Notes

Introduction

1. Among many examples are: Pérez Jr., Cuba in the American Imagination, also his On Becoming Cuban: Identity, Nationality and Culture, and Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy; Schoultz, That Infernal Little Cuban Republic; Morley, McGillion, and Kirk, eds., Cuba, the United States, and the Post–Cold War World; Morley, Imperial State and Revolution: The United States and Cuba, 1952–1986; Pérez-Stable, The United States and Cuba: Intimate Enemies; Franklin, Cuba and the United States; and Morales Domínguez, and Prevost, United States–Cuban Relations.

2. Ó Tuathail, “Thinking Critically about Geopolitics,” 1.3. This notion corresponds with philosopher Paul Ricoeur’s theory that

human actions, just like works of literature, “display a sense as well as a reference.” Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences, 16. In other words, the coexistence of internal and external systems of logic facili-tates both interpretation and explanation.

4. Ibid.5. Throughout this work, the term africanía defines both an essential

quality of Africanness as well as the accumulation of cultural reposi-tories (linguistic, religious, artistic, and so on) in which the African dimension resides.

6. On the other hand, several shorter analyses were published in the form of essays and journal articles. A few worth mentioning are: Casal, “Race Relations in Contemporary Cuba;” Taylor, “Revolution, Race and Some Aspects of Foreign Relations;” and the oft-cited contribu-tion from David Booth, “Cuba, Color and Revolution.”

7. Butterworth, The People of Buena Ventura, xxi–xxii.8. Marti, Nuestra America, 38.9. Martí, “Mi Raza,” 299.

10. Ibid., 298.11. Guillén, “Sóngoro cosongo,” 114.12. In de la Fuente, “Race, National Discourse, and Politics,” 58.13. Bonnemaison, Culture and Space, 17.14. Young, Origins of the Sacred, 163.15. Feierman, “Africa in History,” 40.16. Bonnemaison, Culture and Space, 119.

186 NOTES

1 Slave Nostalgias

1. I have presented the unnamed Doctor as a semifictitious character by whom to introduce the intertwined concepts of slaves and sentiment, but he is in fact based upon a real historical personage, the Spanish physician Francisco Barrera y Domingo, who practiced medicine for almost two decades throughout the Caribbean, finally settling in Havana in the early 1780s. Barrera started life in a rural hamlet in the Aragon region of Spain, and went on to study medicine in Zaragoza, before finding employment with the Spanish Royal Navy. A more detailed biographical record including background informa-tion about Reflexiones can be found in López Denis, “Melancholia, Slavery, and Racial Pathology,” 179–199.

2. López Denis, “Melancholia, Slavery, and Racial Pathology,” 192.3. Ibid., 185, 183.4. The original novel, Francisco (written by Anselmo Suarez y Romero

in 1838–1839 and published in 1880), came out of the literary salon of Cuban landholder, Rodrigo del Monte. It was commissioned by the British ambassador to Cuba, Richard Madden, who hoped that an abolitionist novel would assist his efforts to put pressure on Spain to abolish slavery. As Giral depicts in the film, Madden’s campaign was inspired more by the desire to create new markets for British agricultural innovations than by humanitarianism.

5. Jameson, “Third-World Literature,” 65–88.6. Seliger, Marxist Conception of Ideology, 30.7. López Denis, “Melancholia, Slavery, and Racial Pathology,” 183.8. Taussig, Walter Benjamin’s Grave, 54.9. José Luciano Franco, “Africanos y sus descendientes criollos en las

luchas liberadoras, 1533–1895,” Casa de las Américas, 93, Nov-Dec (1975): 16.

10. Abrahams, “Phantoms of Romantic Nationalism,” 23.11. Abakuá members might well give an alternative interpretation of the

sacred symbols in this emblem, but I consider my version to be suf-ficiently informed by Central African cosmology (especially the cos-mograms of the BaKongo ethnic group, located in the modern-day region of Angola) and other esoteric symbolism to claim some valid-ity. See Delgado de Torres “Marked Bowls, Cross Symbols” and also Ballard “Dikenge, Nganga” for more information on the history and interpretations of dikenge (cosmograms),

12. Glissant exhorts, “We must return to the point from which we started . . . not a return to the longing for origins, to some immu-table state of Being, but a return to the point of entanglement, from which we were forcefully turned away; that is where we must ulti-mately put to work the forces of creolization, or perish.” Caribbean Discourse, 26.

13. Verde Olivo, May 5, 1972: 8, emphasis added.

NOTES 187

14. Whereas metaphor, as a device of poetic or ritual speech, contains an element of alienation, that is, the linking of entities that are basically dissimilar, metonymy is a mode of association whereby the part has come to stand for the whole (as in synecdoche). Furthermore, meton-ymy is sequential (implies cause and effect). Therefore, we could say that metonymy in language is always used to create a chain of events or the idea of continuity.

15. In this regard, I am following Michael Taussig’s definition of trickery as “subterfuge but also something that highlights nature’s mysteries as well as those inherent to social institutions and personal relation-ships.” Taussig, Walter Benjamin’s Grave, 155. According to him, trickery requires three key elements: “inordinate skill, inordinate technique, inordinate empathy with reality.” Ibid.

16. Cited in Taussig, Walter Benjamin’s Grave, ix.17. The Japanese philosophy of design, expounded by the Ikenobo

approach to flower arranging, holds the tree-line design represent-ing heaven, man, and earth as the most important. Heaven (Shin) is the line that towers over the rest. At the base is the earth line (Tai or Hikae). In between the two, as in between heaven and earth was the man (Soe) line.

18. Castro, My Life, 306.19. Cited in Taussig, Walter Benjamin’s Grave, 23.20. In an exchange of email with the author in May 2010, Sergio

Giral explained that it was a directorial decision not to translate the African dialogue in the subtitles, but regretted that it was so long ago he could no longer explain the impetus for the original decision.

21. For more details, see Martínez Furé, Diálogos Imaginarios, 203–205, 215.

22. Most of the controversy stems from the book’s contentious assign-ment to the literary genre of testimonial. In particular, criticism has centered upon the unequal nature of the collaboration between Barnet and Montejo, and on questions of authenticity. For a highly informative treatment of some of the salient issues, I recommend Kutzinski, “The Cult of Caliban.”

23. Barnet, Biografía de un cimarrón, 12.24. Quoted in Julia Lesage, “The Other Francisco.”25. The term was coined by Cuban intellectual Ambrosio Fornet to

describe the bleak era of artistic and ideological repression begin-ning in 1970 after the failure of la zafra de los diez millones (the 10 million ton sugar harvest) and the subsequent tightening of political and economic ties with the Soviet Union. Controversy exists over the exact length of the “greyness,” with some commentators suggesting that it persisted for a decade or more. Although strictly speaking a term for the repressive, antiexperimentation phase in Cuban cultural

188 NOTES

policy, the term quinquenio gris also refers to the general climate of conformity in other cultural areas, such as religion or fashion (cloth-ing, hairstyles, etc.), with individuals who adopted styles related to exogenous subcultures, such as hippies, coming under particular pressure.

26. Hernandez, “Multiracial Matrix.”27. The interview took place at the Fundación Fernando Ortiz on

March 30, 2008. The researcher is a long-standing Africa special-ist and former associate of distinguished professor of African his-tory, Armando Entralgo. Soon after I began to describe my research project, the researcher gently corrected my supposedly mistaken suggestion of a link between el tema negro and Africa, asserting that the process of transculturation began as soon as the slaves arrived in Cuba: from that moment, they ceased to be Africans, and so the term Afro-Cuban is a misnomer. I pondered these words later on the walk home along Calle 25 and could not agree. In fact I became convinced of the antithetical view, that the slaves did not become Africans until they arrived in the New World. The institution of slavery dispossessed these men, women, and children of all mean-ingful tribal affiliation, and forced alliances across the divisions of language, caste, and religion. At the same that the forces of colo-nialism went to work on the African continent carving up ancient kingdoms according to an abstracted European political model, the enslaved peoples from that continent confronted a similar process, that is the breaking down and dissolution of all previous societal and political forms in the interest of plantation industries (sugar, cotton, tobacco, and so on). An African could therefore be consid-ered as a “new” man or woman, a sort of hybrid construction of the European imagination.

28. Kapcia, Cuba: Island of Dreams, 135.29. López Denis, “Melancholia, Slavery, and Racial Pathology,” 192.30. Guillén, El diario que a diario, 18.31. This quotation appears in Miller, “Slavery, ‘Cimarronaje,’ and Poetic

Refuge.”32. Ibid.33. Ibid.34. Nancy Morejón, “Mujer negra,” Casa de las Américas XV, 88 (1975):

119.35. Miller, “Slavery, ‘Cimarronaje,’ and Poetic Refuge.”36. Reinaldo Peñalver Moral, “Guinea: encrucijada de culturas,” Bohemia,

May 12 (1972): 32, emphasis in original.37. Morejón, “Mujer negra,” 120.38. Niane, Sundiata, 56.39. Hall, “Economy of the Gift,” 191.40. Ibid.

NOTES 189

2 The Public Lives of Santería

1. “hasta hablar en público del negro era cosa peligrosa.” Fernando Ortiz, “Sin el negro Cuba no sería Cuba,” La Jiribilla, 18, septi-embre (2001), http://www.lajiribilla.co.cu/2001/n18_septiembre/fuenteviva.html, accessed January 12, 2009.

2. Esteban Montejo quoted in Barnet, Biografía de un cimarrón, 15.3. A notable feature of Cuban emigration, exile, and resettlement out-

side the island, particularly in the United States, has been the popu-larity and durability of African “syncretic” religiosity within these diasporic communities. For example, in I Love Lucy, the hugely popular 1950s American comedy show, “Babalu” became the sig-nature song of Santiago-born Desiderio Arnaz y de Acha, a Cuban American actor and musician known as Desi Arnaz. At a time of racial segregation, many of the millions of white American viewers would have been scandalized at the hinted miscegenation behind the Spanish lyrics. Arnaz has been charged with ignorance about Santería by Rafael Ocasio, based on the performer’s claim in an interview that the conga was “a savage prayer to Changó, an African god of war.” Ocasio in Bellegarde-Smith, Fragments of Bone, 104. However, it is equally feasible that Arnaz’s misleading response simply continued the exotic showboating of the performance itself.

4. Dianteill, Des dieux et des signes, 11.5. This idea was inspired by Kerwin Klein’s clever insight on the writ-

ing of American frontier history. See Klein, Frontiers of Historical Imagination.

6. Mesa-Lago, Cuba in the 1970s, 26.7. I borrow this term from narratology, according to which retroversion

refers to a phrase or sentence that marks the beginning of a charac-ter’s usually lengthy and detailed recollection of past events.

8. Record, Negro and the Communist Party, 292. Although Record’s basic assessment holds validity, we must not overlook the pioneering contribution of the PCC to debates on la cuestión negra at the First Latin American Communist Conference held in Buenos Aires, 1929. For an interesting and detailed account of this effort see Melgar Bao, “Rearmando la memoria.”

9. Hernández, “The Role of Race Ideology.”10. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 308–309, 310.11. This is Carlos Moore’s controversial term for a social phenomenon

that has been verified by other witnesses (such as Rogelio Martínez Furé) although not designated in the same manner.

12. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 316; Rogelio Martínez Furé, in discussion with the author, Havana, May 2008.

13. A compelling reason for this idea relates to Havana’s position within the “zona blanca” (white zone) of Cuba’s imaginary atlas of ethnicity described by Santiago historians Rafael Duharte Jiménez and Elsa

190 NOTES

Santos García in their essay analyzing enduring racial prejudices on the island, “Cuba y el fantasma de la esclavitud,” 203. The authors identified a “white zone” including the provinces of Pinar del Río, La Habana, Villa Clara, Ciego de Ávila, Camagüey, Las Tunas, and Holguín, regions which, due to the paucity of plantations, histori-cally had very low slave populations, and where they found that the majority of present-day inhabitants are white. In contrast, the “zona negra” (black zone) comprises Matanzas, Santiago de Cuba, and Guantánamo. We can assume that Afro-Cuban intellectuals within a zona blanca, due to their greater isolation, are more likely to seek out and construct outlets for black cultural expression, while simultane-ously drawing greater scrutiny and more pressure to conform socially than those residing in the zona negra.

14. Raúl Miyares Ruíz, interview with author, Santiago de Cuba, April 2008.

15. Gilroy, Black Atlantic, 201. In the course of casual conversations with black Cubans, this author frequently registered emotive remi-niscences pertaining to Marley’s music that hinted at connections to the kind of community that Gilroy describes. Although anecdotal, this evidence is not without merit in the context of our description of subtler (imagined) social constructions.

16. Fraser, “Rethinking the Public Sphere,” 67.17. For example: Blakely et al., Religion in Africa; Fernández Olmos and

Paravisini-Gebert, Sacred Possessions.18. This idea builds on Roger Abrahams’ description of the imaginative-

community and the public-community in “Phantoms of Romantic Nationalism,” 22.

19. Hall, “Encoding/Decoding,” 137.20. Ibid., 129. 21. The role of the griot is part-historian and part-royal orator. Griots act

as intermediaries between the kings and the rest of the population, and play an essential role in motivating the population toward a col-lective enterprise or coordinated undertaking.

22. Abrahams, “Phantoms of Romantic Nationalism,” 106.23. This is generally attributed to the tremendous social influence of

research into Afro-Cuban religions by Lydia Cabrera, Fernando Ortiz, and René Lachateñeré. See the introduction to this book for details of the historical context of these early ethnographic investi-gations. But see also Wirtz, Ritual, Discourse, and Community in Cuban Santeria, especially 63–66.

24. Ayorinde, Afro-Cuban Religiosity, 113.25. Ibid., 110.26. Jesús Guanche, “Las imágenes del sol en el folclore cubano,”

Revolución y Cultura, 30, 3, Feb-Mar (1975): 34; emphasis in original.

NOTES 191

27. See, for example, Ortiz’s La africanía de la música folklórica de Cuba.

28. Abrahams, “Phantoms of Romantic Nationalism,” 6.29. Kapcia, Cuba: Island of Dreams, 135.30. Booth, “Cuba, Color and Revolution,” 151.31. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 102; Moore, Music &

Revolution, 208; Morales Domínguez, “Cuba: Color de la Piel.”32. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 102.33. One of the most brutal incidents that come to mind is the 1912 PIC

that I mention in the Introduction. See Helg, Our Rightful Share, for a full account.

34. Hernández, “Role of Race Ideology,” 1144. 35. I use “sacralized” here to refer to a process of reinscription into the

national myth or sacred story.36. The notions of “cult value” and “exhibition value” were developed

by Walter Benjamin in his influential essay “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” which appears in the collection Illuminations.

37. This list of characteristics is adapted from a fuller description that appears in Abrahams, “Phantoms of Romantic Nationalism,” 28.

38. Cuban scholar José Luis Méndez Méndez refers to 1974 as “el prelu-dio del terror,” the start of a three-year period during which extrem-ists reportedly carried out 202 attacks against Cuban interests in 23 different countries. Los años del terror (1974–1976), 7.

39. Morales Domínguez, “El Tema Racial.”40. Chanan, Cuban Cinema, 208.41. Some examples of this feminist analysis are: Lesage, “The Other

Francisco”; Baron, “From the Modern to the Postmodern”; Davies, “Modernity, Masculinity and Imperfect Cinema”; Kaplan, Women and Film; and Kuhn, Women’s Pictures.

42. Anderson, Imagined Communities.43. Folktales throughout the Americas refer to a belief of slaves that they

could return to their villages after death, provided their corpses were prepared according to certain religious rites.

44. Ricoeur, Rule of Metaphor, 44.45. Ibid.46. Granma, December 26, 1975: 4.47. Fernández Robaina, Hablen paleros, 36.48. Ibid., 37.49. Ibid.50. Cited in Blakely, van Beek, and Thomson, Religion in Africa, 17.51. Cherry and Cullen, Spectacle and Display, 2.52. Fernández Robaina, Hablen paleros, 87.53. Matory, “Free to Be a Slave,” 401.54. Ayorinde, Afro-Cuban Religiosity, 116.

192 NOTES

55. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 211. Cuban Africanist Tomás Fernández Robaina informed this author that Guanche has since recanted these views.

56. See Blitz and Pender Greene, Racism and Racial Identity.57. Ayorinde, Afro-Cuban Religiosity, 118.58. Jenson, Trauma and Its Representations, 217.59. Ibid.60. Ibid., 255.61. Caruth, Trauma, 8.

3 The Atlas of AFR IC ANÍ A: Part One

1. “Yo nací del África” (I was born of Africa) is the title of a popular song recorded in 1960 by Arsenio Rodríguez, a famous, blind tresero (guitarist/tres player) from Matanzas province. As ethnomusicologist David F. García observes, the lyrics reference an African identity that is “born” out of “the legacy of colonialism, slavery, and the ideology of white racial supremacy.” García, Arsenio Rodríguez, 12.

2. Lambert, “Atlantic Slavery.”3. In September 1960, after the multiracial Cuban delegation to the

United Nations suffered discrimination at their downtown lodgings, Malcolm X famously played an instrumental role in relocating the group to the Hotel Theresa in Harlem. Afterward, he held a private audience with Fidel Castro after the latter declared his admiration for the radical black leader.

4. Jack Barnes and Barry Sheppard, “Para el capitalismo es imposible sobrevivir: Malcolm X,” Pensamiento Crítico, 17 (1968): 8.

5. Malcolm X, “Discurso en The Militant Labor Forum,” Pensamiento Crítico, 17 (1968): 17.

6. Ibid.7. Barnes and Sheppard, “Para el capitalism,” 8.8. Renan, “What Is a Nation?,” 18.9. Macintyre, “Whatever Next.”

10. It is an interesting question whether Che Guevara, as the early archi-tect of Cuban policy for Africa, contributed a postcolonial rather than a postslavery perspective given that although black African slaves had at one time outnumbered white colonists in his country of origin and had made up a significant percentage of the liberation armies (just as they had elsewhere in Latin America), by the time of his birth, the black/African presence in Argentina had become so reduced (some would even say obliterated) that the country had become known as the whitest in South America. The absence of a sizable black popula-tion means that Argentina has been able to sidestep the race ques-tion as a problem of national and international identity in a way that Cuba has not. On the other hand, Cuba’s geographic location and historical legacy places the island firmly within the triangular

NOTES 193

framework of the “black Atlantic,” with all that this implies for the national project. An argument could be made, therefore, that, under the influence of Guevara, revolutionary foreign policy, from the very beginning, derived from an exogenous model. On the African pres-ence in Argentina, see Castro, Afro-Argentine in Argentine Culture; and Aidi, “Blacks in Argentina.”

11. Acosta Reyes, “La ruta de esclavo en Cuba.”12. The designation of World Heritage Site was applied to Matanzas in

2006, but I believe that it has subsequently been lost.13. UNESCO Portal of Culture, “Meeting of Experts of ‘the Slave Route’

in the Latin Caribbean,” n.d., http://www.lacult.org/diverdialogo/indiceRE_evento2007.php?uid_ext=&getipr=66.249.67.14&lg=2, accessed December 12, 2008.

14. Luis Báez and Aramis Ferrera, “Viajando con Fidel,” Año 64, 19 (1972): 49–50.

15. “Fidel en África: Visitó Guinea y Sierra Leona,” Verde Olivo, Año XIV, 20, (1972): 4–5.

16. Ayorinde, Afro-Cuban Religiosity, 97.17. Báez and Ferrera, “Viajando con Fidel,” 50.18. “Fidel en África,” Verde Olivo, 7.19. Castañeda Fuertes, “La mujer negra esclava.”20. Ibid.21. Báez and Ferrera, “Viajando con Fidel,” 50.22. Ibid., 56.23. Barnet, Biografía de un cimarrón, 15.24. Ibid.25. “Fidel en África,” Verde Olivo, 6.26. Báez and Ferrera, “Viajando con Fidel,” 57, Sup. 2.27. Ibid., 65.28. Harris, History, Fable and Myth, 24.29. Ibid., 20.30. Anzaldúa, Borderlands.31. I refer readers to Guevara, The African Dream.

4 Rituals of War

1. I refer readers to this concise but noteworthy essay on general beliefs concerning ancestors in these communities, Bongmba, “Ancestor Veneration in Central Africa.”

2. Precise figures regarding the participation of Cubans in Angola remain elusive. In his latest book, Canadian military expert Hal Klepak asserts that more than 200,000 Cubans participated in at least one internationalist mission in Africa, of which the vast major-ity was in Angola. Klepak, Cuba’s Military 1990–2005. Meanwhile, Granma-International placed the number of Cubans who served in Angola between the latter part of 1975 and May 1991 at over

194 NOTES

370,000. See http://www.granma.cu/ingles/cuba-i/2junio-Angola.html, accessed August 15, 2011.

3. Some of the more recent work by Cuban filmmaker Gloria Rolando concerns cultural and relational ties between Cuba and the Caribbean. Her My Footsteps in Baraguá and A History of Cubans and Cayman Islanders are both fascinating explorations of this theme.

4. I learned this from speaking with some of the first academics to teach in the University of Havana’s African studies concentration (founded in 1976) about their early experiences with students and colleagues in the Department of History.

5. Gluckman, “Les Rites de Passage,” 3.6. Turner, The Ritual Process, 95.7. Gary Dauphin, “Rebel Revel,” The Village Voice, January 26, 1999,

http://www.villagevoice.com/1999–01–26/f ilm/rebel-revel/, accessed January 28, 2010.

8. The exact number of Cuban troops involved in the early missions is much contested among scholars. I have used averages derived from figures cited in the following studies: Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions; Segal, “Cuba and Africa;” Saney, “African Stalingrad”; and George, Cuban Intervention in Angola.

9. Responding to the calamitous terms of the Alvor Accords, the three main Angolan independence parties (MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA) battled to be in control of the capital city, Luanda, by the official end of Portuguese colonial rule on November 11, 1975, in order to claim the title of legitimate rulers of the new nation.

10. There are conflicting reports in the literature concerning how many Cubans were operating in Angola before independence. For the most convincing data, I refer readers to the above-mentioned books by Gleijeses and George that are based upon archival research in Cuba, the United States, and South Africa.

11. Kapuściński, Another Day of Life, 118.12. Ibid., 115–116.13. García Márquez, “Operation Carlota,” 426.14. Ibid., 425–426. There is a clear discrepancy between Kapuściński’s

report that states that four Cuban planes landed at the airport in Luanda, and García Marquez’s information that only three jets were in operation at that time. However, since further investigation of this matter exceeds the remit of this book, both practically and strate-gically, I am comfortable allowing the contradictory data to stand unchallenged in this study—a sort of tribute to the “science” of doing research with the engaging and flawed products of memory.

15. Turner, Ritual Process, 103.16. Kapuściński, Another Day of Life, 124; emphasis added.17. García Márquez, “Operation Carlota,” 429.18. Bender, “Angola, the Cubans, and American Anxieties,” 8, 10.

NOTES 195

19. Marta Rojas, “Carlota, la rebelde,” Granma Internacional—Digital, November, 10, 2005, http://granmai.co.cu/espanol/2005/noviembre/juev10/carlota.html, accessed February 13, 2009.

20. Ibid.21. Departamento de Versiones Taquigráficas del Gobierno Revolucionario,

“Discurso Pronunciado por el Comandante en Jefe Fidel Castro Ruz, Primer Secretario del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Cuba y Primer Ministro del Gobierno Revolucionario, en el Acto de Masas con Motivo de la Clausura del Primer Congreso del Partido Comunista de Cuba. Plaza de la Revolución, 22 de diciembre de 1975, ‘Año del Primer Congreso,’ ” http://www.cuba.cu/gobierno/discursos/1975/esp/c221275e.html, accessed September 23, 2009.

22. Ibid.23. Vecchi, “Excepting the Exception.”24. Taussig, Walter Benjamin’s Grave, 169.25. Campbell, Power of Myth, 55.26. Ibid., 60.27. I am borrowing the term from the epigram by Antonio Machado

that opens Octavio Paz’s Labyrinth of Solitude: “The other refuses to disappear; it subsists, it persists; it is the hard bone on which reason breaks its teeth.”

28. In early 1975, US president Gerald Ford declared a covert war against the MPLA, code-named IAFEATURE. Previously, US policy had focused upon appeasing the unyielding Portuguese premier Caetano in order to retain control of the Lajes airbase in the Azores, from which American forces had launched a major arms lift to Israel in 1973. The strategic importance of the base to US-Middle East policy entered squarely into Portuguese calculations when the terms of the military base’s lease came up for renewal. A pariah on the international stage following Lisbon’s brutal suppression of liberation forces, Caetano had lobbied not only for sophisticated weapons as compensation for loyalty to America, but also, more challengingly, for a public repudiation of the UN-mandated arms embargo. Kissinger had offered a sympathetic ear to Portuguese demands and drew up plans for a campaign to persuade Congress.

29. Departamento de Versiones Taquigráficas, “Discurso por Castro 12/22/75.”

30. Campbell, Power of Myth, 171.31. Turner, Ritual Process, 102.32. Ibid., 96–97.33. Campbell, Power of Myth, 57.34. Harvard, “Tomás Gutiérrez Alea’s La última cena,” 60.35. Ibid., 61.36. Ibid.37. Turner, Ritual Process, 102.38. Ibid., 106–107.

196 NOTES

39. Several of the attributes, such as equality, humility, unselfishness, and no distinctions of wealth, coincide with Communist values, espe-cially as articulated in the Cuban ideal of the New Man. On the other hand, characteristics like uniform clothing, anonymity, absence of rank, and total obedience, refer directly to the experience of being a soldier. The acceptance of pain and suffering is frequently extolled in Cuban nationalist discourse, and internationalism is acknowledged as the most sacred expression of revolutionary spirit. Finally, through-out this book I have made (and shall make) reference to what I have termed the “alchemical” techniques of political discourse (particu-larly with regard to Castro’s speeches on the Angolan mission) that, in my view, may be compared with aspects of sacred instruction. In this way, the qualities of sacredness and mystical powers can also be identified as significant to the internationalist experience.

40. Ibid., 108–109.41. Ibid., 129.42. Kearney, On Paul Ricoeur, 72.

5 Return of the Slaves

1. Campbell, Power of Myth, 55.2. Martínez Furé, Diálogos Imaginarios, 79.3. Glissant, Poetics of Relation, 249.4. The Moncada attack heralded the beginning of the armed struggle

led by Fidel Castro to overthrow the Batista government. On July 26, 1953, a group of around one hundred insurgents took part in an assault against the military barracks at the Moncada fortress located in central Santiago. Although the attack ended in catastrophe, with most of the guerilla fighters killed during the operation or captured and executed in prison, the survivors thereafter continued their cam-paign for revolution under the name of Movimento 26 de Julio (July 26th Movement).

5. Castro, Cuba’s Internationalist Foreign Policy, 115.6. Ibid.7. Ibid., 127–1288. Ricoeur, “Science and Ideology,” 253.9. Ibid., 227.

10. The musical genre known as roots reggae enjoyed its highest period of popularity in the mid-to-late 1970s. Songs mourning the enslaved past such as Slavery Days by the Jamaican Rastafarian, Burning Spear, captured the alienated mood of a generation of West Indians in communities in the United Kingdom and North America. In the Rastafarian movement, Africa is often referred to as Zion and is con-sidered not only a geographic but also a spiritual utopia. Elements of Rastafarian philosophy have been embraced in black communities

NOTES 197

around the world including Cuba. There are numerous books on Jamaican and international Rastafari, including one of the earliest studies by Jesuit priest Joseph Owens, Dread. Scholarly interest in the movement peaked in the late 1980s and early 1990s, beginning with British sociologist Tony Sewell’s Garvey’s Children, and more recently has also featured in-depth analysis of Rasta communities outside of the island of Jamaica, including Hansing, “Rasta, Race and Revolution.”

11. Matory, “Slavery as Metaphor,” 403 (see chapter 2, n. 53).12. Although scholars have often alluded to the Chinese influence on

Guevara’s brand of socialism, I find more convincing parallels with Nyerere’s thinking. It is not possible to overlook the central place occupied by Dar-es-Salaam in the organization of third-world revolu-tionary ideals and strategies. In particular I see important similarities between Che’s idea of the “new man” and the ujamaa conception of voluntarism. Both Guevara and Nyerere held the utopian belief that the revolutionary project should strive to transform society by appealing to higher virtues of community spirit.

13. Entralgo, El oro de la costa, 149.14. Ibid.15. Ibid.16. Dar-es-Salaam’s significance as the geographical and spiritual hub for

collaborative projects of African liberation remained undiminished into the 1970s. For example it was on December 31, 1974, that a cru-cial meeting took place in the Tanzanian capital between an MPLA delegation headed by Neto and two Cuban officials—Carlos Cadelo (representative for the Partido Comunista de Cuba [PCC] in Angola) and Major Alfonso Pérez Morales (veteran of the Guinean war of independence). Subsequently Neto authorized the Cubans to under-take a fact-finding mission in Angola to ascertain the level of Cuban support required. For a more detailed account of this meeting, see George, Cuban Intervention in Angola, 56–58.

17. Kapuściński, Another Day of Life, 33–34.18. Henry, Caliban’s Reason, 58.19. Mbiti, African Religions & Philosophy, 17, 23.20. Sobel, Castro’s Cuba, 122. Prior to the Cuban mission in Angola, the

Soviets had shown scant interest in African affairs. As Aaron Segal reports, trade in military equipment had formed the primary Soviet foreign policy tool in Africa. “Cuba and Africa,” 129.

21. Gott, Cuba, 158.22. Ibid.23. Fidel Castro, “Interview to French Weekly Afrique-Asie” (1977),

Castro Speech Database, LANIC, http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/castro/db/1977/19770506.html, accessed September 23, 2009.

24. Castro, Cuba’s Internationalist Foreign Policy, 25–26.

198 NOTES

25. Henry, Caliban’s Reason, 58–60.26. Ibid., 63.27. Ibid., 64.28. Mazrui, Africa’s International Relations, 82.29. Castro, Cuba’s Internationalist Foreign Policy, 26.30. The term “generative” in this context refers to myth’s capacity for

guiding action through interaction with ideology. This stands in contrast to the reflective quality of myth that explains reality but does not legitimize praxis.

31. Henry, Caliban’s Reason, 104.32. Matory, “Slavery as Metaphor,” 403.33. Ibid., 400.34. Ibid., 399.35. Turner, Ritual Process, 169.36. Gluckman, “Les Rites de Passage,” 40.37. Son is a musical genre that originated in Oriente province. Although

a precise definition of the musical category is hotly debated, it is gen-erally considered to form the basis of all contemporary Cuban music. It has also been compared to the blues in the United States with regard to its symbolic association with an indigenous black culture and way of life. On this, see, Robbins, “Cuban Son.”

38. Burness, On the Shoulder of Martí, 60.39. Ibid., 52–53.40. Ibid., 4.41. Cited in ibid., 101.42. Conte, Con la Prisa del Fuego, 34.43. Roberto Fernández Retamar, “Para leer el Che,” Revolución y

Cultura, 46, June (1976): 64.44. La Shure, “What is Liminality?”45. Ibid.46. Mazrui, Africa’s International Relations, 27.47. Ibid., 69.48. Glissant, Poetics of Relation, 47.

6 The Atlas of AFR IC ANÍ A: Part Two

1. This version of García Márquez’s essay appears in “Operation Carlota” (1976), Rhodesia and South Africa: Military History, maintained by Richard Allport, http://www.rhodesia.nl/marquez.htm, accessed December 20, 2012.

2. Kapuściński, Shadow of the Sun, 20.3. The National Security Archive, January 13, 1976, Department of State

Cable, “Cuban Military Intervention in Angola: Report Number 9, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 67,” 2002, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB67/gleijeses1.pdf, accessed February 15, 2007.

NOTES 199

4. Jordan, “The 1970s: Expanding Networks,” 114.5. I am following South African literary scholar Shaun Irlam’s descrip-

tion of the “community of others” as “a motley, mongrel group of peoples, cultures and societies” who (having been forced together by a particular set of circumstances) “needed to improvise ways to com-municate with each other.” Irlam, “The Community of Others.”

6. Cobb Jr., “Remembering Nyerere,” 129.7. Webb, Myth and History, 49.8. Comas Paret, De Cabinda a Cunene, 9.9. Ibid., 13.

10. The Fototeca de Cuba holds the complete collection of Marucha’s work, including the photographs of black Cubans gathered at a popu-lar nightclub in the Marianao district of Havana that I mention here. The series, La Tropical, was created circa 1978, and was heavily criti-cized and censured for allegedly lauding this subculture and its stylis-tic elements. A few of the pictures may be seen in Peters, “Identifying (with) ‘Carlota’,” 229.

11. Comas Paret, De Cabinda a Cunene, 16.12. Ibid., 17.13. Ibid., 23, emphasis in original.14. An important patakí or holy tale relates how the mystical African

prince named Elegguá transformed into a powerful divinity upon his death. This story enshrines one of the most sacred tenets of Santería, that the dead precede the orisha. In all ceremonies, even before Elegguá is propitiated, the ancestors or egungun must be honored.

15. Duncan, Civilizing Rituals, 8.16. Comas Paret, De Cabinda a Cunene, 28.17. Ibid., 29.18. Ibid., 31–32.19. Ibid., 33.20. Ibid., 34.21. Gordon, “Slave as National Symbol,” 307.22. Comas Paret, De Cabinda a Cunene, 44.23. Ibid., 69–70.24. Bannon, Bolton and the Spanish Borderlands, 50, 51.25. Taussig, Walter Benjamin’s Grave, 168.26. Duncan, Civilizing Rituals, 12.

7 “One Caribbean Sun”

1. Bonnemaison, Culture and Space, 115.2. Jones, “Background to D. T. Niane, Sundiata.”3. Sobel, Castro’s Cuba in the 1970s, 119.4. Ibid.5. Foquismo (focalism) is a strategy of revolutionary guerrilla warfare

organized around small cadres known as foci, which act to catalyze

200 NOTES

popular insurrection. It is often associated with Ernesto “Che” Guevara.

6. Maingot, “Cuba and the Commonwealth,” 21. Scholars have noted that Washington from the outset had “played the racial diplomatic game” by sending African Americans to represent the United States in the newly liberated countries of Africa and the Caribbean. See, for example, Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation; Borstelmann, Cold War & the Color Line; and Plummer, Rising Wind. However, despite assertions that Cuba had employed similar tactics in its inter-national relations (Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa; Maingot, “Cuba and the Commonwealth,” 21), the reality of Cuban thinking on race means that analysts working within the “one-drop” racial identification framework run the danger of overemphasizing, or even misunderstanding, the significance of color in diplomatic appoint-ments. Let us consider the examples of Armando Entralgo and Juan Benemelis, among others, who despite the appearance of being white Cubans of European ancestry, held diplomatic appointments in Africa in the 1960s.

7. Bonnemaison, Culture and Space, 116.8. Ibid., cited by French Canadian geographer Luc Bureau.9. Ibid., 117, 45, 47.

10. Speeches at the national celebrations for May Day in 1980 are replete with references to tensions in the region, ranging from excoriating diatribes against the Mariel refugees to vehement, sabre- rattling statements against the threat of a naval blockade after the US Navy began maneuvers in the Caribbean. For a good overview of the events surrounding Mariel I recommend: Gott, Cuba; Bardach, Cuba Confidential; and García, Havana, USA. The crisis was trig-gered by a variety of factors, including most significantly a downturn in the economy attributable to, among other factors, the cost of the military missions in Angola and Ethiopia, and increased efforts by Washington to isolate the island as a punishment for Cuba’s African policy.

11. There is no room in this study to treat in depth the development of this important artistic movement, but Martin, New Latin American Cinema; and Pick, New Latin American Cinema. Both offer compre-hensive accounts.

12. Chanan, Cuban Cinema, 378 (see chapter 2, n. 40).13. Pick, New Latin American Cinema, 15.14. Chanan, Cuban Cinema, 377.15. I describe Turner’s concept of communitas more fully in chapter

5—The Return of the Slaves.16. This could be a reference to the famous palenque of Moa (El Frijol),

which is described by Cuban historian Francisco Pérez de la Riva, among others, as one of the most important slave settlements in the

NOTES 201

Oriente region. Pérez de la Riva, “Cuban Palenques,” 55. Gabino La Rosa has uncovered historical records that undermine earlier claims that the Frijol Palenque was famously destroyed in 1816. According to the Cuban historian, there is clear evidence that a colony of run-away slaves remained in the environs of Moa at least as late as the 1840s. La Rosa, “Los palenques en Cuba,” 115–116.

17. El Día de Reyes (the day of kings) was a colonial-era precursor to the contemporary carnival celebrations in the Caribbean. Epiphany, January 6, was a free day for slaves when they and free persons of color held festivities in the streets. Daniel E. Walker has written a compelling comparative study of these activities in Havana and New Orleans as forms of countercultural resistance. Walker, No More, No More.

18. Franklin, Cuba and the United States, 152–153.19. Gott, Cuba, 262.20. Jimmy Carter Library and Museum, “Presidential Directive/NSC—

52,” National Archives & Records Administration, Atlanta, 2008,http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/pddirectives/pd52.pdf, accessed November 23, 2009.

21. Ibid.22. For example, a survey of Granma between October 1979 and

December 1980 uncovers numerous defiant references to Washington’s “plans of aggression.” Likewise, Fidel Castro mentioned the US posi-tion during many speeches, including at the May 1, 1980, rally in Havana and at the July 26, 1980, speech in Ciego de Avila on the anniversary of the Moncada attack.

23. Austerity measures, including a cut in electricity output to conserve fuel and a reduction of the coffee ration from 43 grams a week to 30 grams, forced Cuba to increase its dependence on aid from the Soviet Union and other communist countries. Sobel, Castro’s Cuba in the 1970s, 165.

24. While the odds were certainly stacked against their survival, there are some notable exceptions. Pérez de la Riva states that palenques have sometimes formed the basis of rural towns. He gives the specific example of the Poblada del Cobre in Oriente province. There are also remnants of a well-known slave village near the town of Viñales in Pinar del Río, which have become a tourist attraction. De la Riva, “Cuban Palenques,” 54.

25. There is a long history of such studies in the American context throughout the twentieth century, including one of the earliest by John H. Russell, “Colored Freemen as Slave Owners.” Other notable contributions to this area of scholarship are: Kroger, Black Slaveowners; and Johnson and Roark, Black Masters. One of the few accounts of the phenomenon in the Caribbean is by A. J. Graham Knox, “The Unappropriated People.” Finally, The Known World by

202 NOTES

Edward P. Jones is an outstanding fictional portrait of black slave ownership that won the 2004 Pulitzer Prize.

26. See La Rosa Corzo, Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba; Price, Saramaka Social Structure; Price, Guiana Maroons; etc.; Franco, Afroamérica; among many other studies. From historical studies and autobiographical accounts, such as Olaudah Equiano’s The Interesting Narrative, we know that slavery existed among African tribes; how-ever, there is general agreement that the practice did not approximate the horrors of the Atlantic slave trade. In any event, it appears that even this “milder, more humane” form of human chattelage was not adopted by the maroons.

27. Adapted from Price, Maroon Societies, 1–30.28. Benítez-Rojo, Repeating Island, 249.29. Joy Carew, personal communication, August 2011.30. Acompong was founded in 1739 as a result of a peace treaty signed

between the great maroon leader, Cudjoe, and British colonizers after the eight-year-long First Maroon War. The settlement remained in existence even after Jamaican independence in 1962.

31. Jan Carew, “Cuba-Angola,” Revolución y Cultura, 82 (1979): 59. English-language version provided by Prof. Jan Carew, personal communication, September 1, 2011.

32. Walcott, What the Twilight Says, 44.33. Strachan, Paradise & Plantation, 246.34. This was the tagline for the Havana Caribbean Arts Festival, 16–22

July 1979.35. The term, attributed to James R. Shortridge, appears in Entrikin,

Betweenness of Place, 55.36. Benítez-Rojo, Repeating Island, 189.37. Entrikin, Betweenness of Place, 53–57.38. Miguel Barnet, “La cultura que generó el mundo del azúcar,”

Revolución y Cultura, 82 (1979): 11.39. Ibid.40. Ángel Augier, “El Caribe en la poesía de Nicolás Guillén,” Revolución

y Cultura, 82 (1979): 22.41. Luís Suardíaz, “Crónica de CARIFESTA,” Revolución y Cultura, 82

(1979): 46.42. Guillén, “El apellido,” 398.43. Fidel Castro, “Es deber de nuestros pueblos unirse y cooperar estre-

chamente entre sí, frente a la política neocolonialista y de dominio imperial que los Estados Unidos establecieron sobre nuestros pueb-los,” Casa de las Américas, 91, Julio-Agosto (1975): 13.

44. Ibid., 12.45. Ibid., 13.46. Marcus Garvey, “Fragmentos,” Casa de las Américas, 91, Julio-

Agosto (1975): 51.

NOTES 203

47. C. L. R. James, “De Toussaint L’Ouverture a Fidel Castro,” Casa de las Américas, 91, Julio-Agosto (1975): 68.

48. Ibid., italics in original.49. All quotations from Rogelio Martínez Furé in this chapter are from

an interview with the author in Havana, May 2008.50. Taussig, Walter Benjamin’s Grave, 170.51. To gain a better idea of the scale of the African influence, let us

consider that of the 38,261 foreign students reportedly enrolled on courses in the national university system between 1977 and 1991, 164 were from North America, 5,372 from Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, 4,603 from South America, 1,810 from Europe, 4,974 from Asia, and no fewer than 21,338 came from Africa. Figures taken from: Sarracino, “Cuba y Brasil,” 103.

52. La fuente viva is the title of a collection of Miguel Barnet’s writings on the African dynamic in Cuban culture.

53. Franco, “Maroons and Slave Rebellions,” 42.54. Ibid.55. This idea has mainly been communicated to me anecdotally by

individuals who were living in Cuba during this period, although it is supported to some extent by divorce statistics that indicate a sharp rise during the 1980s. See, for example, Catasus Cevera, “Sociodemographic and Reproductive Characteristics,” 94.

56. Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution, 232. Also see, Walton Cotman, Gorrion Tree, 40–47 for an overview of Cuban polit-ical and economic links with the Anglophone Caribbean between 1970 and 1979, including early relations with Grenada.

57. Maurice Bishop, “Speech by Maurice Bishop, Prime Minister of Grenada,” A Battle for Our Dignity and Our Sovereignty, pamphlet, (1980): 62.

58. Walton Cotman, Gorrion Tree, 147; Gott, Cuba, 272. It is estimated that, at the time of the US invasion, there were 784 Cuban interna-tionalists in Grenada, including 639 airport workers, 22 military advi-sors, and 17 health workers. 24 Cubans died and 59 were wounded in the invasion. Walton Cotman, Gorrion Tree, 221.

59. María Grant, “Granada: tiempo del despegue,” Prisma–Latinoamericano, 100, Diciembre (1980): 3.

60. Figures taken from Jayawardena, “Revolution to Revolution?”61. Casa del Caribe, “Festival del Caribe en Santiago de Cuba,” 2003,

http://www.cultstgo.cult.cu/caribeweb/Festival/Historiafestival.htm, accessed December 2, 2009.

62. Bonnemaison, Culture and Space, 68.63. Webb, Myth and History, 102.64. Entrikin, Betweenness of Place, 55.65. “Por la identidad que nos une” (For the identity that unites us) is the

tagline of the Revistas del Caribe, a publication of Casa del Caribe.

204 NOTES

8 The Atlas of AFR IC ANÍ A: Part Three

1. While she freely and often attended bembés and other santería activi-ties, Cuban-born ethnographer and folklorist Lydia Cabrera had to rely on Abakuá informants to provide details for her research on the secret brotherhood. See Herzberg, “Wifredo Lam,” 38–39.

2 From the 1990s onward, an increasing number of Africanists, espe-cially but not exclusively those based in Havana institutions, turned their attention to the subject of race and racial discrimination. Examples include: Morales Domínguez, La problemática racial en Cuba; and Pérez Álvarez, “Los prejuicios raciales,” 44–50.

3. Sigmund Freud quoted in Derrida, Archive Fever, 86.4. Scott, “Provincial Archive as a Place of Memory,” 157.5. Cited in Steedman, Dust, 39.6. Rodolfo Sarracino, “Premisas culturales para una comunidad atlán-

tica latinoafricana: Cuba y Brasil,” Revista de África y Medio Oriente, 10, 1–2 (1993): 103. Italics added.

7. Efraín Barradas, “La negritud hoy: nota sobre la poesía de Nancy Morejón,” Areito, VI, 24 (1980): 33–39. bold added.

8. Steedman, Dust, 68.9. Fernández Olmos and Paravisini-Gebert, Creole Religions of the

Caribbean, 184.10. Rodney, Walter Rodney Speaks, 31.11. Ibid., 32.12. Ibid., 33.13. This is a reference to Jan Carew’s short story collection titled The

Guyanese Wanderer.14. Steedman, Dust, 71.15. Freud in Derrida, Archive Fever, 86.16. Violet is one of the colors associated with Ochosí, other popular

shades are blue, yellow, and green. Fatunmbi, Ochosi provides a com-prehensive introduction to this orisha.

17. Aché can be considered as a universal vibration or energy that is pres-ent in all things, animate and inanimate.

18. Klieman, “Of Ancestors and Earth Spirits,” 44.19. Ibid., 43.20. Ibid.21. In Santería and other Africa-derived religions, the head is consid-

ered to hold the essence of the human being, the primordial life force imparted by the Creator spirit Olodumare. See, for example, Fernández Olmos and Paravisini-Gebert, Creole Religions, 60.

22. Tuan, Space and Place, 137.

Epilogue

1. The peace agreement was signed on December 22, 1988, at the UN headquarters in New York City by representatives of the governments

NOTES 205

of Angola, Cuba, and South Africa. It marked the first time that Cubans joined negotiations to end the civil war, after it became apparent that strained relations between Washington and Havana had weakened the impact of earlier resolutions and accords.

2. Mazrui, Africa’s International Relations, 190.3. The literal translation is more provocative: “I don’t want to comb

currants,” referring to tight black curls close to the head.4. Duharte Jiménez and Santos García, “Cuba y el fantasma de la

esclavitud,” 206–207.5. See Gema R. Guevara’s analysis of this subject in the essay “Inexacting

Whiteness.”6. Many scholars have studied the unequal distribution of income from

tourism and remittances and the resulting social inequalities. For example, Susan Eckstein reports, “Whereas in the pre-dollarized economy the ratio between the highest and lowest salary had been 5 to 1, in the 1990s some Cubans came to earn several hundred times more than others.” Eckstein, “Diasporas and Dollars,” 24.

7. In a recent address on the race problem to the Asamblea del Poder Popular (Assembly of Popular Power), Raúl Castro declared that he personally considered the country’s lack of progress in this area to be shameful. The government has also announced the formation of a committee to commemorate the 1912 Partido Independiente de Color (PIC) massacre. Readers may be interested in recent analyses by Alejandro de la Fuente, such as “Myths of Racial Democracy”; and by Nancy Fernandez, “Changing Discourse on Race.”

8. “Una batalla cubana contra el racismo” was broadcast on television channel Cubavisión on January 21, 2010.

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Abakuá, 22, 65Acompong, 146–7Africa, 57, 58–62, 174, 179

Cuban engagements in, 65, 180and Cuban identity, 11in Cuban imaginary, 1, 157documentary films on, 109James on, 154Kapuściński on, 115Rodney on, 170–1see also Castro, Fidel; Guevara,

Ernesto ‘Che’African dynamic, 38, 127

see also africaníaafricanía, 3, 140, 161, 164, 176African liberation, 117afrocubanía, 105Afrocubanism, 6Afro-Cubans, 182

and folklorization, 47and political organization, 5

Afro-Cuban Study Groups, 38ancestors, cult of (African slave), 77,

87, 115, 174and liminality, 96

Angola, 98–9, 102, 108, 179Cuban identification with,

103–4, 106in De Cabinda a Cunene, 123–4,

125–6, 128, 129, 131military mission in, 1, 2, 7, 82,

88–9symbolism of, 86see also Operation Carlota

Angolan civil war, 82, 83, 84–5, 87, 179

documentary films on, 109

Angolan independence, 82, 83Angolan intervention, 1, 2, 112–13,

158, 179veterans of, 110

Angolan Writers Union, 108Another Day of Life (Kapuściński),

1, 82–3apalencados, 139, 158, 174archives, 166, 169

babalawos, 51–2, 53Babalú-Ayé, 35, 55Barnet, Miguel, 26, 27, 150–1

Biografía de um cimarrón, 26, 156

beads, 163Benítez-Rojo, Antonio, 146, 149Benjamin, Walter, 25betwixt and between, 79, 111Biografía de um cimarrón (Barnet),

26, 156Bishop, Maurice, 159, 160blackness, 27, 43, 46, 47, 112,

157, 181Black Power Movement, 38blanqueamiento (whitening), 181blood, 18, 22–3, 87, 89–90,

103, 110Bonnemaison, Joël, 138borders, 73–4, 79, 133–4

see also thresholdbóveda, 169, 175Bright Country, 137Burnham, Forbes, 152, 153

Cabral, Amilcar, 59, 104Campbell, Joseph, 87–8, 89

Index

226 INDEX

Carew, JanJamaica-Angola II, 146–8

Caribbean, 78, 94, 138, 151, 153–4, 164

in De Cabinda a Cunene, 120, 132

identity, 140, 146, 157, 161internationalism in, 159–60in Jamaica-Angola II, 147, 148–9Rodney on, 171see also Carifesta

Caribbeanness, 149, 151, 155, 160–1

Caricom, 160Carifesta, 146, 149, 152, 160Carlota (slave), 67, 86, 173–4

statue of, 69, 70Carpentier, Alejo, 152Casa de África, 124–5Casa de las religions populares, 161,

165, 167Casa del Caribe, 161, 164Castro, Fidel,

1972 African tour, 22, 73–41977 African tour, 103Guinean visit, 25, 62–3, 64, 65,

67, 68, 69–70, 71–2Speech at 1st PCC Congress,

87–9Speech in Luanda, 103–4, 105Speech in Matanzas, 18Speech in Sierra Leone, 22–3

ceiba, 165chiefs, (palenque), 174children, 104, 130–1, 133–4

see also Elegguácimarronage, 97, 98cinema, 48, 139–40Coba, 141–2, 157Comas Paret, Emilio, 119

see also De Cabinda a Cunenecommunication,

ritual-expressive, 47communitas, 134, 140

see also Turner, Victor

Conflicting Missions (Gleijeses), 2confusão, 83Conjunto Folklórico Nacional,

40–1, 154–5countryside, 44–5criminality, black, 6, 54, 65criollos, 4, 21cubanidad, 5–6, 7, 28, 112, 145,

181–2culture

and action, 96Afro-Cuban, 36and black Atlantic, 28and Caribbean, 149, 153, 154,and Cuban identity, 6

dances, 175, 176De Cabinda a Cunene (Comas

Paret), 119, 120, 121, 122, 123–4, 125–6, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132

De cierta manera (Gómez), 49desacralization, 50dialects, African, 25–6, 50diasporization, 168, 180, 181dissimuler, 9, 26diversion, 30doble cara, la, 36, 39doble moral, el, 36, 54documentaries, 48, 109, 140Dos Santos, José Edouardo, 156doubleness, 39dual consciousness, 17

duplicity, 36, 39, 50, 80, 92

egoism, critique of, 104, 105Elegguá, 68, 126, 133, 172, 176emotions, 9, 32–3, 104, 138, 176encoding-decoding, 40enpalenciamento, 144Entralgo, Armando, 101–2epics, 30, 112Esclavos Europeos (Guillén), 28–9estrangement, 36, 153, 158, 173extraordinary, 78–9, 85

INDEX 227

Festival of Caribbean Arts, see Carifesta

fictocriticism, 11–12filiation, 112, 113FNLA, 82folklorization, 39–40, 41–2, 47, 50,

53, 161foquismo, 137

García Márquez, Gabriel, 84–5, 86Garvey, Marcus, 154geosymbols, 138–9, 140Ghana, 60, 101, 180

see also Nkrumah, Kwameghosts, 27, 137, 147, 166, 167,

170, 175gifting, 32–3, 163, 175Giral, Sergio, 16, 17, 26–7, 80, 81

see also under individual filmsGleijeses, Piero, 2Glissant, Edouard, 9, 21, 30,

98, 112Gómez, Sara, 48–9

see also De Cierta ManeraGrajales, Mariana, 165–6Grenada, 159–60griots, 40Guanche, Jesus, 41–2, 54Guevara, Ernesto ‘Che’, 101,

110–11liminal characteristics of, 111new man, 44travels to Africa, 60–1

Guillén, Nicolás, 6, 29, 108, 151, 152

Esclavos Europeos, 28–9Son de Angola, 107–8West Indies, Ltd., 151

Gutierrez Alea, Tomás,última cena, la, 16–17, 90–6

Guyana, 117, 152, 153, 154, 159

Haiti, 4, 78, 94, 106, 152, 165as palenque, 139

Harris, Wilson, 73, 74

haussement, 127Havana, 35, 57–8, 90, 119, 123,

125, 129, 164non-aligned Summit Conference

in, 142Havana Film Festival, 139history, 19, 36, 51, 96, 140,

158, 161shared between Cuba and

Angola, 22, 99hybridity, 145, 149

ICAIC, 48iconology, slave, 93, 161identity, 7, 112, 159

and African slaves, 28and Caribbean, 140, 155, 157,

161, 180Cuban, 1, 7, 28, 29, 55, 86and palenque, 144and race, 6and territory, 138, 140, 161

ingenio, el (Fraginals), 92internationalism, 104, 105, 106,

110, 149, 157, 158–9in Caribbean, 159–60and return, 139, 148

interpretive public, 40isolation, 38, 73, 138, 143, 146,

158, 159

Jacinto, Antonio, 108, 110Jamaica, 78, 117, 153, 154, 155,

158, 159slave rebellions in, 146see also Acompong

Jamaica-Angola II, 146–8James, C.L.R, 154

Kapuściński, RyszardAnother Day of Life, 1, 82–3,

88–9

Latin African (identity), 11, 87, 180liberation groups, black, 100–1, 117

228 INDEX

limen, 78–9, 133see also threshold

liminality, 78–9, 96, 140characteristics, 90, 93, 96in La última cena, 90, 92–3in Operation Carlota, 83,

84–6, 133in Rancheador, 79–81see also Guevara, Ernesto ‘Che’

Maceo, Antonio, 4–5Maluala (Giral), 139, 140–1, 157,

159, 173Mandela, Nelson, 71Mandinga, 30, 31, 32maniguas, 145Manley, Michael, 153, 156maroons, 113, 143–5, 149, 164

in El otro Francisco, 19, 24in Maluala, 141, 143in Rancheador, 80–1

Martí, José, 5, 99Nuestra América, 5

Martínez Furé, Rogelio, 41, 155, 157, 164

Marucha, 122Matanzas, 18, 25, 41, 57, 62,

67, 118memory, 15, 18, 25, 26, 30, 166,

168circles of, 19–20, 29, 30, 160function in ideology, 100

mental disorders, 54–5mestizaje, 6, 112, 181, 182

see also dual consciousnessmetaphors, 88, 105, 113

and rites of passage, 106in última cena, la, 90, 96

mimesis, 50, 56misa espiritual, 169, 175Moore, Carlos, 46Morejón, Nancy, 29, 31, 32, 164mountains, 71, 98, 139, 141, 148

Sierra Maestra, 145MPLA, 117, 179

Mujer Negra (Morejón), 29–31mulata, la, 181, 182Museum of Regla, 124Museum of the Orishas, 126–7, 133museums, 53, 127, 134

see also under individual namesmyths, 87–8, 89, 96, 108,

112–13, 149of return, 100–2, 103, 105, 148of slave ancestor, 140

ñañigos, 22see also Abakuá

nationalism, black, 27, 39, 61negroes, 71

nostalgia of the, 17see also tema negro, el

Neto, Agostinho, 98–9poems, 108

New Jewel Movement, 156, 160new man, 37, 44Nkrumah, Kwame, 60, 104Nuestra América (Martí), 5Nyerere, Julius, 60, 101–2, 118

see also ujamaa

Ochosí, 171, 172Ochún, 68, 171Operation Carlota, 78, 79, 82, 87,

103liminality and, 84–6

Organization of African Unity, 60, 117

orishas, 50, 52, 68see also under individual names

Ortiz, Fernando, 6, 38, 41–2, 54, 65otro Francisco, el (Giral), 16, 17, 50,

71, 81

palenques, 139, 143–5, 146, 157–8, 174

in Jamaica-Angola II, 148in Maluala, 140–1as metaphor, 144–5, 161as paradigm, 160, 161

INDEX 229

Palo Monte, 27, 45, 169past (in Africanist view), 21, 77,

100–1, 102–3performance, 36, 47–8, 50, 53,

148, 155performative-public, 40, 43plantations, 68, 143, 146, 148,

180–1in otro Francisco, el, 16in Rancheador, 79–80

poetic principle (in Operation Carlota), 99–100

poetics, 18, 98, 105, 108, 112poetry, 50–1, 88, 99–100, 109,

110, 113Cuban in Angola, 108

poets, 88, 99, 108, 148, 152, 176see also under individual names

poiesis, 50psychosis, 54

quinquenio gris, 27, 29, 43, 149

race, 27, 36, 37–8, 46, 181racelessness, 5, 6race relations, 180, 182–3racism, 23, 37, 55, 88–9, 180studies on, 3

Rancheador, 79–82, 97–8rebellions, slave, 18, 22, 32, 67,

86, 144in Rancheador, 97–8see also Triumvirato

Reflexiones histórico físico naturales médico quirúrgicas (Barrera y Domingo), 15

relation, 32, 98, 113poetics of, 98, 108

religions, Africa-derived, 39, 56, 113, 155, 169

and ancestors, 169and folklore, 40and impact on Cuban culture,

45–6and mental health, 54–5

religiosity, African, 35, 39, 45, 52, 53, 113

and woundedness, 55–6Repertorio internacional de

especialistas en la “africanía,” 163–4

return, 21, 28, 30, 139, 146, 154, 170–1

significance in ritual practices, 77as strategy of cimarronage, 98, 113as theme in Jamaica-Angola II,

147–8see also myths

Ricoeur, Paul, 100rites de passage, 79, 106ritual, 21, 53, 56, 79, 127, 159, 173

link with territory, 155, 160subjects, 134,in última cena, la, 91see also rites de passage

Rodney, Walter, 170–1romanticism, 15, 44

sacrifice, 18, 22–3self-sacrifice, 16, 21, 32, 89,

108–9, 110, 141San Lázaro, 35, 55San Severino Castle, 58, 62, 64santería, 27, 45, 51–2, 54santeros, 52Santiago de Cuba, 4, 38, 157,

164, 165Savimbi, Jonas, 179shape-shifting, 82Sierra Leone, 22, 25Sierra Maestra, 44, 145slave hunters, 79–81slavery, 17–18, 22, 26, 27, 67, 151

abolition of, 4cultural productions on, 17,

18, 28in otro Francisco, el, 16and post-slaving societies, 19,

138, 180as symbolism, 16, 100, 101

230 INDEX

slaves, 21–2, 23, 27–8, 29, 33, 105–6, 155

creoles, 4in Rancheador, 81slaves, runaway, 80, 98,

138, 139in última cena, la, 92–3, 95see also blood

solidarity, 86, 98, 103, 108, 110, 112

soldiers, 66, 82, 132–3, 179and liminality, 84–5

son, 107Son de Angola (Guillén), 107–8South Africa, 88–9, 117, 118, 179spirit possession, 21, 39, 54spirits, 137, 145, 175spirituality, 106Sundiata, 31syncretism, 39, 43, 161

Taussig, Michael, 87transference space, 18

tema negro, el, 26, 27–8, 42, 48threshold, 73, 78–9, 105, 134

see also limentime, 77, 102–3, 112, 119–20,

175Touré, Sekou, 25, 32, 60, 62, 63,

65, 72tourism, 78, 159, 160, 181–2traditions, African, 27, 53, 65,

101, 104in Matanzas, 62

Turner, Victor, 79communitas, 7–8, 134, 140liminals, 85, 93, 96rites of passage, 106

transatlanticism, 112transcendence, 50–1, 103transformation, 79, 104, 134, 140,

151, 183trauma, 18, 25, 30, 55–6trees, 16, 31, 130, 131, 173, 176

see also ceibaTripartite Accord, 179Triumvirato, 67, 69, 70–1, 86

ujamaa, 101–2, 104, 105, 118, 134última cena, la, 16, 90–5underground railroad, 98, 138UNITA, 82, 179United States of America, 1, 78, 88,

89, 100black organizations in, 46,

117, 179policy for Cuba, 1, 88, 142, 159

unity, 5, 98, 103, 104, 176see also ujamaa

West Indies, Ltd. (Guillén), 151World Cultural Congress, 38woundedness, 35wounds, 28, 55, 56

X, Malcolm, 59–60

Yemaya, 43, 69, 125, 171