyses procedures in the protocol manual, consistent training, and routine monitoring of raters.Reliability and Validity

Researchers performing analysis on either quantitative or qualitative analyses should be aware of challenges to reliability and validity. For example, in the area of content analysis, Gottschalk (1995) identifies three factors that can affect the reliability of analyzed data:stability , or the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a period of timereproducibility , or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the same wayaccuracy , or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or norm statisticallyThe potential for compromising data integrity arises when researchers cannot consistently demonstrate stability, reproducibility, or accuracy of data analysisAccording Gottschalk, (1995), the validity of a content analysis study refers to the correspondence of the categories (the classification that raters assigned to text content) to the conclusions, and the generalizability of results to a theory (did the categories support the studys conclusion, and was the finding adequately robust to support or be applied to a selected theoretical rationale?).Extent of analysis

Upon coding text material for content analysis, raters must classify each code into an appropriate category of a cross-reference matrix. Relying on computer software to determine a frequency or word count can lead to inaccuracies. One may obtain an accurate count of that word's occurrence and frequency, but not have an accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage (Gottschalk, 1995). Further analyses might be appropriate to discover the dimensionality of the data set or identity new meaningful underlying variables.Whether statistical or non-statistical methods of analyses are used, researchers should be aware of the potential for compromising data integrity. While statistical analysis is typically performed on quantitative data, there are numerous analytic procedures specifically designed for qualitative material including content, thematic, and ethnographic analysis. Regardless of whether one studies quantitative or qualitative phenomena, researchers use a variety of tools to analyze data in order to test hypotheses, discern patterns of behavior, and ultimately answer research questions. Failure to understand or acknowledge data analysis issues presented can compromise data integrity.