My use in U City= 200 kwh/mo/person => 0.3 kw continuous (= 3 *100-watt bulbs) per person

@38% efficiency, could be supplied by 0.3 g 235U/y or 1 ton of coal/y

http://www.chemincontext.com/CONFChem/FuelPellet.htm

Nuclear Fuel PelletCost $3 ~ 7 g total, with ~ 0.3 g 235UEnergy equivalent: 1 ton coal

NUCLEAR REACTORS

To supply a 1000 MWe power plant for a day, assuming a realistic 38% efficiency, need either:

2.7 kg 235U

or 10,000 tons = 107 kg of coal!

http:// .wsgs.uwyo.edu/coalweb/trains/unit.aspx

Unit Train:100 cars @ 100 tons ea

E = mc2 Einstein (1905) Annihilate 1 g => E = (0.001 kg)(3x108 m/sec)2 = 9 x 1013 joules

15,000 bbl of oil or 3300 tons of coal Annihilate 1 lb => E = 1010 kWh = USA electrical needs for 1.1 days = drive car 300,000 times around the Earth

Curve of Binding Energy/nucleon (= protons & neutrons) Release Energy by Fusion of light elements Fission of heavy elements

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_22.html

fission

FUSION

Need ~ 107 K ! Very little radwaste- products not radioactive Some produced by neutron bombardment

of reactor parts Princeton Tokamac: 12/93 (Jan 94 Physics Today)

50:50 DT rxn: 2H + 3H => n (14 MeV) + 4He (3.5 MeV) 6.4 MW released, but 24 MW went in!

The deuterium in ~10 km3 of seawater would, if all fused, provide energy equal to the pre-industrial fossil fuel supply of the entire world. Deuterium in total ocean has an energy value of >100 million times that of the world's pre-industrial fossil fuel supply. Energy supplies practically unlimited if we could use 1H !

Hill & Petrucci

Nuclear Binding Energyof Alpha Particle

HYDROGEN BURNING (fusion): Thermonuclear reaction for Main Sequence stars.

CNO Cycle Net Reaction:

4 1H => 4He + 7 ϒ + 2 ν + 26.73 MeV E = 931.5 (4 * 1.007825 - 400260) = 26.73 MeV T ~ 107 K required Every second the Sun:

Consumes 609.6 million metric tons of H Produces 605.3 million metric tons of He

Difference 4.34 million metric tons of matter = 3.9 x 1026 J of energy!

=> Solar luminosity = 3.9* 1026 Watts

NUCLEAR FISSION

Discovered by German radiochemists Otto Hahn & Fritz Strasmann (1938) Bombarded Uranium with neutrons, produced Ba- had split atom!

Fission of a heavy atom produces: 2 neutron-rich product nuclei of unequal size with z=30 (Zn) to z=65 (Tb) 2.5 neutrons on average Alpha particles (α)

200 MeV (= 32 pJ /atom) => Neutron-rich product nuclei emit b- 's in complex decay series

FISSION produces ~200 MeV/atom => x (1.602 x 10-19 J/eV )(6.023x1023)(1 g/235) = 8.2 x 1010 J/g 235U (cf. mc2 = 9 x 1013 J/g)

Fission 1 g of 235U, 239Pu, or 233Th = 8.2 x 1010 J/g. = heat of combustion of 13.4 barrels of crude oil = heat of combustion of ~2.7 metric tons of coal (wt. ratio = 1 : 2.7 x 106 ).

235U only natural material fissionable with slow neutrons 239Pu made in breeder by neutron bombardment of non-fissionable 238U 233Th made in breeder by neutron bombardment of non-fissionable 232Th

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_22.html

235U Fission

http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nucfig/fissionyield.gif

U-235ThermalNeutronFissionProducts

A=118

A =137A=95

TYPICAL FISSION REACTIONS & subsequent b- decay events of products 1n + 235U => 236U* => 144Ba + 89Kr + 3 1n 144Ba => 144La => 144Ce => 144Pr => 144Nd (long lived) 89Kr => 89Rb => 89Sr => 89Y (stable)

1n + 235U => 236U* => 140Xe + 94Sr + 2 1n 140Xe => 140Cs => 140Ba => 140La => 140Ce (stable) 94Sr => 94Y => 94Zr (stable)

NUCLEAR BOMB

Exceed critical mass

Get uncontrolled chain reaction = Explosion

ndep.nv.ogv

Flash Fireball Blast Fallout

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/476/488316/ch17.html N.J.Tro

Nuclear chain reaction

NUCLEAR REACTORS

Enrico Fermi Concept of controlled chain reaction First nuclear reactor CP-1 (1942) Controlled Nuclear reaction: Achieve & maintain criticality

(cf. bomb)

StLPD 11/21/12

Controlled, Sustained Chain Reaction 235 U + n = fission products + absorbed n + 1.0 free n + 200 MeV

http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Fission2.shtml

Oklo Mine,Gabon, West Africa1.7 Ga

EIA

Ameren Missouri

Callaway Nuclear PlantMissouri 1190 MWe PWR

NUCLEAR REACTORS:

World 450 nuclear reactors in ~31 countries USA 99 France 58

Many different designs USES:

Power Generation Neutron sources Radioisotope production

FUELS: Unenriched U (natural ab: 99.27 238U 0.71% 235U) Enriched U (typically 4-6% 235U) Highly enriched (e.g., 47% 235U) Other (e.g., artificially produced, fissionable 239Pu; 233U)

https://www.carbonbrief.org/mapped-the-worlds-nuclear-power-plants

World’s Nuclear Reactors

eia

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_22.html

USA

Now none

REACTOR COMPONENTS Fuel Elements: ceramic coated 235U enriched pellets (< 1 cm dia) Fuel Rods 12' long, have metal cladding, packed into Fuel assemblies: ~ 15x15 = 225 rods

Reactor has ~200 assemblies/reactor (typically > 70 tons of U)

Self moderating fuel element - pellets have very hi thermal expansivity- EBR II research breeder (U-Pu-Zr alloy) MHTGR- hi T- U C SiC pellets (stable to 1800°C- can withstand total coolant loss)

Moderator (slows neutrons- thermal neutrons easily captured) e.g., graphite, Be, D2O, H2O

Control Rods (= neutron absorber; e.g. cadmium; boron steel)

Coolant LWR’s “light water reactor” Most in USA; two subtypes PWR's (pressurized) & BWR's (boiling) HWR’s Heavy water (more effective moderator) Candu reactors- can use natural U as fuel Liquid Na or K = Breeders He gas (unreactive !) AGR's (advanced gas-cooled) HTGR's (high T gas-cooled)

Nuclear Fuel PelletCost $3~ 7 gEnergy equivalent: 1 ton coal~107 pellets in power plant

http://www.chemincontext.com/CONFChem/FuelPellet.htm

DOE

http://www.uic.com.au/nfc.htm

PWR Fuel Assembly A 1000 MWe reactor has ~200 fuel assemblies that contain about ~75 tons U

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/bwrs.html

BWRBoiling Water Reactor

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/pwrs.html

PWR Pressurized Water Nuclear Reactor

http://www.cameco.com/uranium_101/fact.php

BREEDER REACTORS: can produce more fuel than consume! Neutron bombardment produces either: Fissionable 239Pu from non-fissionable 238U

Fissionable 233U from non-fissionable 232Th Breeders have:

Small core Very highly enriched fuel Na coolant (molten; need hi T) No moderator: hi T so capture fast neutrons

France: Super Phenix 1200 MWe commercial breeder (Craig et al. p. 131)

FBR No moderator Hi T- Na cooled Pu core, 238U rods 1.2 Pu atoms are formed for each Pu atom consumed

http://www.cameco.com/uranium_101/fact.php

http://www.avn.be/uk/4_nucleaire/fission.asp

http://www2.ijs.si/~icjt/Razstava/English/C16.htmlSuper Phenix Fast Breeder 1200 MWe

PROBLEMS Nuclear Accidents Lack of Standardization Reactors do not go up as nuclear explosions Reactors get hot, have chemical explosions 21 uncontrolled reactions since 1953 (US News 10/11/99 p. 44)

Chalk River, Ottawa, Canada (12/12/52) Accidental removal of 4 control rods Partial meltdown; no injuries

Windscale, England (10/7/57) Fire, radionuclide release Tokiamura nuclear processing plant, Japan 9/30/99. Mixed 7x too much in nitric acid (~35 lbs U) => blue flash 200 trains stopped, 241 schools closed, 10k people checked; >100 exposed; 2 fatalities

Kyshtym, South Urals, USSR (ca. 3/1958) Explosion Release of reprocessed fission wastes from weapons plant? Large evacuation >100 km2 contaminated; red dust & defoliation; Techa R water highly radioactive Trabalka et al. (1979) Oak Ridge Env.Sci. Pub. #1445

Three Mile Island, Harrisburg, PA (3/28/79) PWR Pump failure Valves on backup pumps improperly left closed Coolant loss Core Expose Partial meltdown 14-15 Ci (5.5 x1011 Bq) released (131I; 8 day half life)

DOE

Three Mile Island, PA (undated)

Chernobyl, Ukraine (4/26/86) 95 tons of U @ avg. of 610 reactor days. Demand surge during a Test: No equipment failure Workers violated procedures, removed all but 8 control rods to inc. power Reactor went out of control in ~ 3 sec.

Zr in fuel elements reacted w/ water, released H2 gas that exploded Core housing ruptured, roof lifted, Fire Hot lumps of graphite & uranium oxide fuel thrown out; ~ 10% of core material dispersed into atmosphere. Core temp continued to increase for at least 9 days.

Plume with 131I (8 days), 134,137Cs, 89,90Sr, 141,144Ce, Pu moved northwest 50 MCi = 106 x TMI

Affected entire northern hemisphere. 31 fatalities; 237 cases acute radiation sickness; 1800 cases thyroid cancer 20,000 people received 250 mSv (25 rem) ; 200,000 got 100 mSv (10 rem) 200,000 relocated from 4,300 km2 exclusion zone No increase in leukemia seen to 2004 $15 billion in damage.

Partly as a consequence, much of Europe has halted new nuclear construction: Sweden, Spain, Netherlands, West Germany, Yugoslavia, UK, Switzerland

http://www.nbnpress.com/10701.html

Chernobyl

http://www.mv.slu.se/ma/radio/radio/chern/chrnhot2.gif

http://www.agen.ufl.edu/~chyn/age2062/lect/lect_29/chernobyl.JPG

NYT 4/28/14Chernobyl sarcophagus275 m wide x 108 m high

Fukushima Daiichi, Japan (3/11/2011) #2 M8.9 Earthquake, 15m Tsunami Emergency generators failed

Pump failures, Coolant Loss PWR Reactors 1-3 overheated, meltdown Explosions Radionuclide Release (24 MCi ~ 900PBq)

More explosions, Spent fuel (>1500 rods) in Unit 4 exposed Evacuation of >150,000 people

Permanent evacuation of 12-mile radius Planned phase out of Japan’s nuclear power industry

NYT 3/11/11

M 9.0 EQ230 miles NE of Tokyo, depth 17 milesMarch 11, 2011

Natori, Miyagi prefecture

FukushimaDaiichinuclearpowerplantNov15,2009

NYT

FukushimaDaiichinuclearpowerplantMarch14,2011

NYT

NYT 11/13/11Fukushima- spent fuel pool, Reactor #4

NYT 11/13/11Fukushima- desertion within 12 mile limit

Financial Problems Delays, Regulations, Permits, Cost Overruns LILCO Long Island Lighting Co., Shoreham Plant- Controversy, Administrative delay $300 million est. cost in 1973 -> $5.5 billion when completed in 1984 Never produced power Sold to state for $1 in return for rate increase

WPPS Washington Public Power Supply System 115 utility consortium

Defaulted in 1983 on $2.25 billion in municipal bonds In USA:

~70 Utility lawsuits against fed for no waste removal; totaling several $B Maine Yankee won $82M settlement 10 plants need to be decommissioned, at $1 B each 12 failed nuclear projects have caused near financial ruin for the utilities

Many investors would now sell stock if nuclear construction plan were announced by utility

USA 104 => 99 reactors in 31 states19% of electricity, 6 states dominantly nuclear, 33 states dominantly coal

VT (80%) SC ME VA NY CT Reactors- numerous designs, run by > 50 different utilities Radwaste- spent fuel accumulating @ reactor sites- no reprocessingDOE has spent >$ 13 billion on plans for repository

No 4 construction permits

Number of operating reactors & nuclear generating capacity shrinking

France 58 reactors 76% of electrical powerMostly, single design (PWR); minimal siteing problemsElectricite de France (EDF) Government-owned utilityRecycling of spent fuel, separating U & Pu