Running Head: CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES

Master Thesis

Discrepancies and similarities in city branding: How Athens and London are represented in the

media surrounding the Olympic Games

Olga-Christina Santikou

University of Amsterdam

Graduate School of Communication

Track: Corporate Communication

26th of June 2015

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 2 Abstract

As cities grow, their branding becomes ever more crucial in order to attract new demographics.

This, in turn, allows for concise target marketing to which compliments the overall branding

strategy. This exploratory thesis aims to address the discrepancies and similarities in regards to

city branding in the period surrounding the Olympic Games. In doing so, it reveals the manner in

which Athens and London were represented in international media. In the opening ceremonies of

their Olympic Games, both Athens (2004) and London (2012) promoted their cultural heritage

legacy by presenting historic events in an entertaining format as the outside world watched.

Notwithstanding, their priorities and the manner that they were presented varied. This thesis also

addresses how the two European cities were perceived by international media. Surrounding the

Athens the Games themselves were the primary topic discussed, whereas surrounding London,

the primary topic was the economy. While a series of terrorist attacks occurred after the year of

2001, the terrorism frame was reported during the time period before the Athens Games. In an

unexpected twist, the international media, were not concerned about the cultural heritage and

tourism frame in either of the two cities. This exploratory thesis can be used in the future as a

framework for an effective city branding strategy.

Key words: City branding, Athens, London, Olympic Games, 2004, 2012, opening

ceremony, cultural heritage, international media

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 3 -“ Hosting the Olympic Games of course guarantees the world's attention, but there is more to it

than simply bathing in the global spotlight. Most importantly, host cities can use the opportunity

to create a positive and lasting legacy, resulting in both tangible and intangible returns to local

communities” - . Eduardo Paes

The globalizing 21st century has been a momentous time for nations to establish their

brand identity. The history, geography, music, art and famous citizens of a location distill the

brand of a nation in the eyes of tourists organizing a vacation (Kotler & Gertner, 2004). In recent

years, it appears that countries, cities and regions all around the globe “are chasing” to brand

their assets in order to secure a competitive edge over rival destinations (Herstein, 2012). City

branding is an appropriate manner in which to describe and perform city marketing activities.

Cities all across Europe take advantage of marketing techniques and methods in order to better

promote themselves. City marketing is contingent on the construction the communication and

management of the image of the city’s image. Therefore, these factors can be considered as the

foundation for developing city’s branding (Kavaratzis, 2005).

For city branding to be effective, it needs to take into account prior existing views, as well

as evaluate its effects afterwards. When analyzing various international newspapers, a diverse

array of opinions are evident (Pease, 1990). An international view is not always congruent with

all nations and classifications. These opinions are dependent on the context in which they are

delivered. Such a divide between these viewpoints can be seen in the media coverage of and

around the Olympic Games. Factors such as human expressions and societal scope in elite

newspapers signifies which cultural artifacts account for "authentic" culture (Bourdieu, &

Johnson, 1993) in different countries and periods. Every country represents a different culture

and it is the crux of this thesis, to determine how international media characterized Athens and

London respectively, before and after their Olympic Games. This allows not only for a

comparison of the two cultures and their branding strategies, but also helps to gain insight into

the potential impact of branding activities on global news.

The Olympic Games can draw people’s attention and is regarded as a hallmark event that

marks a city into the foreseen future. People from all around the globe with and without

disabilities play together without any discrimination (Mwaniki, 2012).It is the power of sport that

brings people together from different nationalities. The Olympic industry has the power to

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 4 promote the conception of explicit support on the part of host cities and countries (Essex &

Chalkley, 1998; Hiller 2006). The Olympic Games can have long-term positive outcomes for the

host city. Throughout the Games, messages of culture are sent to an international audience (Essex

& Chalkley, 1998; Hiller 2006).

The hometown where the Olympic Games are held plays a major role in attracting tourists

and promoting its city branding. Two cities of great importance that are worth comparing are

Athens, the birthplace of the Olympic Games (Boukas, Ziakas, & Boustras, 2013) and London,

one of the most powerful global economies (IMF, 2015).1 The Olympic Games in both host cities

attracted a large number of tourists and boasted a prestigious image of its country’s capital city to

the outside world. It is worth noting that after the Olympics were held in Athens, the national

economies around the world affected by the financial crisis that broke in the summer of 2007

(Helleiner, 2011). For the analysis of this research, the fact that the economic crisis occurred

before the Olympic Games in London it might have a negative impact for the United Kingdom

and consequently for London which is of concern.

Although many research papers have been written for city branding in general

(Kavaratzis, 2004; Kavaratzis & Ashworth,2005), there is a lack of scientific research with

regard to city branding concerning the specific exploratory subject among Athens and London

(Panagiotopoulou,2012; Boukas, Ziakas & Zorbas,2013,Kaika,2010). Similar events in both

cities, whereby a strong image of each city was conveyed, will be studied. The Olympic Games

and their opening ceremonies played a significant role in the branding of London and Athens,

and although the objectives were short-term, the effects are ultimately long lasting (Garcia,

2004). In this regard, while limited empirical data has been done, it is important to research what

international media reported about these two significant European cities in order to understand

how these events were perceived globally. In this thesis we aim to describe the way Athens and

London are represented through international media and explore different city branding methods

and the potential differences in the city’s image before and after the Olympic Games. This thesis

could also be used as a framework to improve future city branding efforts.

1 Based on GDP, the United Kingdom is considered as the fifth-largest national economy globally and second largest in Europe.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 5 Consequently, the Research Question for this exploratory thesis can be formulated as

such: “What are the discrepancies and similarities in regards to city branding in the period

surrounding the Olympic Games and the manner in which these cities are represented in

international media”?

In particular, in order to explore the Research Question we aim to focus on:

1a. “How were Athens and London represented in international media before and after the

Olympic Games”?

1b. “What were the elements that Athens and London used to promote their city branding at the

opening ceremony of the Olympic Games”?

Theoretical Background

City Branding

The manner in which cities decide to brand themselves and how they are represented in

printed media is central to this paper. Framing is a crucial step in the construction of social reality

due to the fact that it helps create the perspectives through which people see the world. Framing

is used in order to make judgments and to draw conclusions about the world (Hallahan, 1999).

Framing is, amongst other things, employed in city branding. Branding refers to the construction

of a brand which is encoded in various important channels of communication. Channels of

communication can be considered the media, such as printed media and social media (Kent,

2010). Apart from the aforementioned channels, language and images can be taken into

consideration as well in order to achieve a successful communication (Kavaratzis & Ashworth,

2005).

Place and destination branding however, is considered to be a relatively new field of

study (Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2005). City branding is an example of how corporate

communication and corporate genres have spread to the public sector, so that political entities

such as nation states and cities are now branded (Koller, 2008). Various studies have

demonstrated that cities such as London, Paris and New York can compete effectively against

much larger entities (Savitch & Kantor, 1995). According to Kavaratzis (2008, p. 11), city

branding is “a new application of city marketing” since the focus of marketing interventions has

shifted to the analysis of mental, psychological and emotional associations with a city. In

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 6 accordance with the study of Kavaratzis (2008) on place branding, the branding of areas in

general and cities in particular focuses on highlighting specific functional, symbolic and

experiential aspects. The origins of city branding can be linked to corporate identity theory

(Balakrishnan 2009). A brand being more than the product itself, it includes the meaning and

value associated with the product that characterizes its identity (Azoulay & Kapferer, 2003).

Nevertheless, the center of attention for both marketing and branding by cities is the same: to

compete with other cities, to attract investors, tourists, businesses and new residents (Van den

Berg & Braun, 1999; Warnaby & Medway, 2008; Zenker, 2009).

People, in normal circumstances, put together places in their minds through three

procedures (Holloway & Hubbard 2001). First, they examine urban design, second, they try to

understand the ways in which they or others use specific locations and third, they read or observe

various forms of place portrayal such as films, novels, paintings and news reports. According to

Holloway & Hubbard (2001) people bring together particular places through their personal

experience or through media representations. A branded product requires a brand identity, a

brand differentiation and a brand personality (Aaker 1996). In the same manner, a city requires

these three dimensions in order to be promoted effectively. City branding can be expressed via

core values, beliefs, communication, culture and the overall design (Simoes & Dibb, 2001).

Branding involves the construction of a brand; it is incorporated in different semiotic models,

including among others, languages and images. Brand communication can be seen as a

fundamentally discursive procedure in which a set of core values or list of attributes is, by means

of semiosis, expressed throughout vision statements, logos and brand claims (Flowerdew, 2004).

Nowadays, countries and cities all around the world invest in their city branding in order to

become more meaningful in the global business, political and touristic arena

(Panagiotopoulou, 2012). A country can be considered as a corporation that produces many

products, rather than a single separate product (Papadopoulos, & Helsop, 2002). City branding

from a corporate perspective, is the local expression of a global trend in which cities all around

the world are increasing competition with each other to boost income from tourism; to secure

expenditure; to attract and preserve a qualified workforce. Branding implies the promotion of a

nation to be seen as positive, memorable and authentically outstanding as it can possibly be

(Dinnie, 2010). To be seen as unique is the goal, and each city promotes multidimensional

elements that are relevant to target audiences (Szondi, 2008). Equally important, in recent years,

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 7 city branding has grown into a competitive environment aiming to boost global industry

connected to tourism and to improve upon the international political positioning of a city

(Panagiotopoulou, 2012).

The aforementioned Olympic capitals are of particular interest in this thesis and both

cities have devoted great effort into their branding. One of the most remarkable events that both

cities have invested in was the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. Through the Games,

Athens promoted the values and messages that synthesize its uniqueness (Panagiotopoulou,

2012). According to Baker (2014, p.6) the London 2012 opening ceremony can be characterized

as a “mosaic mode” which gave a diverse insight into the nation through the use of personal

biographies that were seen to be accurately researched and fussed together like a collage.

Framing and semiotics

The term of city branding will be explained in detail at this chapter with the help of both

framing and semiotic theories. According to Eco (1976), semioticians classify signs or sign

systems in relation to the way they are communicated. According to Koller (2007), city branding

incorporates the construction of a brand which can be found in many semiotic styles concerning

communication in general and language and images in particular. Semiotic theory was first

applied by Bertin (1983, p.2) as a “tool” that exemplifies how “information visualizations convey

meaning”. The notion of viewing certain codes such as visual, textual and/or cultural codes can

be interpreted according to certain standards that explicate “an artifact” (Chandler, 2007).

Semiotics tends to focus on the receiver, rather than the constructor of the message. On the one

hand, Semiotics allows you to look at visual aspects and can be used for the analysis of the

opening ceremonies. On the other hand, newspapers are both receivers of the city and country

image and sender of the message about the city/country.

Apart from using semiotics, and in order to conduct a quantitative exploratory study, all

the information given will be addressed, analyzed and identified through framing; in this way,

positive or negative associations can be established (Entman, 1993). Based on Gamson &

Modigliani (1987, p. 143) a frame is a "central organizing idea or story line that provides

meaning to events related to an issue”, but according to Hallahan (1999), framing draws the

focus of attention under the creators scope. Pan and Kosicki (1993), pointed out that framing can

be indicated in series of structures within a message. Due to the fact that the analysis of framing

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 8 in a research demands meticulous explication (Chafee, 1991), this thesis has selected different

frames that provide additional evidence to articulate and understand the implications of rhetorical

strategies in both visualization and literature (Hullman & Diakopoulos, 2011). For the purpose of

this thesis, before analyzing specific types of frames, the data was explored in order to end up

with frames such as cultural heritage, tourist, economic crisis and terrorism frames.

The cultural heritage is of great importance in this thesis in order to understand the

branding of a city and can be interpreted through both views, framing and semiotics. The

aforementioned frame can be found in the rich heritage of a city which embodies symbols and

meanings connected to its culture (Coeterier, 2002; Holtorf, 1998). Specifically, the culture of a

city can be described through language and other practices such as music, dance, and clothing

(Richards, 1996). It can also be described through its historic monuments which are characterized

symbols of a city’s identity, (Sooväli et al., 2003) such as Westminster and Acropolis

(UNESCO). Goffman (1974) came to the conclusion that framing can give internal unity and

coherence to such symbols, in general and specifically. In addition, heritage is recognizable

through “places, objects and practices from performance and display, to preservation and

tourism” (Porter & Salazar, 2005, p.3). This is also what makes it useful to combine with

semiotics. These are signs that together constitute a message.

According to Zeppel, Hall and Weiler (1992, p.2), heritage tourism can be considered as a

“subclass of cultural tourism”. It seems that culture and tourism can be combined through a

general context when people visit a city, join cultural events, visit monuments and travel in order

to study nature and folklore (World Tourism Organisation, 1985). More insight can be gained by

examining the tourist frame from closely for more information. The tourism frame is relevant

here as cities that host the Olympic Games take advantage of this event in order to be promoted

as tourist destinations (Hall, 1989; Waitt, 2003; Ap, 2008). A host city promotes its tourism

product through a combination of Olympic legacy, rich heritage and cultural aspects

(Kalogeropoulou, 1996). City branding applies to all of the tourists, city’s residents and future

residents (Braun, 2008).

Apart from tourism and cultural heritage, a city is also concerned about having optimal

economic health. The economic crisis frame emphasizes problems involving the economic

effects on either cities or countries in general or individuals and groups in particular. Neuman et

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 9 al. (1992) characterized it as a usual frame in everyday news. According to Graber (2009) the

impact of an economic issue can influence the whole country and the economic consequences are

always of concern. Economics is increasingly global in its impact, and therefore economic issues

also have world-wide implications.

Lastly, taking into consideration the news that occurred the time period surrounding the

Olympic Games and specifically the major terrorist attacks that took place between 2001 and

2005, such as the 9/11 Islamic terrorist attack in New York City, the 2004 Madrid train

bombings and the 7 July bombings in the heart of London (The Guardian, 2005; BBC, 2005).

Norris, Kern and Just (2003, p.3) identified terrorism as “the systematic use of coercive

intimidation against civilians for political goals”. In newspapers, the fear aspect, can be

examined through stories concerned the use of violence, bombings, torture or rape among a

specific target group.

Olympic Games

World-class sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, can be characterized as a

significant catalyst in increasing global awareness of the host country (Black & Van Der

Westhuizen, 2004). They are typical of a major hallmark event in that they are temporary, bring

short-term but intensive international participation and media attention and coverage that can

have long-term consequences for the host country in general and city in particular (Essex &

Chalkley, 1998). More specifically, the publicity and interest abound the subject of the Olympic

Games can provide an exceptional opportunity for countries to advertise themselves to potential

tourists as well as to other target groups (Panagiotopoulou, 2012).

The philosophy of the Olympic Games is expressed through symbols which can be read

semiotically; the most recognizable of which are the five rings (Lennartz, 2002), the motto, the

logo and the flame (Toohey & Veal, 2007, p.253).In the era of globalization, the Olympic Games

became an emblematic cultural event in the growth of popular global culture. As a matter of fact,

the Olympic Games steadily shifted from an initial athletic event to a global well-known culture

event (Mount & Leroux, 1994). The Olympic Games are a long-term investment, and in order to

take the chance to gain advantage from this event and promote their image, cities must invest

huge amounts of money in building their brand (Panagiotopoulou, 2012). Cities receive

tremendous attention internationally and stand out as a significant tourist asset for marketing

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 10 tourism of the host city; this allows them to showcase their business to billions of people in a

relevant and dynamic way and while also enabling them to enrich their own brand image (Wang

et al., 2012).

The fact that the Olympic Games were held in Athens in 2004 was of great importance

not only to the Greek people, but also to the Olympic Movement and the Olympic brand. The

values and messages of the Athens Games were considered an oddity to this country. Athens’s

authenticity and provenance allowed it to promote positively over modern Greece globally

(Panagiotopoulou, 2012). The Olympic Games in 2004 gave Athens the opportunity to acquire

world class sporting venues and to improve major infrastructures such as telecommunications

and public transportation (Kavaratzis, 2004). The cost of the Olympic Games in Athens is

estimated at 15 billion dollars. It has been indicated as a contributor to the Greek governmentdebt

crisis (Bloomberg, 2012).

In the same way, the global interest in the Olympic Games of London 2012 is

considerable with the Opening Ceremony drawing in record audiences around the world and

broadcasters in numerous markets enjoying their highest-ever audience figures during the Games

– on both television and digital platforms (NBC, 2012). Beyond the concentration of sporting

talent and worldwide media, the London Olympics hosted the biggest mobilization of armed and

security forces (Miah, 2012). Referring to the cost of the Olympic Games in London and

according to the BBC (2013), it is estimated at 10.4 billion dollars. There were also additional

costs including 90 million dollars for converting the Olympic Stadium in the heart of London

into a football venue. In both cases, the majority of the costs have been financed by public

funding and this also appears to reflect the importance governments have attached to the notion

of Olympic legacy (BBC, 2013).

Tourism

The fastest growing segment that can boost a country’s tourism is the sport industry

(Davies & Williment, 2008). The mega event of the Olympic Games can attract a global

audience, boost the economy, shape world tourism patterns and create durable legacies for host

countries in general and for cities in particular (Fourie & Santana-Gallego, 2011). The Olympic

Games on the one hand can lead a city to spend excessively, but on the other hand it can be

considered as an investment. Heritage cities in particular welcome every year a large proportion

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 11 of the world’s tourists. Growth in tourism demand can positively affect the levels of employment

and income (Gursoy & Kendall, 2006; Ritchie et al. 2009). The existence of a tourist plan is

important, especially when the tourist industry has as a top priority, the overall development

choices of a country (Panagiotopoulou, 2012).

Urban tourism can be considered as part of the culture of modern life. According to Law

(1993, 2002), Page and Hall (2003), Ashworth and Voogd (1990) and Pearce (2001), urban

tourism is strongly connected with the understanding of management, planning, visitor

marketing, service quality and the growth of tourism in cities. This sector is being developed all

around the world; therefore, new journals and theories are emerging. As far as image

reconstruction is concerned, cultural and heritage industries use economic development strategies

in terms of employment and income generation and place- marketing strategies. Urban tourism

incorporates both the forces of globalization and the social construction of place at the local scale

(Chang et al., 1996). The phenomenon of urban tourism unifies people, place and consumption.

In recent years, the techniques of place marketing and planning have been useful in the

transformation of cities into place products (Kotler & Gertner, 2004).The main focus of urban

tourism is on historic districts, religious places, entertainment destinations, functional tourism

districts and redevelopment zones (Pearce, 2001).

Over the last two decades, tourism in Greece has been transformed into a primary source

of income for the country (Panagiotopoulou, 2012). Within Europe, London remains an attractive

destination. London has retained its status against other European capitals initially due to is

accessibility (Ladkin et al, 2008). Tourists who flow from Europe to London seem to prefer this

destination despite the Euro being weak against the Sterling. From a domestic perspective,

London has benefited from its unique position as a central driver to the UK economy (Lunt et al.,

2013).

Considering cities that have held the Olympic Games, for example Sydney’s (2000)

tourism has significantly increased after the end of the Games. This mega event provided a

durable legacy for the Australian tourism industry and Australia as a whole (Morse, 2001). The

whole image and knowledge of what a destination Australia and specifically Sydney is changed

after the Olympic Games (Morse, 2001). In comparison with Beijing’s Olympics, where the

Olympic Games were held in 2008, an important factor has to be taken into account. Although,

the city transformed into an international megalopolis and a cultural entity with lots of heritage

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 12 sites (Zhang & Zhao, 2009) in order to attract tourists the negative impact of the economic crisis

that occurred affected Beijing’s tourism (Smeral, 2010; Song & Lin, 2009). The end of the

Games does not signify the end of glory in one country; rather, it creates a legacy and poses a

challenge for the country to keep attracting the same amount of tourists.

Method

The appropriate research techniques that are applied in order to answer the two parts of

the research question are non-automated content analysis with textual and visual elements. As

mentioned earlier in the theoretical background, a quantitative exploratory research is conducted

since we do not know a lot about the specific topic. Rather than relying on hypotheses, we are

going to use exploratory methods with our data to search for various possible correlations. It

should be noted, that this implies results need to be looked at with due care and that further

research will be needed to obtain more definite insights.

To begin with, a non-automated content analysis was used to address the first part of the

research question; it was done by deciphering and coding literary textual elements to make

replicable and valid inferences by deciphering and coding literary (Krippendorff, 1989).

Through content analysis, the researcher has the ability to make impartial inductions by

deliberately distinguishing characteristics of a message (Holsti, 1968).

To continue with the second part of the research question, a non- automated content

analysis conducted in order to specify a wide spectrum of detailed and accurate definitions of

visual elements. The aforementioned analysis can also affect the semiotics practices it portrays

(Van Leeuwen & Jewitt, 2001). Within content analysis, a pretest was performed to determine if

the celebrities that took part in the opening ceremonies of Athens and London were globally or

nationally famous. Via Facebook, pictures of celebrities shown to 10 Dutch people. Both Greek

and British athletes who carried the Olympic Torch at the opening ceremony were not

recognizable to Dutch students. But singers, like Bjork who sang at the Opening ceremony of the

Athens Olympic Games was recognizable to Dutch students. The selection of sampling units will

be sufficiently analyzed.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 13 Sample

The sample was derived from two international newspapers to address the research

question 1a. “How were Athens and London represented in international media before and after

the Olympic Games?” Due to the fact that the research focuses on the city branding of two

European cities, London and Athens, before and after their Olympic Games, it is interesting to

view the media coverage from an international perspective. The initial intention was to include

Chinese and South African newspapers, but an insufficient number of articles was found. The

newspapers were selected according to official readership numbers so as for the news to be

reported unbiased and they are as follows: -‘The New York Times”- (The United States) and

“The Australian”-, (Australia). The key words used in order to find the relevant articles were

“Athens” and “London” respectively. A random sample was retrieved from LexisNexis database.

It is worth noting that the total amount of articles found for London was 14.909, but for Athens it

was only 1.221. The final selection of articles that was analyzed in this study is 521 (Appendix

1).

In order to accurately understand the full impact of the global sporting event of the

Olympic Games, it is vital to analyze both the lead up to the event and the after effects. Thus, this

thesis has a defined period limited to six months before and six months after the Olympics for

analysis. These points in time can be considered as a key indicator for how the event was

originally perceived and ultimately reflected by international media outlets. Particularly, for

Athens the time period starts from the 1st of January of 2004 until the 30th of June of 2004.

When it comes to London, the time period starts from the 1st of January 2012 until the 30th of

June 2012. Afterwards, the time period starts from the 1st of January 2005 until the 30th of June

2005 for Athens and from the 1st of January 2013 until the 30th of June 2013 for London,

respectively.

A sample comprised of the official videos of the opening ceremonies of Athens and

London at Youtube was used in order to answer the research question 1.b “What were the visual

elements that Athens and London used to promote their city branding?” The duration of the

opening ceremony in Athens was three hours and thirty minutes whereas in London, it was four

hours. The newspapers and the total number of articles analyzed for each can be found in Table

1.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 14 Table 1: Overview of the units of analysis

Source

Before the Olympic

Games

After the Olympic

Games

Articles in Total

( N=521)

Athens London Athens London

The New York Times 70 70 70 70 280

The Australian 70 70 31 70 241

Data analysis

Considering the first sub question, the city branding which is of great importance in this

paper is measured based on the frames that newspapers use. Cultural heritage, economic crisis,

tourist and terrorism frames were included in the development of the first codebook (Appendix

2). Another important indicator which was considered as part of the city branding of Athens and

London is the Olympic Games and how often it is mentioned in the newspaper articles. The

articles were analyzed by their size, country source, date and section in which they were

published. A comprehensive description of how the specific frames and the other indicators are

measured, can be found in the Appendix 3.

To continue with the second sub question, city branding was measured through the

opening ceremonies of the aforementioned cities. Cultural heritage and time frame are included

in the second codebook (Appendix 2). In accordance with the theory of semiotics, a list of images

was created to measure the occurrence of historic heritage monuments in the videos. Moreover,

the logo, motto and the Olympic circles which are considered as part of the Olympic Games are

examined as well. A comprehensive description of how the specific frames and the other

indicators are measured, can be found in the Appendix 3.

Intercoder reliability

At the end of coding, an intercoder reliability was conducted where a random coder was

asked to code 10% of the overall sample of newspapers articles (N=521) in order to reach the

same conclusion with the researcher and see if the selected data was analyzed in the same way. In

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 15 particular, N=53 (10.2% of the overall sample) were coded. With the use of the SPSS and the

KALPHA macro software, the intercoder reliability was calculated (Krippendorff, 2004; Hayes

& Krippendorff, 2007). In order for a study to be characterized reliable, a Krippendorff’s alpha

coefficient has to be at its minimum 0.60 (Appendix 4 shows the results of Krippendorff’s alpha).

Due to the complexity of the visual elements used in the opening ceremonies, an intercoder

reliability test was conducted orally.

A pilot study was performed for both codebooks, so as to decide which frames to use in

this exploratory thesis, selecting the 10% of the total amount of units. The cultural heritage frame

was decided to be used in both codebooks, as the aforementioned frame can be measured in both

textual and visual content analysis. The economic crisis, tourism and terrorism frames were used

only in the codebook that was used to analyze textual elements. The operationalization of the

variables can be found in Appendix 3.

Results

In order to answer sub question 1a, descriptive statistics and independent samples t-tests by

means of dummy variables were conducted. In addition, a regression analysis was conducted

with the newspapers- (“The New York Times”- and- “The Australian”) - acting as moderators;

however no significant difference was found. Using a sample of N=521 newspapers, we analyzed

280 articles published by The New York Times, and 241 published by The Australian.

To begin with, most of the articles written before and after the Athens Games were published in the “sports” section, while for London most of the articles were published in the “economy” section. Table 2 presents the analytical results accrued from a crosstab analysis for both cities before and after the Olympics. The length of the articles varied for both cities. Before the Olympic Games the majority of articles consisted of one page, while after the Games they consisted of more than one page. The exact percentages are shown in Table 3. Table 2: Descriptive Statistics results per section

Section

Before the Olympic

Games

After the Olympic

Games

Athens London Athens London

Comment and Debate 1.4% 1.4% 0% 0.7%

International news 11.4% 19.3% 5% 24.3%

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 16

Opinion 0.7% 0% 0% 1.4%

Economy 0.7% 20% 4% 28.6%

Travel 4.3% 2.1% 1% 1.4%

Sports 66.4% 36.4% 70.3% 8.6%

Other 15% 20.7% 19.8% 35%

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics per size of the article

Size of the article

Before the Olympic

Games

After the Olympic

Games

Athens London Athens London

A few lines 1.4% 1.4% 1% 1.4%

One paragraph 5.7% 7.9% 4% 5.7%

Less than one page 46.4% 42.1% 28.7% 27.1%

One page 17.9% 17.9% 12.9% 15%

More than one page 28.6% 30.7% 53.5% 50.7%

Furthermore, in order to test how each city was portrayed in the newspapers, a crosstab

analysis was conducted. It was determined that for both time periods, before and after the Games,

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 17 the portrayal of Athens and London was neutral. Table 4 presents the analytical results in

percentages.

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics of the overall portrayal in the newspapers

Overall Portrayal

Before the Olympic

Games

After the Olympic

Games

Athens London Athens London

Negative 5% 5% 16.8% 12.9%

Neutral 86.4% 82.9% 76.2% 72.1%

Positive 8.6% 12.1% 6.9% 15%

In order to test whether the author’s opinion was mentioned, an independent samples ttest

was conducted. Although, no significant difference was found before the Olympic Games

in either city, there was a significant difference after the Games between Athens

(M=1.22, SD=.41) and London (M=1.43, SD=.50), t (233.85) =-3.58, p<.001, CI 95%

(.33, -.09). In particular, authors provided their opinion more about London than Athens.

As far as the subject of the Olympic Games is concerned, an independent samples t-test

was conducted in order to test if the Olympic Games were discussed as a main topic amongst all

the articles. The results pointed out that there was a significant difference between Athens

(M=.84, SD=.37) and London (M=.41, SD=.49), t (8.06) =258.15, p<.001, CI 95% (.32, .52). The

Olympic Games was discussed more among the international media about Athens than London.

In the same manner, after the Olympic Games, there was a significant difference between Athens

(M=.66, SD=.48) and London (M=.11, SD=.32), t (164.04) =10.06, p<.001, CI 95% (.44, .66)

where Athens was discussed more among the international media than London. Concerning the

budget used for the Games, there was a significant difference between Athens (M=.14, SD=.34)

and London (M=.01, SD=.08), t (155.75) =4.30, p<.001, CI 95% (.07, .19) before the Games. By

the same token, the budget was discussed more about Athens among the international media than

London. As well as after the Games between Athens (M=.10, SD=.30) and London (M=.04,

SD=.19), t (154.68) =1.88, p<.001, CI 95% (-.00, -.13). Moreover, a significant difference was

also found, when comparing the mention of facilities that were constructed for the needs of the

Games between Athens (M=.19, SD=.39) and London (M=.01, SD=.12), t (163.17) =4.9, p<.001,

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 18 CI 95% (.10, .24) before the Games, and Athens (M=.17, SD=.38) and London (M=.04, SD=.19),

t (135.95) =3.26, p<.001, CI 95% (.05, .21) after the Games. It seems that the facilities were

discussed more about Athens among the international media than London.

As far as framing is concerned, Tables 5 and 6 show that there was a significant

difference between Athens and London before and after the Olympic Games respectively,

concerning the economic crisis frame. In particular, among the N=29 articles that we found

discussing about the economic crisis, 89.7% portrayed the economic crisis negatively and 10.3%

positively. By the same token, after the Olympic Games among the N=19 articles, discussing

about the economic crisis, 94.7% of them portrayed the economic crisis negatively, while 5.3%

positively. To continue with the terrorism frame, it was found significant between Athens and

London only before the Olympic Games and not after. Lastly, no significant difference was

found for the cultural heritage frame with its landmarks and the tourism frame in either periods.

Table 5: Descriptive statistics and t-test Results before the Olympic Games with frames

95% Confidence Athens London

Interval

Frames M SD M SD T df p

Cultural heritage .06 .23 .03 .17 -.02, -.08 1.18 252.18 .240

Landmarks .04 .20 .01 .12 -.60, 1.10 .75 5.02 .485

Tourism .08 .27 .04 .19 -.01,.09 1.55 246.84 .123

Terrorism .14 .35 .04 .20 .03,.17 2.92 222.73 .004*

Economic Crisis .00 .00 .21 .41 -.28,-.14 -6.03 139 .000*

*p is significant at p< .005

Table 6: Descriptive statistics and t-test Results after the Olympic Games with frames

95% Confidence Athens London

Interval

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 19 Frames M SD M SD T df p

Cultural heritage .08 .27 .08 .27 -.07, .07 .02 239 .240

Landmarks .08 .28 .04 .19 .19, .89 -1.39 165.72 .166

Tourism .05 .22 .04 .20 -.05,.06 .24 239 .808

Terrorism .01 .10 .02 .15 .04,.02 -.73 238.41 .466

Economic Crisis .00 .00 .14 .34 -.19, -.08 -4.67 139 .000*

*p is significant at p< .005

The Opening ceremony in Athens was held on the 13th of August 2004 and its duration

was two hundred and ten minutes. The London Olympics opening ceremony was held on the 27th

of July 2012 while its duration was two hundred and forty minutes. They both used the symbols

of the Olympics which are the five rings, the motto, the logo and the flame.

As far as framing is concerned, the cultural heritage frame was presented in both cases.

Athens referred to the historic monuments, the Classical Era, the golden age of Pericles, the

Minoan, the Mycenaean and the Cycladic civilization and the Greek mythology with a duration

of thirty four minutes, accompanied by traditional background music. The cultural heritage frame

in London was presented for twenty two minutes in total with a focal point at the historic

monuments. Even though at the beginning of this frame there was no background music,

afterwards there was a combination of classical and traditional music. It is of importance that the

cultural heritage frame embodied the historic event of the Industrial Revolution. Figures 1 and 2

present the frequency (in numbers) of cultural heritage images in each ceremony respectively.

Figure 1: Occurrence of cultural heritage images in London

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 20

Figure 2: Occurrence of cultural heritage images in Athens

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 21 The Olympic circles were shown for two minutes in Athens and seven minutes in London

and both cities selected to play traditional background music. Furthermore, in both ceremonies

there was a reference to other host cities and the history of the Olympic Games was presented as

well. The time frame of the history of the Olympic Games for Athens was seven minutes while

for London was one minute.

To conclude, the athletes that appeared in the opening ceremonies were famous in the

national audience of each city, whereas the celebrities that appeared at the ceremonies were

famous in the global audience for both cities. The difference is that London chose various singers

and actors to perform in order to promote its ceremony, while Athens chose only one famous

singer, Bjork to perform at the ceremony.

Discussion

The goal of this exploratory thesis is to analyze the discrepancies and similarities in

regards to city branding in the period surrounding the Olympic Games and the manner in which

Athens and London are represented in international media.

Although it would have been of particular interest to code Chinese and South African

newspapers, in order to find out how the cities which are of concern being discussed, no articles

were found for Athens. This can be explained due to the fact that even if a country has access to

products from elsewhere in the world, the population tends to choose products that appeal their

culture. However, a number of articles concerning London were found in South African

newspapers. This may be due to the fact that the English language reflects the legacy of British

colonialism and although is not the primary language spoken in South Africa, it is amongst a

significant portion of the population. Furthermore, it appears that English editions of the specific

international media do not focus on the events take place in Europe, even for such a major event

such as the Olympic Games.

The fact that 14.909 articles in total were found in The New York Times and The

Australian concerning London and only 1.221 articles were written in the same newspapers

about Athens shows that international media emphasize more on London news in general.

Another finding which is of concern is the small amount of articles found in The Australian after

the Games concerning Athens. Although it was expected to find more articles reported about

Athens, since many Greek immigrants live in Australia, only thirty one articles were found. This

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 22 might be explained through the known fact that media are mainly concerned about news stories

by the time an event occurs. Therefore, the Olympic Games will not attain the same attention

after this time period.

Taking into consideration how Athens and London are represented in the media before

and after the Olympic Games, we came up with the following inferences. City branding was

analyzed mainly through the portrayal of each city, the author’s opinion, the Olympic Games as

an overall subject and through the framing theory. At the beginning, the portrayal of each city

was found to be neutral at both periods and thus can be explained by the selection of the specific

newspapers, as they were not tabloids, but rather high quality newspapers. Olympic Games as a

subject with its sub questions (facilities and budget) were discussed more about Athens in both

time periods rather than London. This can be also observed from the most often discussed section

for Athens which was in the Sports section. A possible explanation could be that Athens is the

birthplace of the Olympic Games (Khirfan, 2010). Moreover, author’s opinion was not included

before the Games for both cities, rather, it was included after the Games for both cities with an

emphasis on London. This might be explained through the fact that London is a powerful global

economy which received even more publicity after the Games.

As far as specific frames that were used in the media are concerned, terrorism frame

which was discussed even more before the Games concerning Athens can be linked to a great

extent to our theory. This can be supported by a series of terrorist attacks that happened between

2001 and 2005, such as the terrorist Islamic attack on Two Towers in the United States, and the

bombing in Madrid and London city (The Guardian, 2005; BBC, 2005). However, the reason that

terrorism frame was not discussed in Athens after the Games can be explained through the fact

that as far as the Olympic Games was the main subject being discussed there was no fear or

terrorist attacks. It is of importance that the terrorism frame was discussed only a little before the

Olympic Games in London and a possible explanation can be found in the fact that London’s

Olympic Games took place some years after these terrorist attacks took place.

The economic crisis frame was discussed only for London and specifically in a negative

way at both time periods, before and after the Games, whereas it was not discussed for Athens.

This can be explained through the fact that the financial crisis began in the summer of 2007

(Helleiner, 2011) and is evident that economic issues and the economic crisis were of great

importance as the crisis was still occurring at the time that Olympic Games were held in London.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 23

Another two frames of importance are the tourism and cultural heritage frames. In

accordance with our theory, tourism frame is considered as a “subclass of cultural heritage’

(Zeppel, Hall and Weiler, 1992, p.2). Although these two frames were examined separately in

this thesis, based on our findings no one of the aforementioned frames was discussed in

international media for both cities in the time period surrounding the Olympic Games. This might

be explained through the fact that cultural heritage is something already known to the world and

is not considered news anymore. Notwithstanding, the cultural heritage frame in combination

with semiotic theory was presented, as was expected, in both opening ceremonies. Based on our

findings, London chose to accompany the cultural heritage frame with a combination of classical

and traditional music, whereas Athens emphasized on its traditional music. As was mentioned in

the theory, the Olympic Games are a long-term investment (Panagiotopoulou, 2012); cities

receive tremendous attention internationally and stand out as a significant tourist asset for

marketing tourism of the host city; this allows them to showcase their business to billions of

people (Wang et al., 2012). Therefore, it is assumed that Athens focuses even more on

showcasing its tradition and its values.

In addition, each city showcased ten representative cultural landmarks, which are symbols

of their civilization and presented them in different ways. Athens showcased the representative

cultural symbols only once, which can be considered as a non-representative sample, while

London showcased them more than two times within a smaller time frame. Based on our theory,

cities that host the Olympic Games take advantage of this event in order to be promoted as tourist

destinations (Hall, 1989; Waitt, 2003; Ap, 2008). Based on our findings, Athens have paid more

attention to other aspects such as Classical Era, the golden age of Pericles, the Minoan, the

Mycenaean and the Cycladic civilization whereas London attempted to focus on their cultural

heritage, part of which is their landmarks. Lastly, due to the fact that Athens is the birthplace of

the Olympic Games, the history of the Olympic Games was presented within seven minutes,

while London showcased it within a minute.

Implications

This thesis adds content to the improvement of future city branding efforts. The success

of a city’s branding initiatives are contingent on various elements. Taking into consideration the

growing effect of globalization and the fact that the global industry forces countries and cities to

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 24 lose their identity, London and Athens need to preserve and protect their brand identity, brand

differentiation and brand personality (Aaker 1996). Even though Athens and London attempted

to showcase their cultural heritage in order to attract more tourists and investors through their

opening ceremonies, this was not presented in the international media. Therefore, it seems that

they have to promote their cultural heritage, history, beliefs and communication even more and

through various digital communication strategies (Simoes & Dibb, 2001; Kent, 2010).

In present times, the appearance of new communication strategies can play a key role,

especially for the promotion of city’s major events, such as the Olympic Games. Cities can take

advantage of the technological advances and the Internet can be considered as a powerful

marketing and communicating tool. Apart from using printed media, online media including

Facebook and Twitter can be characterized as a key element for a successful communication

(Kent, 2010).

Due to the economic crisis and the impact that might have on critical sectors such as the

tourism sector, it is even more challenging for cities to compete with each other for the dwindling

number of tourists. Referring to the economic crisis and based on our findings, this type of

negative news can be harmful for cities’ branding that their goal is to attract tourists, investors

and businesses. Cities have to maintain and promote a stable brand identity with traditional

origins in order to be successful throughout an economic downturn. This can be achieved through

mid-term or long-term communication campaigns that allow cities’ to receive positive evaluation

and attract more tourists and investors.

Limitations – Future research

An exploratory research was carried out, since there was a lack of knowledge on the

specific topic; this thesis is based on findings rather than testing hypotheses. This may affect the

chances of Type I and Type II errors (Lieberman & Cunningham, 2009) and further research will

need to corroborate these findings. As long as there was a time limitation, a small sample of

newspapers articles was analyzed while only the opening ceremonies were taken into account.

The closing ceremonies of the Olympic Games can also be taken into account for a future

research. Moreover, a possible suggestion for future research could be to use international

(native) coders to analyze Chinese and South African newspapers in order to have a wider point

of view. Apart from analyzing the high quality newspapers, tabloids can also be analyzed in

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 25 order to see if there are similarities and discrepancies in the way tabloids portray a city. Lastly, a

qualitative research can be carried out in the future in order to explore larger time frames and

samples.

Conclusion

The 21st century has been a momentous time for nations in general and in cities in

particular to establish their brand identity. Discrepancies and similarities in city branding were

central at this exploratory quantitative thesis. The center of attention for cities in general is to

compete with other cities to attract investors, tourists, businesses, new residents and boost their

economy. The way Athens and London were perceived to the external world through

international media surrounding the period of the Olympic Games was examined, while the

elements that the two European cities used at their opening ceremonies were examined as well.

The cultural heritage frame which was the focal point of this thesis was presented in the opening

ceremonies of Athens and London, but it was not mentioned in the international media.

International media emphasized London news more in general and specifically in the economic

news, while for Athens they were interested in its Olympic Games. City branding is an example

of how corporate communication and corporate genres have spread to the public sector. As the

competition among cities increased, Athens and London have a significant contribution in global

industry, thus they need to promote and preserve their cultural heritage, history, beliefs and

tourism in order to have a more effective communication of their cultural identity.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 26

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Appendix 1 Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of the amount of articles found in New York Times and The Australian

Source

Before the Olympic

Games

After the Olympic

Games

Athens London Athens London

New York Times 350 5.000 190 4.000

Australian 650 3.500 31 1.909

Total amount 1.000 8.500 221 5.909

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 33

Appendix 2

Codebook with textual elements

Part 1: General Questions

1. Which is the title of the article?

2. What newspaper was the article published in?

Please choose the type of the newspaper from the following list.

1= The New York Times (US)

2= The Australian (Australia)

3. Was the article published in a weekday or during weekend?

0=Weekday

1=Weekend

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 34 4. When was the article published?

It is important to note down if the article was published at the time period before the

Olympic Games or after the Olympic Games.

Please write down the exact month and year.

5. Was the article published in a weekday or during weekend?

0=Weekday

1=Weekend

6. What section of the newspaper was the article published in?

Refer the section that is written below the headline of the article to one of the following codes.

1= Front Page

2= Comment and Debate Pages

3= International News

4=Opinion pages

5=Politics

6=Economy

7=Travel

8=Sports

9=other

7. What is the size of the article?

1= A few lines

2=One paragraph

3=Less than one page

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 35 4=One page

5= More than one page

Part 2: Questions refer to city branding

8. Which city is the article about?

(It the answer is not Athens or London then stop coding).

1=Athens

2=London

9. Is the name of the city mentioned in the title of the article?

0=No

1=Yes

10. Is the city reported repeatedly (more than one time)?

0=No

1=Yes

11. How is the overall portrayal of the city in the article?

Refer to the lexicon list below in order to assign the appropriate words to the appropriate

category.

Positive: Good, clean, advantageous, beautiful, interesting, exciting, pleasant, excellent, great,

positive, satisfactory, wonderful, nice, admirable, sustainable, hot, warm, modern, inspiring,

special, architecture, social, friendly, diverse, connections, parties, passionate, history, real,

lively, extraordinary, liberal, unique, well infrastructure , vibrant, cultural, multicultural, vision,

impressive, artistic, cosmopolitan .

Neutral: A comparison between opinions is used. Mention both positive and negative words.

Negative: expensive, bad, sad, poor, imperfect, loss, failure, weak, problematic, suffering,

disadvantages, pitfalls, polluted, unpleasant, noisy, ugly, boring, cold, common, old, corrupt, bad

infrastructure, dirty, conservative, horrible, crowded, dull, bustling, hectic.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 36 0= Negative (use of negative words about the portrayal of the city)

1= Neutral (use of neutral words, objective point of view instead of subjective)

2= Positive (use of positive words about the portrayal of the city)

12. Does the article report author’s personal opinion?

When an article has the personal view of the author it means that it is subjective, biased,

personal, emotional and informal.

0=No

1=Yes

Part 3: Questions refer to the Olympic Games

13. Are the Olympic Games mentioned as the main topic or one of the main topics of the

article?

0=No

1=Yes

14. Does the article refer to the budget used for the Olympic Games?

0=No

1=Yes

15. Does the article mention the facilities that constructed for the needs of the Olympic

Games?

0=No

1=Yes

Part 4: Questions about framing in depth

16. Does the article use the economic crisis frame?

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 37 It is economic crisis frame if at least one of the following words is included in the article:

economic/financial crisis, bankruptcy, financial problems, unemployment.

(If the answer is yes continue with question 17, otherwise continue with question 18).

0=No

1=Yes

17. Is the economic crisis reported in a positive or negative way?

The article communicates a negative view when the economic crisis cost losses to the

reported city and positive view when the economic crisis encourages businesses and people

to find new ways of earning money.

1=Negative

2=Positive

3=Not applicable

18. Does the article use the cultural heritage frame?

It is cultural heritage frame if at least one of the following words is included in the

article: Heritage, legacy, culture, tradition, history.

(If yes continue with question 19, if not continue with question 20).

0=No

1=Yes

19. Are any recognizable landmarks mentioned in the text?

Landmarks are places or constructions that can be seen inside the article such as: Big

Ben, Acropolis, Buckingham Palace, Museums, Parliament, historic or holy places.

0=No

1=Yes

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 38 20. Does the article use the tourist frame?

It is tourist frame if at least one of the following words is included in the article: tourism,

visitors, tourists, vacations.

0=No

1=Yes

21. Does the article use the terrorism frame?

It is terrorism frame if at least one of the following words is included in the article: Attack,

bomb, terrorism and explosion/explodes.

0=No

1=Yes

Codebook with visual elements

Part 1: General Questions

22. Which city is the Opening ceremony video referring to?

1=Athens, Greece

2=London, United Kingdom

23. When did the Opening ceremony of the Olympic Games take place?

Write down the exact date.

24. What is the duration of the opening ceremony?

Write down the exact time.

25. Is the logo of the host city visible in the video?

Logo is a graphic mark, emblem or symbol that used for the Olympic Games. The following

logos are the ones that were used for each city.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 39

0= No

1= Yes

26. Is the motto of the host city visible/audible in the video?

Motto is the slogan of the Olympic Games that each host city had. The motto of London

was “Inspire a generation” and of Athens “Welcome home”.

0= No

1= Yes

27. Are there any new achievements presented in the video?

An achievement can be considered to be new from 2000 and afterwards. It can be a new

attainment in the economy, health system, technology etc. of the host city.

0=No

1=Yes

28. Is there a connection between the ancient and modern element?

Past achievements that are linked with new achievements. For example a historical

event, a technological invention etc.

0=No

1=Yes

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 40 Part 2: Questions about framing in depth

29a.Was the cultural heritage frame presented in the video?

If the answer is yes continue with the sub questions, otherwise with question 30.

It is cultural heritage frame when the heritage, legacy and tradition of the host city are included

accompanied with a historic background. For example the British Industrial Revolution, the

Greek Minoan civilization, the golden ages of Pericles in Athens and historic figures.

0=No

1=Yes

29b. How much time in total was devoted to the cultural heritage frame?

Write down the exact time.

29c. Was there a background music playing during the cultural heritage frame?

0= No music played

1= Classical music

2= International hits (Well-known songs all around the World- Billboard charts)

3= Traditional music (Songs that have been performed by custom from generation to

generation over a long period. They are most often folk songs, country dance or similar

types of folk music.

30a. How much time in total was devoted to the Olympic circles presented in the video?

Write down the exact time.

30b. Was there a background music playing while the Olympic circles appeared in the

Opening ceremony?

0= No music played

1= Classical music

2= International hits (Well-known songs all around the World- Billboard charts)

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 41 3= Traditional music (Songs that have been performed by custom from generation to

generation over a long period. They are most often folk songs, country dance or similar

types of folk music.

Part 3: History of the Olympic Games

31a. Is the history of the Olympic Games presented in the video?

(If the answer is yes continue with the sub questions, otherwise with question 32).

Reference to the “father” of the Olympic Games, Pierre de Coubertin, how the Olympic

Games begun, the ancient holy place of Olympia where the Olympic Games took place

in the past. The Olympic Torch is ignited there several months before the opening

ceremony of each Olympic Games.

0=No

1=Yes

31b. How much time was devoted on that?

Please write the exact time.

31c. Was there a reference to other Olympic Host cities?

Examples of previous Olympic Host cities are the following: Amsterdam, Paris, Berlin,

St. Moritz, Helsinki, Tokyo, Mexico, Rome, Grenoble, Moscow Barcelona, Los

Angeles.

0=No

1=Yes

31d. Was there a reference to the city where the next Olympic Games will be held?

0=No

1=Yes

Part 4: Occurrence of cultural heritage images (list) in accordance with UNESCO;

Topsightseeing; Touropia.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 42 32. How often are the following landmarks of each city appeared in the Opening ceremony?

Write the exact number next to each place.

United Kingdom

1. London Eye

2. Buckingham Palace

3. Big Ben & Houses of Parliament

4. Westminster Abbey

5. Tower Bridge & Tower of London

6. Whitehall (10 Downing Street & Cenotaph)

7. St Paul’s Cathedral

8. Trafalgar Square & Nelsons Column

9. Piccadilly Circus & Eros

10. Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre

Athens

1. The Acropolis and the Acropolis Museum

2. National Archaeological Museum

3. Cape Sounion and the Temple of Poseidon

4. Lycabettus Hill

5. Syntagma Square

6. Erechtheum

7. The National Gardens

8. Temple of Olympian Zeus

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 43 9. Ancient Agora

10. Plaka

Part 5: In how far did each Host city accommodate their local audience?

33. Did the host city use celebrity/ies in the Opening ceremony?

(If No skip this part).

0=No

1=Yes

34. a In which of the two categories did the celebrity/ies belong to?

(If the answer is 1=athlete, continue with the sub questions, if it is 2=non athlete,

continue with question 17, if it is both answer all of them).

1=athlete

2=non athlete

34b. Were the athletes that appeared in the Opening ceremony nationally or globally famous?

1=On a national level

2=On a global level

34.c Were the celebrities that appeared in the Opening ceremony nationally or globally

famous?

1=On a national level

2=On a global level

34d. In which category did they belong to?

1=singers

2=actors

3=other

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 44

Appendix 3

Operationalization of variables

The overall portrayal of the city

Refer to the lexicon list below in order to assign the appropriate words to the appropriate

category.

Positive: Good, clean, advantageous, beautiful, interesting, exciting, pleasant, excellent, great,

positive, satisfactory, wonderful, nice, admirable, sustainable, hot, warm, modern, inspiring,

special, architecture, social, friendly, diverse, connections, parties, passionate, history, real,

lively, extraordinary, liberal, unique, well infrastructure , vibrant, cultural, multicultural, vision,

impressive, artistic, cosmopolitan .

Neutral: A comparison between opinions is used. Mention both positive and negative words.

Negative: expensive, bad, sad, poor, imperfect, loss, failure, weak, problematic, suffering,

disadvantages, pitfalls, polluted, unpleasant, noisy, ugly, boring, cold, common, old, corrupt, bad

infrastructure, dirty, conservative, horrible, crowded, dull, bustling, hectic.

0= Negative (use of negative words about the portrayal of the city)

1= Neutral (use of neutral words, objective point of view instead of subjective)

2= Positive (use of positive words about the portrayal of the city)

Author’s personal opinion: When an article has the personal view of the author it means that it is

subjective, biased, personal, emotional and informal.

Economic crisis frame: It is considered in the economic crisis frame if at least one of the

following words is included in the article: economic crisis, bailout, bankrupt, decline, slump. It

can be reported in a positive or negative way: The article communicates a negative view when

the economic crisis caused losses to the reported city and a positive view when the economic

crisis encouraged businesses and people to find new ways of earning money.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 45 Cultural heritage frame: It is considered in the cultural frame if at least one of the following

words is included in the article: Heritage, legacy, culture, tradition, history. Is the answer is yes,

it has to be mentioned if there are any recognizable landmarks in the text: Landmarks are places

or constructions that can be seen inside the article such as: Big Ben, Acropolis, Buckingham

Palace, Museums, Parliament, historic or holy places.

Tourism frame: It is considered in the tourist frame if at least one of the following words is

included in the article: tourism, visitors, tourists, vacations.

Terrorism frame: It is considered in the terrorism frame if at least one of the following words is

included in the article: Attack, bomb, terrorism and explosion/explodes.

Logo: A graphic mark, emblem or symbol that used for the Olympic Games.

Motto: The slogan of the Olympic Games that each host city had. The motto of London was

“Inspire a generation” and of Athens “Welcome home”.

Background music during the cultural heritage frame and the Olympic circles frame was

measured as following: 0= No music played

1= Classical music

2= International hits (Well-known songs all around the World- Billboard charts)

3= Traditional music (Songs that have been performed by custom from generation to generation

over a long period. They are most often folk songs, country dance or similar types of folk music.

New achievements: Achievement can be considered to be new from 2000 and onwards. It can be

a new attainment in the economy, health system, technology etc. of the host city.

A connection between the ancient and modern element: Past achievements that are linked with

new achievements. For example a historical event, a technological invention etc.

History of the Olympic Games: Reference to the “father” of the Olympic Games, Pierre de

Coubertin, how the Olympic Games begun, the ancient holy place of Olympia where the

Olympic Games took place in the past. The Olympic Torch is ignited there several months before

the opening ceremony of each Olympic Games.

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 46 A reference to other Olympic Host cities: Examples of previous Olympic Host cities are the

following: Amsterdam, Paris, Berlin, St. Moritz, Helsinki, Tokyo, Mexico, Rome, Grenoble,

Moscow Barcelona, Los Angeles.

Appendix 4

Table 1: Intercoder reliability for the newspapers

Overall

portrayal of the city .90

Coding items Krippendorff’s alpha

CITY BRANDING AND OLYMPIC GAMES 47 Author’s opinion .87 Economic

frame .83

Economic crisis frame .84

Economic crisis frame positive/negative 1

Cultural heritage frame .87

Touristic frame .79

Terrorism frame 1