Nordic Road and Transport Research 2-2007

NORDICROAD AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH | NO.2 | 2007

Vision Zero: Radical Progress or Empty Retoric?P34

Road construction, Operation and MaintenanceP9

Fatigue at SeaP28

Vision Zero: Radical Progress or Empty Retoric?P34

2 | NORDIC NO. 2 2007 www.vti.se/nordic

News from

VTI, SwedenVTI is an independent, internationally

established research institute which is engaged in thetransport sector. Our work covers all modes, and ourcore competence is in the fields of safety, economy,environment, traffic and transport analysis, publictransport, behaviour and the man-vehicle-transportsystem interaction, and in road design, operation andmaintenance. VTI is a world leader in several areas, forinstance in simulator technology.

Danish Road Directorate (DRD)Danish Road Institute (DRI)

The Road Directorate, which is a part of TheMinistry of Transport & Energy, Denmark, isresponsible for development and management ofthe national highways and for servicing and facilita-ting traffic on the network. As part of this responsi-bility, the Directorate conducts R&D, the aim ofwhich is to contribute to efficient road manage-ment and to the safe use of the network. The mate-rials research component is carried out by theDanish Road Institute.

Technical Research Centreof Finland (VTT)

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland is a con-tract research organisation with a staff of 2,800. Inthis joint publication, the VTT expertise areas coverresearch and development of transportation, logis-tics and road structures. The work is carried out infive research groups employing a staff of 60.

Icelandic RoadAdministration (ICERA)The ICERA's mission is to provide the

Icelandic society with a road system in accordancewith its needs and to provide a service with the aimof smooth and safe traffic. The number of employe-es is about 340. Applied research and developmentand to some extent also basic research concerningroad construction, maintenance, traffic and safety isperformed or directed by the ICERA. Developmentdivision is responsible for road research in Iceland.

Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA)

The Norwegian Public Roads Administration is oneof the administrative agencies under the Ministry ofTransport and Communications in Norway. TheNPRA is responsible for the development and mana-gement of public roads and road traffic, as well as theVehicle Department. This responsibility includesresearch and development of all areas related to roadtransport and the implementation of R&D results.

Institute of TransportEconomics (TØI), Norway

The Institute of Transport Economics is the natio-nal institution for transport research and develop-ment in Norway. The main objectives of theInstitute are to carry out applied research and pro-mote the application and use of results throughconsultative assistance to public authorities, thetransport industry and others. The Institute is anindependent research foundation employing aboutone hundred persons.

Editorial notesNordic Road & Transport Research is a joint publi-cation of six public road and transport researchorganisations in the Nordic countries, Denmark,Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. The mainobjective of the publication is to disseminate re-search results and news from the institutions, espe-cially to researchers and decision makers. Each insti-tution is responsible for the selection and presenta-tion of the material from its own scope of activities.

Nordic Road & Transport Research is publishedthree times a year. It is regularly sent out, free ofcharge, to recipients selected by the six jointpublishers. Free sample copies are also sent out onspecial request.

Reproduction and quotation of the texts are allow-ed if reference is made to the author and source.However, legislation regulates and restricts the rightto reproduce the illustrations. Please contact therespective publishing institution for information.

Advertising is not accepted.Correspondence about the contents of the publi-

cation:

Please write to the author or to the respectivepublishing organisation.

Requests for back issues, and notification of add-ress changes:

Readers outside the Nordic countries: please writeto the Editor-in-chief at the VTI in Sweden.

Readers in the Nordic countries: please contactthe publishing institution of your country.

Addresses: see back cover.

The Editorial Board consists of the following representatives of the publishing institutions

Editor-in-Chief, SwedenMagdalena Green, [email protected]

DenmarkHelen Hasz-Singh, [email protected]

FinlandKari Mäkelä, [email protected]

IcelandG. Pétur Matthiasson, [email protected]

NorwayNils Fearnley, TØI [email protected]ørn Chr. Risan, [email protected]

Graphic DesignJohnny Dahlgren Grafisk produktion AB,

Linköping, Sweden

Issue 3,900

ISSN 1101-5179

Cover VTI/Hejdlösa bilder

NORDIC NO. 2 2007 | 3

Contents

In Brief | p4

14th International Conference ROAD SAFETY ON FOUR CONTINENTS | p8

COIN – Concrete Innovation Centre | p9

Towards Sound Methods of Cost-benefit Analysis of Road Network Rehabilitation Strategies | p10

Road Accidents in the Winter Related to Climate and Maintenance Strategies | p12

Climate Change and Road Management | p14

Environmentally Sound Road Construction in High Mountain Areas | p16

Recycling of Asphalt Containing Tar – Old Roads Become New | p18

Development Strategies for the Use of Traffic Management on the Primary Road Network in Denmark | p20

Whispering Asphalt – Whisperfalt | p22

Planning for ”Bicycle Tube” | p23

Cycle Path Inspections on Existing Streets and Roads | p24

Beware! | p26

The Landscape Plays a Role When You Drive | p27

Fatigue at Sea | p28

PPP – the Key to Future Infrastructure? | p30

Competitive Tendering and Employees’ Rights in Norwegian Local Public Transport | p32

Vision Zero: Radical Progress or Empty Rhetoric? | p34

Annotated reports | p36


NORDIC – new web site!We have now publishedan entirely new web sitefor Nordic Road &Transport Research. Atwww.nordicroads.comyou can not only readall the latest issues, butalso search articles anddownload annotatedreports and older issu-es of the magazine.Welcome!

Start About Nordic The issues Annotated reports Contact Search

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Research and Development StrategyIn the latest Nordic issue the focus is on our institutes own research and development strategies.

Nordic NO.1 2007

NordFoU – Nordic Cooperation on R&DResearch, development and realistic testing of new solutions on roads arenecessary if the challenges with increased traffic, traffic safety, viabilityetc. are to be solved in the future. In order to manage utilization of theresources spent on R&D more effectively, the Public RoadsAdministrations in Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark haveestablished a common R&D cooperation on road and traffic sections.

» Read more

Motorcycles – the Mode that Poses the Greatest Risk in Road TrafficBoth in Sweden and in other countries, motorcyclists run a high accidentand injury risk. A recently completed study at VTI shows that the greatestrisks are associated with young riders and with motorcycles in the lowestand highest insurance classes. The risk of being injured is, in relativeterms, lower for motorcycles in the intermediate insurance classes. – The risk of being killed in traffic is approximately 20 times higher formotorcyclists than for motorists, but there are significant differences in therisks run by different groups of motorcyclists, says Urban Björketun at VTI.

» Read more

News

2007-06-08New website!Today we published our new website.Here you can read all the latest issues ofNordic.

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IN BRIEF

Contact: Roar Støtterud, [email protected]

The 28th to 31st of January 2008 theNorwegian Public Roads Administration(NPRA) will arrange a winter conference –Winter days 2008. The conference is a coo-peration between road authorities, con-tractors, equipment suppliers, researchinstitutes and the Norwegian University ofScience and Technology (NTNU). The

Conference: Winter Days 2008

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conference will be held at Beitostølen,which is situated high up in the mountainsin southern Norway. It will include semi-nars, exhibitions and demonstrations ofwinter maintenance equipment. The con-ference language will be Norwegian, andNordic speaking specialists in winter main-tenance are very welcome to participate in

the conference. More information will fol-low in the next edition of Nordic Road andTransport Research.

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28 | NORDIC NO. 1 2006

www.vti.se/nordic

Road construction on weak soils with

poor bearing capacity is in Denmark

normally solved by excavation and replace-

ment with better quality materials. This

results in subbase layers with rather large

thicknesses and total pavement thickness

above the subgrade of up to 110–120 cm.

When stabilising wet clayey soils with

pulverized quicklime it is possible to obtain

a considerable increase in the bearing

capacity. Thus, the total pavement thick-

ness can be reduced considerably. The

saving of raw materials is obtained by a

reduction of the thickness of the frost pro-

tection layer, so that smaller amounts of

sand and gravel are used.

The total environmental load is redu-

ced, as the requirement for excavation and

transportation of materials is lowered.

Thus, there is a reduction in CO2 emissions

and wear on the roads due to heavy truck

traffic.

Also Economic savings are obtained also

by the reduced requirement of excavation,

transportation and consumption of prima-

ry raw materials. These savings will in most

cases be considerably greater than the cost

of lime stabilisation.

Further it is estimated that the increased

bearing capacity of the subgrade will result

in better durability of the road and as such

Soil Stabilisation with Lime

for Road Construction

In Denmark, lime-stabilisation of subgrade soils has not been

used for many years on the overall road network. The Danish

Road Directorate is now involved in efforts to re-introduce this

method in Danish road construction. If the method proves suc-

cessful – as it seems to be at present – there are large potenti-

als for gains such as savings of natural resources, more durable

roads and reduced environmental load.

also reduce the longterm maintenance costs.

The Danish Road Directorate is therefo-

re interested in methods which can strength-

en “soft” clayey soils, and has decided to

carry out two trials with limestabilization in

order to examine the method in more

detail. The two trials are made in connec-

tion with new motorway sections in diffe-

rent parts of the country. The common fac-

tor in the two sections is that both have a

clayey or silty subgrade with low bearing

capacity. This would normally imply that

large subbase layers would be necessary.

The trial programme

The following assumptions were agreed on

for the trial sections:

• The total pavement thickness should be

reduced from 110 cm to 80 cm.

• The E-modulus of the limestabilized

subgrade should be increased from star-

ting values of 10–20 MPa to a minimum

of 45 MPa.

• The lime-stabilized layer should have a

minimum thickness of 40 cm.

• Results from laboratory testing on soil

types from the sections form the basis

for the amount of quicklime to be

added and the number of test areas.

• The weather should be dry while the

lime-stabilization takes place.

• The lime should not be spread if it is

very windy.

Short sections were chosen on the two

different motorway stretchres. Based on

the laboratory testing, lime percentages of

2 per cent and 4 per cent were chosen for

the two sections. The stabilisation process

was performed in the summer and autumn

of 2005. The lime was spread on the surfa-

ce and mixed, with a large Wirtgen reclai-

mer (Figure 1). After mixing, the stabilised

material was compact with a steel drum roller,

levelled with a grader, and finally roller

compacted again.

For further information, Finn Thøgersen ([email protected])

and Tony K. Andersen ([email protected])

Fig. 1: Lime stabilisation of subgrade

Figure 2: Average surface moduli measured with LWD before and after lime stabilisation.

The effect of the stabilisation process

was monitored by measuring the surface

modulus with a Light Weight Deflecto-

meter before and at different intervals

after stabilisation.

Results of the test

The average surface moduli for a number

of measuring points on both sections are il-

lustrated in Figure 2. These results clearly

show that the bearing capacity of both sub-

grades have been substantially increased

after lime-stabilisation. Due to the different

soil characteristics, the 2per cent lime

added at section 2 resulted in higher surfa-

ce moduli than what was achieved with 4

per cent lime at section 1. In both cases,

the results showed, that poor subgrade soils

with initial surface moduli of 10–20 MPa by

lime-stabilisation can be improved to surfa-

ce moduli well above the required 45 MPa.

Conclusion

These first results indicate that a conside-

rable increase in the bearing capacity of

the subgrade can be achieved by lime-stabi-

lization of clayey and silty soils.

Even very soft soils with high water con-

tents and very low bearing capacity could

be lime-stabilized in the test, so that a bear-

ing capacity was obtained after 4–5 weeks

which was considerably greater than the

required 45 MPa.

Not all problems have been solved in

this test, especially problems with equip-

ment which sinks into the soft soils;

however, it can be concluded that lime sta-

bilisation of clayey and silty soils in motor-

way construction seems to be a method

with a good future potential also in

Denmark.

In Nordic no 1/2006, The Danish RoadDirectorate wrote the article “SoilStabilisation with Lime for RoadConstruction”. Road construction on weaksoils with poor bearing capacity is inDenmark normally solved by excavationand replacement with better quality materi-als. This results in subbase layers with rat-her large thicknesses and total pavementthickness above the subgrade up to110–120 cm.

When stabilising wet clayey soils withpulverized quicklime it is possible to obtaina considerable increase in the bearingcapacity. Thus, the total pavement thick-ness can be reduced considerably. Thesaving of raw materials is obtained by areduction of the thickness of the frost pro-tection layer, so that smaller amounts ofsand and gravel are used. The total envi-ronmental load is reduced, as the require-ment for excavation and transportation of


Environmental Prize for the DanishRoad Directorate

materials is lowered. Thus, there is a reduc-tion in CO2 emissions and wear on theroads due to heavy truck traffic.

This has now resulted in the fact thatthe Nordic Road Federation has awardedan environmental prize to the Danish RoadDirectorate on the grounds that the use ofsoil stabilisation with lime gives a conside-

rably lower environmental load and societyobtains a higher standard road at lowercost. The positive results of the projecthave also led to the inclusion of lime-stabi-lisation as a standard tool for future pro-jects and certainly also are of interest forroad projects other than those carried outby the Danish Road Directorate.

Contact: Jon Ringen, Ciber, [email protected]

Already in 1994 the develop-ment of the applicationLABSYS started within theNorwegian Public RoadsAdministration (NPRA). Thepurpose was to assure the qua-lity of calculations and stan-dardize the control data docu-mentation from road con-struction.

Since then the solution hasbeen the object of furtherdevelopment and improve-ment. Today LABSYS appearsas a useful and user-friendlysystem with a modern webinterface.

The program contains

modules for asphalt, concrete, rock andgeotechnics. Additionally it also includesmodules for administration and for labora-tory journals.

To provide suppliers the possibility ofquick and simple exchange of control datawith NPRA, the LABSYS web application ismade accessible to external suppliers andcontractors including the possibility ofexchanging of analyses -– and receive datafrom spot tests and production control.NPRA has granted Ciber Norway the rightto sell LABSYS web to NPRAs external part-ners. Ciber Norway is also responsible formaintaining the system.

LABSYS web gives the contractors andsuppliers the possibility of running the sys-tem locally or using CiberIBER as an

LABSYS Web Now Accessible for External Use

Application Software Provider.Further development of the application is

managed through a mutual agreement bet-ween Ciber Norway and NPRA, Departmentof Technology, Directorate of Roads. In thenear future new modules for inspection planand adaptation to triaxial- and oedometertesting equipment will be developed.

Thorbjørn Chr. Risan, NPRA, Norway

NORDIC NO. 2 2007 | 7

In the last fifty years, Sweden has staked agreat deal of research into vehicle and traf-fic safety. VTI is one of the research envi-ronments that have received most of thefunding. The venture has saved both thou-sands of lives and many billions accordingto a new report from VINNOVA (SwedishGovernmental Agency for InnovationSystems). The result shows that Sweden,thanks to research, saves 481 lives a year,which corresponds to some SEK 8.4 billion.

Traffic accidents are an enormous pro-blem for society. Only in Sweden, trafficaccidents cost society some SEK 30 billion ayear (2005). At the same time, Sweden istoday one of the world's leading countrieswhen it comes to vehicle and traffic safety.Sweden has reduced the number of deathsin traffic accidents from 1,307 a year in

On March 22nd and 23rd 2007 east and westmet in a seminar in Reykjavik on PavementDesign Systems and Pavement Per-formance Models. The seminar is organizedby the NVF technical committee 34 onRoad Structures and the Nordic researchcooperation platform NordFoU. Therewere presentations made by representativesfrom the United States and Europe.Information on the presentations can befound on the following web site:http://vgwww.vegagerdin.is/nvf34.nsf.

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The Swedish Vehicle and Traffic SafetyResearch is Saving Thousands of Lives

1970 to 440 a year in 2005, while theamount of traffic has more than doubledover the period.

In case studies the VINNOVA reportexamines the effects of five important rese-arch areas: speed curbing measures intowns or built up areas, improved safety forchildren in cars, better protection againstneck injuries in new cars, side collision pro-tection and more effective police surveil-lance. In total, public financing totalledSEK 440 million in 1974–2004. This is to becompared with net benefits of around SEK20 billion which the above-named researchareas are calculated to have contributed.

The Swedish vehicle and traffic safetyresearch has been analysed by theTransportøkonomisk institutt (TØI)(Institute of Transport Economics) and the

independant Møreforskning Molde (MFM)research institute in Norway.

The complete report, written inNorwegian, can be found onwww.vinnova.se/publikationer.

East Meets West in Iceland: PavementDesign and Performance


Together with the Ministry ofTransport, Thailand, VTI will organi-ze the 14th International Conference

on Road Safety to be held in Bangkok,Thailand, on 14-16 November 2007.

The conference is organized by activesupport of GRSP (Global Road SafetyPartnership), FERSI (Forum of EuropeanRoad Safety Research Institutes), TRB(Transportation Research Board) andECTRI (European Conference ofTransport Research Institutes). The hostorganization in Thailand includes theTransport Safety Planning Bureau in theOffice of Transport and Traffic Policy andPlanning (OTP).

The main objective of the conference isto explore emerging research and develop-ments in the area of road safety. Specialemphasis will be towards the application of

14th International ConferenceROAD SAFETY ON FOUR CONTINENTSBangkok, Thailand, 14–16 November 2007

Contact: Kent Gustafson, chairman of the organi-zing committee, [email protected]

research and to involve developing coun-tries and countries in transition both aspresenters and as delegates. A principletheme is the pros and cons of applied rese-arch done in the north to problems in thesouth.

The conference will include technicalsessions with oral paper presentations bykeynote speakers and authors, and postersessions. Some keynote speakers have beeninvited to deliver keynote speeches and thepreliminary programme includes MargiePeden (WHO), Hans-Joachim Vollpracht(World Road Association), AlexanderRoehrl (UN) and representatives of organi-zations like OECD, ECTRI, GRSP, ShellCompany and others. The conference isexpected to be a true global event in roadsafety where experts will meet to exchangeexperiences and findings in the area.

Registration is now open and can bemade, before November 1st 2007, online atwww.vti.se/RS4C. On the web site you canalso find the preliminary programme andother information.

NORDIC NO. 2 2007 | 9

For more information: www.sintef.no/coin

Contact: Centre Manager Tor Arne Hammer,[email protected] (telephone: +47 93058686)

COIN and the corporatepartners will over thenext eight years spend NOK 25 million to deve-lop concrete which willimprove both indoor andoutdoor environment. Forinstance, the use oftransparent concrete canbe possible in the future.

COIN – Concrete Innovation CentreA Centre for Research-based Innovation at SINTEF Building and Infrastructure

COIN is one of fourteen Centres forResearch Based Innovation in Norway,

funded by the Research Council of Norway.The vision of COIN is the creation of moreattractive concrete buildings and construc-tions. Attractiveness implies aesthetics,functionality, sustainability, energy efficien-cy, indoor climate, industrialised construc-tion, improved work environment, and costefficiency during the whole service life.The primary goal is to fulfil this vision bybringing the development a major leap for-ward by more fundamental understandingof the mechanisms in order to developadvanced materials, efficient constructiontechniques and new design concepts com-bined with more environmentally friendlymaterial production. The over-all ambitionis to establish COIN as the display windowfor concrete innovation in Europe.

COIN started January 2007 and plan torun for eight years with a budget of approx-imately NOK 25 million. The corporatepartners represent leading multinationalcompanies in the cement and buildingindustry, and the aim of COIN is to increa-

se their value creation and strengthen theirresearch activities in Norway. The partnersare• Aker Kværner Engineering Technology AS• Borregaard Industries Limited• maxit Group AB• Norcem AS• Rescon Mapei AS• Spenncon AS• NPRA, Road Directorate• UNICON AS• Veidekke ASA

The main research activity will be madeby more than 15 PhD students and person-nel from the Concrete departments of SIN-TEF as well as from the other research part-ner of COIN namely the Department ofStructural Engineering at the NorwegianUniversity of Science and Technology(NTNU). The research staff includes scien-tists in concrete technology and concretestructures, and also chemistry and geologywith close cooperation with other resear-chers at SINTEF and NTNU in these fields.

There are a number of environmental,social and industrial challenges which call

for technical solutions that substantiallyimprove product performance, sustainabi-lity, and productivity. The research consor-tium focuses its work in four areas that inte-ract and influence each other but with theoverall aim to form a basis for innovation.These are• Advanced Cementing Materials and

Admixtures (environmental friendly, stronger, denser)

• Improved Construction Techniques (tailored workability properties, fibres)

• Innovative Construction Concepts (composite and composite structures,fibres)

• Multifunctional Design (service life time, energy efficiency,indoor climate, aesthetics, etc.)

Tor Arne Hammer, SINTEF, Norway

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ROAD CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE


The maintenance backlog on nationalroads in Norway has been estimated to

NOK 11 billion. In addition, there is abacklog of similar size on regional roads.To alleviate this problem, funds will pro-bably be shifted from infrastructure invest-ment to maintenance and rehabilitation inthe next National Transport Plan. Howmuch is needed? The obvious answerseems to be “NOK 11 billion”. A closer lookat the method used to compute the back-log reveals that this is far from certain.From the point of view of maximizing soci-al welfare, it might be more or it might beless. One of the reasons for this is that thebacklog is computed as the cost of bringingall roads to predefined states, but the bene-fits of doing so have not been assessed. Noris the question of timing sufficiently add-ressed.

This is not a criticism of these reports.What they do, they do correctly. It is rather

To reduce the maintenance backlog on national roads in Norwayfunds will probably be shifted from infrastructure investment tomaintenance and rehabilitation in the next National TransportPlan. At present, however, the best allocation of funds to diffe-rent road classes, the optimal timing of reducing the backlog andthe net gain to society of doing so are not known. Software deve-loped at the Institute of Transport Economics (TØI) might providesome answers.

the tools to do something more compre-hensive that are lacking. The problem wewould like to solve is the following:Consider a set of infrastructure objects thatwill have to share the same annual mainte-nance budgets. Their rates of deteriorationmay differ. Their initial states may be any-thing between the best possible and theworst possible. The worse the state, the hig-her the user costs. The agency in chargehas at its disposal a number of rehabilita-tion activities of different intensity andcost. A rehabilitation strategy is the alloca-tion of rehabilitation activities to the diffe-rent objects for a number of future years,subject to annual budgets. The problem isto find a rehabilitation strategy which mini-mizes the sum of user costs and agencycosts subject to the budget constraints andconstraints on end states.

If this problem – applied to road pave-ments – could be solved efficiently, a limi-

Towards Sound Methods of Cost-Benefit Analysis of Road NetworkRehabilitation Strategies


ted number of experiments with the annu-al budgets could establish the benefit-costratio of allocating more money to mainte-nance, the best time profile for the budgetsas well as the long-run average states to beaimed at for the different classes of road.

All practical strategic road maintenancesystems at present fail to solve this pro-blem. The Finnish HIPS is probably thebest, as it solves correctly the problem offinding welfare optimal pavement rehabili-tation strategies for a set of roads whenthere are no annual budget constraints.Unfortunately, annual budget constraintsdo exist and are known to make the pro-blem extremely complex. Therefore, simp-le but incorrect methods are often offeredinstead, in the hope of not getting too faroff the mark. A few articles in the academicliterature solve versions of the rehabilita-tion strategy problem, but we do not knowif they have been put to practical use.

NORDIC NO. 2 2007 | 11

In an article about to be published inthe journal Computers & OperationsResearch, we study the rehabilitation stra-tegy problem and model it as an integerprogramming problem with underlyingdynamic programming structure. A heuris-tic algorithm with upper and lower boundsfor the solution is proposed. The algorithmhas been programmed for the road pave-ment application and applied to what wethought were realistic cases with respect todeterioration rates and costs. The resultsare promising and indicate that the modelmight indeed be applied to find optimalpavement rehabilitation strategies and docost-benefit analysis of maintenance bud-get changes.

For practical applications we still needto validate our functions and parameters.Suggestions from other researchers andpractitioners are welcomed. We also needto test the software on a wider range of

Contact:Geir Dahl, [email protected] Minken, [email protected]

For more information:Dahl, G. and Minken H. (2006) Methods based ondiscrete optimization for finding road network reha-bilitation strategies. Computers & OperationsResearch, forthcoming (available online)

cases. A wider choice of functional formsand applications to other types of infra-structure will require some reprogram-ming, which we hope to be able to do inthe future.

Geir Dahl, University of Oslo, NorwayHarald Minken, TØI, Norway

PHOTO: PHOTOS.COM


ROAD CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE.

Road Accidents in the Winter Related to Climate and MaintenanceStrategies

Salt has been used for decades to improve accessibility andsafety on roads in the winter. There is no doubt that the saltimproves the driving conditions significantly in the winter.However, the effect on safety is open for discussion and dataassembled by VTI indicates that the safety effect is dependanton both the climate and the standard of the maintenance service.

Friction control of winter roads is a majortask to assure safety and accessibility to

the road users in cold climate. Traditionally,there are two main methods, salting andgritting, with both advantages and disadvan-tages. The scope of the presentation is todiscuss the efficiency of the different met-hods on the safety and accessibility due tothe climatic conditions. The present reportis based on analysis of the data assembledfor the VTI project “Winter Model”, andpresents mainly comparisons between acci-dent data, operation standards for wintermaintenance and climatic conditions in thedifferent regions of Sweden.

Strategies for friction control of roadsAll Scandinavian countries have establishedguidelines for defining strategies and met-hods for assuring acceptable standards forthe road conditions in the winter period.Generally, they are based on the traffic loadsand the importance of the roads. Salt ismainly used for friction control on the mostimportant and busy roads. None of theScandinavian countries has defined climaticconditions to the guidelines for salting.However, there is a practice in Finland,Sweden and Norway to avoid or reduce theuse of salt in the coldest areas of the coun-tries. Salt is used to avoid the formation of

compacted snow and ice on the roads andpreferably salted roads should be free ofsnow and ice the whole winter. In practice,salt has limited effects during snowfalls andtemperatures below -8° C. The effect of thetraditional gritting method is limited. Thelast ten years an impressive research in theNordic countries has been carried out ondeveloping equipment for the warm wettedsand method, which is based on mixing hotwater with sand just ahead of the spreadingto have the wetted sand freeze to thesnow/ice surface. The improved frictionand durability have shown to be significantin areas with cold, stabile climates.

Accidents versus winter maintenancestandardsThe basis for the data used in the presentanalysis is all the police recorded accidentson the state roads in Sweden and data ofroad surface conditions recorded by theroad authorities in the 1993/94 to 96/97winters. The accident data are broken into• Types of accidents and severity of the

accidents• Road conditions at the time of the acci-

dents• Vehicle mileage on the different road

conditions• Maintenance standard for the roads

The accident analysis include only fatali-ties and severe injuries and are made sepa-rately for• Four climatic regions; southern, central,

lower northern and upper northernSweden

• Three maintenance standard classes;A1+A2 and A3+A4, which require sal-ting, and B1+B2, which is based on grit-ting

• Two road conditions; bare roads andsnow/ice covered roads

Calculated accident ratesFigure 1 may be considered to be represen-tative for the calculated accident rates forthe salted roads. Generally the vehiclemileage on bare road surfaces is 75–96 percent of the total volume and the accidentrates on bare roads are much lower compa-red to driving on snow or ice covered surfa-ces. The accident rates shown in Figure 1represent the probability for a driver to beinvolved in an accident in certain condi-tions. One should have in mind that thenumber of accidents on a road is the pro-duct of the accident rate and the vehiclemileage. To reduce the number of acci-dents one should preferably reduce boththe accident rate for the different surfaceconditions and the ratio of the vehicle

NORDIC NO. 2 2007 | 13

Figure 1. Representative figure for presenting ratios ofvehicle mileage and the accident rates on specified roadconditions. The example is for A3+A4 roads in CentralSweden.

Figure 2. Number of accidents related to driving on snowand ice covered roads specified for winter maintenancestandard classes, climatic regions and average hourswith temperatures below -8o C for each region.

Figure 3. Regression line presenting number of fatali-ties and severe injuries as a function of the ratio ofvehicle mileage of snow/ice covered roads. The dotsrepresent data for different maintenance classes andclimatic regions.

mileage for driving on conditions havingthe highest accident rates. The number ofaccidents related to driving on snow andice are presented in Figure 2. For the threesouthern regions the salted roads have thelowest number of accidents, and thereseems to be a positive effect of the higherstandard classes A1 and A2. The resultsfrom upper northern Sweden are quiteopposite. The number of accidents for thesalted roads is almost twice as high compa-red to the unsalted roads. This is probablya result of the high amounts of temperatu-res below -8° C found in upper northernSweden, and at which conditions salt maybe to more harm than doing nothing.

The accident rates for driving onsnow/ice covered roads are dependent onthe ratio of vehicle mileage. The accidentratio for snow/ice to bare roads is as highas 8–10 for vehicle ratios of approximately5 per cent and 2–3 for ratios exceeding 50per cent. For instance is 30–40 per cent ofthe accidents recorded on the A1+A2 roadsin southern and central Sweden occurringon the 4 per cent of the time the roadshave been covered by snow or ice.

The data material indicates that there isa maximum in accidents for vehicle ratioson snow and ice between 0.2 and 0.4(Figure 3). If these indications are correct,one should preferably introduce salting ifthe ratio of snow and ice on unsalted roadsare 0.3–0.5 and the use of salt may reducethe ratio to less than 0.2. On the other

hand, by introducing salt in climatic areashaving ratios exceeding 0.5 and ending upwith ratios close to 0.2–0.3 would probablyincrease the number of accidents.

The ratio of the summer/winter acci-dent rates for fatalities and severe injuriesare found to be higher for salted than forunsalted roads in all four climatic regions,1.2 and 1.0 respectively. One should, how-ever, have in mind that the types of roadsthat are salted and unsalted are quite diffe-rent concerning standards and trafficloads. The data material also makes it pos-sible to calculate the accident rates for dri-ving on bare roads in the winter and tocompare these rates with the respectivesummer accident ratios. The accident ratesfor driving on bare roads in winter are inaverage 0.75 compared to summer for sal-ted roads and 0.55 for unsalted roads.Probably drivers on unsalted roads expectthe roads to be partly covered with snow orice in the winters and they reduce thespeed even when the roads are bare.Similarly, drivers on salted roads expect theroads to be free of snow and have thus ahigher speed when the roads are bare.

ConclusionThe use of salt improves the accessibility ofwinter roads, and the reductions of vehicleratio for A1+A2 and A3+A4 roads on snowand ice are calculated to 60 per cent and 80per cent relative to the respective vehiclemileage on snow and ice for roads that are

not salted. The effect on safety is, however,more difficult to estimate, especially for thethree southern regions. There are two rela-tionships that indicate that the number ofaccidents is lower on salted than unsaltedroads. The number of accidents related todriving on snow and ice is lower for saltedroads, and the number of accidents shoulddecrease if the ratio of vehicle mileage onsnow and ice is less than 0.2. On the otherhand the accident rates in winter areapproximately 20 per cent higher than inthe summer for salted roads and equal forunsalted roads. It is thus not possible to cal-culate a certain improvement in safety as aresult of the improved driving conditionsgiven by the salting of roads, unless one hasreliable data for comparable types of roads.For the conditions in upper northernSweden there is no doubt that the salting ofroads gives higher accident rates. Theconclusion of the authors is thus that theuse of salt should be used with great cau-tion in areas with very low winter tempera-tures. In such climate use of pre wettedsand probably gives better safety and accep-table accessibility.

Harald Norem, NTNU, Norway Staffan Möller, VTI, Sweden

Contact: Harald Norem, [email protected] Staffan Möller, [email protected]


The vulnerability of road network andtransport routes to climate change

impacts depends on the actual state andlevel of response of road pavements. Themost important impacts are considered inthe design and construction practice, e.g.frost action, storm rain drainage, etc.

Vulnerability to climate-induced impactsRecent experience has shown that our cur-rent preparedness for extreme climaticevents is insufficient. Examples of recentextreme events in Finland include- Storm rain flooding in central and wes-

tern Finland in summer 2004- Sea level rise along the south coast in

winter 2005- Floods due to rains and snowmelt in

northern Lapland in spring 2005The immediate costs of damage to the

road network were considerable, up to €1.6million. This does not include costs incur-red by restraints on traffic and transport orthe weakening of pavements causingincreases in maintenance and repair.

Climate change scenarios for FinlandThe climate is expected to become warmerdue to increased greenhouse gases in the

Climate Change and RoadManagement

The vulnerability of road pavements and transportsystems to climate change impacts depends on theirimpact response. Abnormal weather events likefloods and storms have occurred in recent years,causing disturbance and damage. Important tasks forconsideration are as follows: contingency planning,revision of design criteria, improvement of pavementsand structures to ensure the service level and adap-tation of maintenance operations.


atmosphere. By 2080, the annual mean airtemperature is expected rise by 3–5°Cabove the average for the period1871–2000. Rising winter temperaturesmight increase the need for salting, andshorten the length of the salting period.The character of events needing frictioncontrol measures (salting) varies betweenregions from south to north and east towest, and the change in friction control willbe regional. Annual precipitation is antici-pated to increase above the average for1971–2000 by ten per cent by 2050, and by12–17 per cent by 2080. Maximum six-hourand five-day rain figures would increase by25 per cent on average, and in someregions by more than 50 per cent. Thisincreases especially the risk of urban floo-ding and the flood risk in artificial waterbasins. Water levels in the world’s oceansand in the Baltic Sea are estimated to risesignificantly. At the same time, land heavingalong the coastline will mainly compensatefor the rise of the Baltic Sea. Floods risewhen there is a strong low pressure and pro-longed heavy winds. Increasing winter rainstogether with rising air temperatures mayexacerbate the distress of freeze-thaw onpavement surfaces and structures.

Climate change and road management inFinland As winters get warmer, frost penetration inpavements will decrease significantly. Thawweakening may start earlier in the spring,and develop also during the frost period,causing a shortened period for wintertransport which presently benefits fromhigher bearing capacity of frozen roadstructure.

Snowfalls are increasing in the north,while winters are getting milder. Althoughthe amount of snowfall and snow cover islikely to decrease, the intensity of short-term snowfalls disturbing traffic may rise.An increase in repeated freeze-thaw cyclingmay also exacerbate the frost deteriorationof pavement surfaces and structures. Infuture, the need for raising pavement sur-face levels and reviewing the design of drai-nage facilities for flood events should beevaluated in the repair design. A greaterintensity of storm rains causes increasedwatercourse flooding and consequentdamage. Rising water on the pavement mayblock traffic and cause damage to roadequipment, and softens the pavementstructure with increased risk of damageand shortened lifetime. Storm rains may

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also worsen damage caused by erosion toside ditches and slopes and at cones ofbridge abutments and embankmentsincreasing e.g. the landslide risk andamount of silting.

Preparation for climate changeThe type of preparation will differ depen-ding on the purpose:- Emergency, rescue

- Protection of activities, prevention orlimitation of damage, maintenance ofservice levels

- Improvement of durability of structuresand equipment

- Change of building regulations andcodes of practice Knowing the character and impact pro-

cesses of an expected weather event isnecessary for preparation. Besides the pro-

jected change of climatic factors, theresponse of pavements and the road net-work to exceptional climatic impacts mustbe understood. For this, documented andanalysed information is needed on climate-originated damage such as floods, stormrains, snow, ice, etc. This means more reli-able information than is currently availableon road conditions and service levels inreal time, as well as more precise designand planning that take climatic impactsinto account.

Seppo Saarelainen, VTT, Finland

Contact: Seppo Saarelainen, [email protected]

For more information:Adaptation to climate change in road manage-ment. Preliminary study Reports 4/2007. 53p. (in Finnish with Englishabstract)

PHOTO: SAULI KOSKIFlooding in Kittila, Northern Lapland, in May 2005.

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The mouth of the Strynefjell tunnel central in southern Norway.



Many important roads go through highmountain areas. Several of these

roads are located higher than 1,000 mabove sea level. The traffic is normallymoderate, with annual average daily trafficof 1,000–2,000 vehicles. There are nomotorways in high mountain areas. Inaddition to important transport routes wehave several small roads in the mountains.These are used in connection with hun-ting, fishing and outdoor leisure activities.

Road versus untouched natureThe assessment of road projects is donestep by step. The need for a new road isassessed in a concept analysis. The impactson environment and society are assessed byan impact study. The location and designof the alignment route will be assessed bymaster plan and detail design. Buildingroads in untouched mountain areas isdebated. Gradually, Norway has few huge

Norway is a mountainous country. The population mainly livesalong the coast and in the valleys leading towards the mount-ains. For several thousands of years we have had contact acrossthe mountains between country parts.

wilderness areas left. The local societyoften wants roads to support local tradeand industry, while the greater societywants untouched nature.

Roads in the mountains are visible at agreat distance. The road ought to be adjus-ted to the landscape. Special challenges arebridges, tunnel portals etc. In vulnerableareas the road may be constructed with areduced standard. In magnificent mounta-in landscapes it may turn out to be correct,also aesthetically, to construct a high roadstandard with gentle curvatures so that theroad is in harmony with the rhythm of thelandscape. Immigration of natural vegeta-tion alongside new roads should be prepa-red for aesthetical reasons and in order toprevent erosion.

In steep terrain a tunnel is a possible,but expensive solution. In Norway thereare 1,000 road tunnels. Most of them areshort ones, but the longest one is almost 25

km. Tunnels are road-safe and environ-mentally sound, but they are also a challen-ge. The tunnels are different from open-airbecause of road and light conditions,because it is difficult to judge uphill/downhill and distance, and because tun-nels have different requirements on thealert. Tunnels may be uncomfortable,often forbidden, for pedestrians and cyc-lists. Tunnels are often built as a safeguardagainst landslides. Norway has approxima-tely 1,000 avalanches a year; avalanches ofstone, earth and snow.

Protecting the wildlifeThe roads bring cars and people into themountains and this causes pedestrian traf-fic and wear and tear of the terrain. In vul-nerable landscapes worthy of protection wetry to administer the use of nature by pre-paring fixed stops, fixed footpaths etc.There are few traffic limitations in

Environmentally Sound RoadConstruction in High Mountain Areas

PHOTO: NPRA

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Norwegian nature; instead we use positivemeasures, not prohibition. We have legisla-tion for protection of particularly valuablenature. Motor traffic in outfields (snowscooters etc.) is as a rule not permitted, butexceptions are made.

Ought roads to be kept open in winter?This is an important topic in Norway. Byall-the-year-round road we do not meanthat the road is open continuously, but thatit will open again after each snow storm.These roads can often be a strain on ani-mal life. An example of this is the wild rein-deer population in a mountain area calledHardangervidda. Our biologists think thatthe road crossing Hardangervidda (whichis normally kept open in winter) is a pro-blem for the wild reindeers. The animals

have problems crossing the road whilehunting for food, either because of car traf-fic or because of tall snow banks.

Building roads with regards to snowThe location and design of the road is ofgreat importance for snowploughing.Because of wind the snow settles unevenly,with snowdrifts in some places and littlesnow in other places. If the road is built ina location where there is little snow, thecost of snowploughing can be reduced.The choice of alignment route is madeafter thorough inspections in winter. Onecan also learn a lot in summer about snowconditions, since the snow conditions influ-ence the vegetation. We try to avoid safetyfences that create snowdrifts on the lee

side. We prefer to give the road a simpleand curved design so that the snow caneasily blow away.

In general we see an increasing interestfor environmental themes in Norway bothin connection with emission, biologicalmultitude and nature conservation. In themountain areas we often have to make dif-ficult choices between environment andtraffic flow.

Tor J. Smeby, NPRA, Norway

Contact: Tor J. Smeby, [email protected]

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The animals might have problems crossing the road because of tall snow banks.


Asphalt samples in theroad laboratory at VTI.


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Every year 1–2 million tons of oldasphalt paving is recycled in Sweden in

conjunction with maintenance or the buil-ding of new roads. Asphalt laid before the1970s may contain a binder, road tar, origi-nating from coal tar. Road tar contained,amongst other things, Polycyclic AromaticHydrocarbons, PAH, and other poisonousor carcinogenic compounds, which meansthat it is no longer used for asphalt paving.As long as the asphalt containing tar rema-ins in the road, the risk of contamination islow. This has been shown by tests takenfrom fixed matter and groundwater nextto, and underneath, roads with asphaltcontaining tar. Nor does there appear to beany increased risk to the work-environmentfor workers handling the asphalt. Asphaltcontaining tar becomes dangerous to thesurrounding environment when it is cru-shed or heated-up, something which usuallyoccurs in the process of recycling. It is the-refore necessary to carry out comprehen-sive evaluations of the methods used, some-thing that VTI has been working on withinseveral projects.

There is a number of methods for recyc-ling asphalt containing tar. In brief, thematerial can be crushed into an unbound

Recycling of Asphalt Containing Tar– Old Roads Become New

As a result of its good adhesive properties, road tar (coal tar)was used as a binder in roads for over 50 years in Sweden. Useof asphalt containing tar gradually ceased at the start of the1970s. There being carcinogenic compounds in the tar meansthat dug-up tar asphalt is at present classified as hazardouswaste, but with permission from the supervising authority it canbe recycled and made into new roads.

road base in roads where one would other-wise have used crushed rock. Over time,and as a result of increased traffic, the roadbase consisting of crushed asphalt will bebound together into a cohesive, asphaltresembling layer with positive properties.This type of recycling should, however,only be used for recycled tar-mass with alow PAH-content and in roads with com-pact paving.

If the tar-mass contains a high level ofPAH it should be mixed with a bitumenbased binder, which is the type of binderused in asphalt paving today. Bitumen is ahighly viscous (at room temperature) bin-der which is extracted from petroleum. Ithas the capacity to encapsulate the tar,which considerably reduces the amount ofcarcinogenic PAH. The recycled asphaltcan then be used as a bound road basebelow the paving in new roads.

When the tar-mass is to be mixed withthe binder the substances are not heated,instead cold or warm processes are used. Ifthe material is not heated above approx-imately 110°C the emissions of airbornePAH are considered to be low. The smell ishowever more palpable during the warmprocess compared to the cold one. During

the so called warm recycling the material isheated to between 60–80°C and soft bitu-men is added. Warm masses can be laidlater on in the season than the cold and iseasier to pack. During cold recycling thetar-mass is not heated at all, and instead ofsoft bitumen, bitumen emulsion or foamedbitumen is added.

If the tar-masses can not be recycled theremaining alternatives are for it to remainwhere it is, to be deposited or incinerated.Various investigations have shown that therecycling has minor environmental conse-quences and has substantial advantages interms of cost, energy, preventing resourcedepletion, and air emissions. There arecurrently national guidelines concerninghow to handle and recycle asphalt contai-ning tar. At VTI, researcher TorbjörnJacobson has been active in this field inclose cooperation with the SwedishGeotechnical Institute, SGI.

Sandra Johansson, VTI, Sweden

Contact: Torbjörn Jacobson,[email protected]

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Development Strategies for the Useof Traffic Management on the PrimaryRoad Network in Denmark

Fifteen to twenty years ago, traffic information and later a wideruse of traffic management was introduced in Denmark. As inother countries, a large amount of resources was put into rese-arch and development in the beginning, but in the last ten years,the main emphasis has increasingly been placed on implementa-tion. The implementation has to a large extent been within limi-ted areas, functionally and geographically. The time has come tofocus more on perspectives, vision and plans for the use of traf-fic management. The Danish Road Directorate has drawn upvarious development perspectives on how traffic managementcan be used on the motorway network during the next ten tofifteen years.

Road traffic has in recent years beengrowing and is expected to continue

doing so in coming years. The growth isparticularly expected to concentrate onthe main road network. Even with exten-sion of the road network, the packed con-ditions on the main network are expectedto rise in coming years. Thus, there is focusto make use of the existing capacity of thetransport system more efficiently by meanssuch as traffic management. It is thereforebecoming necessary to make use of meansin traffic management which in a morewidespread and purposeful manner influ-ence the demand for transportation andcontrol of the traffic, thus achieving anoptimization of the transport system. Herethe new and future technological possibili-ties in traffic management play an impor-tant role. The main objectives of the effortsin traffic management are to create greatermobility, increased traffic safety and good

service for the road users. The ways toachieve this are to collect and treat data ontraffic development and to inform the roadusers on the results and to control the traf-fic. Data collection and treatment is inte-grated in the efforts planned.

Traffic management

Traffic management means:Control of traffic streams, people, vehic-les and merchandise by traffic informa-tion, traffic management, demandmanagement (road pricing), and othermeans to keep the traffic system open,secure and environmentally acceptable.A continuous collection of knowledgeand data on traffic and mobility is anintegrated part of traffic management.

Four primary means for the efforts intraffic management have been made for

the coming years as a basis for the scena-rios:• Traffic management should contribute

to achieve a more effective use of thetransport system and create better mobi-lity on the main road network.

• Traffic management should be integra-ted in the work on traffic safety and con-tribute to the improvement of trafficsafety on the main road network.

• Traffic management should support theefforts of the transportation sector tomake its transport and logistics systemmore effective regarding the attainmentof more effective goods transport.

• Modern traffic management equipmentshould be used to describe mobility indetail so that better knowledge of thedevelopment of mobility can be obtai-ned on the entire main road network. There are various forms of traffic mana-

gement, which can be placed under three


NORDIC NO. 2 2007 | 21

Contact: Charlotte Vithen, [email protected]

headings according to their function:1. Traffic information

Road user information, such as TRIMand TRIM Travel time. (TRIM isDynamic traffic information on trafficstatus and travel times, provided on theinternet. TRIM covers approximately130 km of motorways in GreaterCopenhagen.)

2. Local traffic managementSystems that can warn road users of pla-ces where there frequently are trafficjams and which can control trafficmanagement in the best possible way.

3. Motorway control systemsSystems that can give information, warnroad users and manage the traffic onstretches with heavy traffic load.In order to be able to choose the correct

method of traffic management at the rightplace and time, it is necessary to have detai-led and updated knowledge of the traffic

condition of the road network and of themobility in particular. Collection of know-ledge and data is therefore an importantindependent function, which is integratedwith the other functions under trafficmanagement.

Development strategiesThe Danish Road Directorate has propo-sed some possibilities of development fortraffic management. These are illustratedin three scenarios that demonstrate thepotentials of traffic management functionssuch as ”information”, ”local traffic mana-gement” and ”traffic management on roadstretches”. The development scenariosfocus primarily on actions along the motor-ways. However, in order to create connec-tion with the systems and networks alsoactions in other places/stretches on themain state network of roads are included.

Here it is a question of traffic managementactions over and above those carried out inconnection with major construction pro-jects which have already been agreed poli-tically. Three scenarios have been drawnup to introduce traffic management withsuggestions for concrete actions and effortsfor each of the three traffic managementfunctions. The three scenarios representthree different levels: low, medium andhigh. The efforts are illustrated on threemaps. The maps show the areas and stret-ches where it is suggested that the three sys-tem types should be introduced.

Charlotte Vithen, Head of Office for TrafficManagement and ITS, DRD, Denmark

Basic traffic information Variable speed signs

Intensive traffic information Ramp metering

Variable message signs Motorway control system

Video surveillance Route advice

Warning systems


Whispering Asphalt – Whisperfalt

The Norwegian Public Roads Administration, NPRA, is testing lownoise pavements to find the asphalt recipe that gives the lowestnoise. Whisperfalt is one of the pavements being tested and itshows good results. Road traffic induces 80 per cent of noisenuisance in Norway. Low noise pavements might reduce thenoise by 2–8 decibel, and so NPRA is making a thorough testingof different pavement types.

nance indicate less need for salting as thegrains of salt remain in the asphalt pores.

– Besides the ice breaks open morequickly, Aksnes adds.

Final measurement on the test pave-ments at Espa will be conducted next sum-mer.

– Then we will see which pavement isthe best both when it comes to noise reduc-tion, condition and economy. So farWhisperfalt has shown auspicious qualities– when it is new it has very good noisereducing charcteristics. But it is a littlemore expensive than the other alternati-ves, and porous pavements have also to becleansed so that the pores remain open,ends Aksnes and adds that low noise pave-ments are of use to everybody, not only forthose who stay behind a noise deflectionwall or inside a noise insulated house withthe windows shut.

Henriette Erken Busterud and Thorbjørn Chr.Risan, NPRA, Norway

Contact: Jostein Aksnes, NPRA, [email protected]

–We put the porous pavementWhisperfalt on a part of Main

Road E6 by Espa, about 100 km north ofOslo, as a measure for noise reduction, saysJostein Aksnes, NPRA, who is an expert onlow noise pavements.

– The contractor Lemminkäinen intro-duced this recipe in addition to three otherlow noise pavements which we tested. Sofar we have conducted noise measure-ments twice, which show that Whisperfaltproduces less noise and has acceptablewear resistance.

According to Aksnes noise from tyrescan be reduced in two ways. One alterna-tive is asphalt with smooth and texturedsurface which lead to less tyre vibration andconsequently less noise. The second alter-native is porous asphalt with a continuoussystem of pores. Air being compressedunder the wheel can thereby be displacedthrough this system of pores, which givesless pumping of air and thus less noise.The optimal low noise pavement combinesboth principles for noise reduction by thesource, and this is what NPRA is trying toachieve with Whisperfalt.

Other positive qualities with porouspavements are better friction ratio andreduced risk of aquaplaning. In addition,current experiences from winter mainte-


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Planning for ”Bicycle Tube”

The city of Bodø in the County of Nordland in northern Norwaywants to become a bicycle city. NPRA and the municipal of Bodøhave suggested to build in a foot and bicycle path between theCollege of Higher Education and the city centre to make cyclingeasier and more attractive.

transparent plastic plates. The bicycle tubewill have a number of roofed openings foraccess and ventilation. There will also beinternal illumination. The tube will holdphysical separated roads for cyclists andpedestrians.

– The tube can be placed on the existingfoot and bicycle path, but the best solutionwould be to construct it parallel to theexisting foot and bicycle path, saysTorbjørn Naimak, Regional Director,NPRA. The bicycle tube has to be endedbefore crossings or, if possible, be lead overor under the roadway.

The project is at the starting line, buthas already passed its first milestone afterconsideration and decision in Bodø TownCouncil, which allocated 12,500 to a preli-minary study. But the road towards realiza-

Contact: Kjell Skjerve, [email protected]

Bodø is situated with the rough open searight outside. With the slogan “Bodø in

the wind” the city has created its image as aplace of heavy weather. Nevertheless thecitizens of Bodø often must stand heavywind.

– Perhaps this is the reason for the lowinterest in using bicycle in the area, saysDeputy Mayor Kirsten Hasvoll, who ishappy for a possibility to neutralize windyweather.

Some years ago a glass roof was con-structed over a part of the main street andthe experience with the project was so posi-tive, now the inhabitants of Bodø gladlylook forward to the tube being built.

The idea, which was introduced by theCity Plan Director, Jørn Roar Moe, is toconstruct a framed structure covered with

tion is long. However, before anybody canrejoice at indoor cycling in Bodø, the ideamust be further developed on the paper. Ifthe conclusion is positive a pilot model fortesting can be ready in 2008. The bicycletube will cost approximately NOK 1,875per metre. Consequently the 8 km long dis-tance between the College of HigherEducation and the city centre will costabout NOK 15 million.

– This is a manageable sum of money,and we think the idea is fully realizable,says Naimak.

Giselle Jensen and Thorbjørn Chr. Risan,NPRA, Norway

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With a plastic tube cyclist and pede-strians will be protected against windand rain in the city of Bodø.


Cycle Path Inspections on ExistingStreets and Roads

In 2005 the Norwegian government adopted the National CyclingStrategy as part of the National Transport Plan for 2006–2015.The main objective of the strategy is to make it safer and moreattractive to cycle. The main measures under implementation arelarger investment budgets, better maintenance of existing bicyclefacilities, improved traffic regulations and competence building.

Cycling facilities along the nationalroads in Norway are a part of the

national road system and a governmentalresponsibility. The Norwegian PublicRoads Administration, NPRA, has beengiven a new responsibility to motivate andinspire regional and local public authori-ties as well as its own staff with respect tothe improvement of conditions for cycling.The target group is towns and cities wherethe potential for increased cycling is highest.

Why a cycle path inspection? Being aware that the existing cycle facilitiesare inadequate with respect to accessibility,traffic safety and attractiveness, the NPRAhas developed a tool for inspection andimprovement based on the already existingsystem of traffic safety inspections for theroad system in general. 25 per cent ofexisting national cycle facilities will beinspected and improved during the period2006–2009.

The objectives for the cycle path inspec-tions are

• Find deviations, notes and remarks• A better base for planning and decision-

making• Increase the educational level (knowled-

ge on cycling facilities)• Dialogue between everybody who is or

will be involved

Traffic safety inspectorsThe method is simple. Staff with compe-tence on traffic safety and cycle facilitiessupported by representatives of differentuser groups and people from the munici-pality, inspect the cycle facilities by bicycleand suggest improvements of any kind.The bicycle inspectors have to be experien-ced and well equipped cyclists with know-ledge about the guidelines in cycle plan-ning (handbook 249/2004). They alsohave to attend a course in bicycle inspec-tions. Such courses started during the sum-mer of 2006 and the whole of Norway areexpected to be “covered” within 2008. Asmentioned before, Norway established asystem of traffic safety inspections some

years ago and we have educated (with a cer-tificate) so called Traffic Safety Inspectors.The cycle path inspections are supposed tobe headed by such inspectors.

Common findingsSmall improvements that can be carriedout within the confinement of road areaare being noticed as well as more basic,structural improvements which need agreater financial funding. Check lists areespecially developed for cycle lanes, combi-ned pedestrian and cycle tracks and carria-ge ways for mixed use. The objective is tomake visible improvements for cyclists thatdon’t take years to plan and implement. Itis a systematic examination on• Traffic safety• Accessibility• AdventureAnd special topics as • Maintenance, winter maintenance in

special• Post signing • Road work and so on


Winter maintenance ofcycle paths is necessaryin Norway.

An example of destroy-ed surface.

Lack of bicycle parkingsis a common findingwhen inspecting cyclepaths.

PHOTO ERIK J. JØLSGARD, NPRA

NORDIC NO. 2 2007 | 25

The most important stretches will beprioritized with special focus on• Intersections and private entrances• Speed and sight• Prevent cycling on the pavement (in

Norway it is permitted to cycle on thesidewalk, but new facilities for cyclingshall not encourage this)Common findings so far are bad or

destroyed surfaces, dangerous spots, lackof bicycle parking and last but not leastlack of transitions. Quick improvements ofexisting facilities are needed to make itvisible for the cyclists that they are prioriti-zed and welcomed into the streets.

Erik Jørgen Jølsgard, NPRA, Norway

Contact: Erik Jørgen Jølsgard, [email protected]

For more information: www.vegvesen.no, clickFagstoff, then Håndbøker and scroll down to no.249E.


Contact: Ditte Kilsgaard Møller, [email protected] Hasz-Singh, [email protected]

Beware!

The campaign is emotional and triggers asense of responsibility. Posters with fathers

and sons were also displayed in day carecentres.

– Children are aware. They have stronginfluence on their parents’ behaviour con-cerning security and being a role model,says Mette Fynbo, head of campaign inOdense, a major Danish city.

In the light of various road accidents,the Danish Road Accident InvestigationBoard made an analysis on use and effectof safety belts. The consequences of notusing safety belts are summarised as fol-lows:• Three out of four persons killed, who

did not use a safety belt, would very like-ly have survived if the belt had beenused.

• The damage to head, neck and body ismuch more severe for persons not usinga safety belt.

• Injury to persons thrown out of a car ismuch more serious than for personswho remain inside the car. Four out often who did not use a safety belt were

“Buckle up!” was the message short and clear ina new safety belt campaign. During April andMay, visitors in all mayor cities in Denmark couldexperience “squeezing patrols” and car wrecks.Unusual events took place in city centres as apart of the campaign. Hard facts and informationon safety reasons for using a seat belt are a cen-tral element.

propelled out of the car.• Most accidents happen on shorter dis-

tances.Two badly wrecked cars were to be seen

by the main entrance of a central shoppingcentre. Fictional stories about the accidentwere posted on a board. You could tell bythe look in peoples’ faces that the storiesleft a strong impression. Most peopleunderstood that wearing a safety belt is alsocaring about the people around you. Onthe opening day, 16th April, major cities inDenmark came to be more loving andcaring places. The “squeezing patrol” gaveevery one a hug with soft seat belt bucklehands. The aim was to remind drivers tobuckle up on their way home from work.

Analysis shows that people are evenmore likely motivated to change behaviourif they are encouraged by good friends andfamily. Reminding one of using safety beltis a way of showing care.

Various reasons for wearing seat belts,described on the campaign web site(www.huskselen.dk) add a humoristicaspect to the serious matter, that there is

no way of getting around not wearing seatbelt! Quotes collected by the police giveexamples on headless bad excuses:• This is not my car.• I’m too fat.• I will turn 79, so it doesn’t pay.• My wife turned me in, right?!• C’mon, you’re not fining me for doing

that?• But I live right over there!• There’s a coin stuck in the buckle.• I don’t even have a driver’s licence.• I know your boss!

The campaign is developed in coopera-tion between Danish Road Safety Council,police and municipalities. The goal is toraise the number of drivers wearing seat beltto 90 per cent from current 87 per cent.

Ditte Kilsgaard Møller and Helen Hasz-Singh,DRI, Denmark

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On the opening day of the campaign a “squeezing patrol” reminded drivers tobuckle up by giving every one a hug with their soft seat belt buckle hands.

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For more information: Hans Antonson,[email protected]

The Landscape Plays a Role When You Drive

In March 2006, a pilot project got underway at VTI commissioned by the Swedish

Road Administration. The purpose of theproject is to find out whether landscapeand road surroundings are at all significantfor traffic safety. Project leader HansAntonson at VTI recounts that many stu-dies have been conducted in environmen-tal psychology and environmental medi-cine to see how the environment and sur-roundings affect us human beings but,seen in connection with road planning,there is actually no hard data for it.

– When it comes to the traffic environ-ment speculation is rife, but now we will tryand find out whether there is indeed a con-nection between road surroundings and traf-fic safety. We will look at open and closedtraffic environments but also mixed environ-ments.

During the project 18 people drove aten km stretch in VTI’s driving simulator,arguably one of the most advanced of itskind in the world. They drove along thesame stretch three times and each time thelandscape changed in its roadside features;sometimes open flat country with fieldsand pastures, sometimes dense woodlandand now and then settlements. While thetesters drove, the speed, positioning on theroad and steering wheel pressure, indica-ting how tightly they gripped the steeringwheel, were all registered.

Now work is being done to analyse theresults from the study. Up to now the analy-sis shows that one generally drives morequickly in open environments than in closedones, for example where trees line the road.

– Drivers probably feel less safe in closedenvironments as they do not know what is

around the next corner. Is a deer going tospring out of nowhere? In an open land-scape they are more confident as they cansee what is happening further away, HansAntonson says.

On finishing the drive, the testers fill ina questionnaire. The answers to the ques-tionnaire will show how they reacted to thesurroundings they had just driven in, at anemotional level. Here it is not just a case ofconfidence but also about what one thinksis beautiful or not. Hans Antonson believesaesthetics in the traffic environment areimportant.

– The Swedish Road Administration’scustomers are not just people hauling them-selves from A to B; many of them drive forpleasure. Today much more is being stakedthan before on the aesthetics of the trafficenvironment. At the very least you see thatthe vegetation planted along our roads hasbecome much friendlier. Bridges are also

Are the landscape and road surroundings a traffic safety issue?This is what is being asked at VTI in a project of the same name.So far it can be shown that drivers generally drive faster in openenvironments with, for example, fields on both sides of the road.

being tidied up and there are experimentswith different types of lighting, for example.Up to now we know so very little about howthis affects driving behaviour.

Beautiful surroundings increase drivingquality, but does it make a driver moreobservant or induce people to drive moreslowly? In its turn does it play any role intraffic safety? Hans Antonson sees a needfor further study, for example into whatone really looks at in the landscape. Andwhat happens then with speed and unstea-diness on the road?

Rebuilding already existing roads hasnot yet arisen. However the results of thestudy can lead to new ways of thinkingwhen new roads are being designed.


The sensation of what is real is evident in the VTI driving simulator, one of the most advanced in the world.Here, the simulated landscape is on the left and the real one is on the right.

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Fatigue at Sea

Working on a ship’s bridge means inmost instances working irregular

work hours, including night work. Thereare negative effects of irregular workhours, which are mainly a consequence oftwo factors – the biological 24-hour rhythmand sleep loss. The purpose of this studywas to collect quantitative data about thefatigue, stress and performance levels ofbridge watch keepers on board ships, usingseveral methods and techniques. This datacorpus will be used to revise earlier sleepmodels, and to devise innovative solutionsfor the shipping industry. The ultimatepurpose was to construct solutions thatlead to safe manning of ships whileacknowledging economical constraints.

Measurements of fatigueFatigue is often considered to be a genericterm of which sleepiness is one of the majorsub-components. Measuring fatigue is acomplex task and there is no standardizedmethodology for the recording of fatigueor sleepiness, in individuals driving a vehic-le. However, techniques based on recor-dings of EEG (electrical brain waves) and,in most cases, EOG (eye movements), havebeen commonly used. Many studies haveutilized blink measurements as a way of cha-racterizing the level of sleepiness. Anothertechnique refers to subjective ratings whichis the simplest way of measuring driver slee-piness. However, it is also of great interest toknow more of how drivers perceive sleepi-ness and whether their perception correla-tes with objective indices of sleepiness.

Collecting dataThe data collection in this study was perfor-med during visits on board 13 cargo vesselsof different types, such as bulk carriers, carcarriers and tankers. 30 participants wereincluded in the study which focused on twoseparate watch systems: the 2-watch system– six hours on and six hours off – and the3-watch system – four hours on and eighthours off.

Four types of instruments were used fordata collection during the on board visits:questionnaires and diaries, eye movementmeasurements, activity meters and reactiontime tests. These were chosen carefully toensure as useful objective and subjectivemeasures as possible without disturbing thenormal routines of the participants.

The questionnaire included questionsabout home conditions, health issues, sleephabits, satisfaction with the working situa-tion etc. Sleep quality was measured by han-ding out sleep diaries to be filled in aftereach period of sleep, including sleep ondaytime off-duty periods. Also, subjectivesleepiness estimations were performed bythe participants once every hour using theKarolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS). KSS is anine-graded scale where 1 is very alert and9 is very sleepy. The participants were at thesame time told to rate their level of experi-enced stress on a similar 9-point scale.

Results from the questionnaireThe questionnaires from the two watch sys-tems were compared and no significant dif-ference was found. However, tendencies

During 2005–2007 a project concerning fatigue at sea has beenperformed at VTI. An on board study shows that all mates areless sleepy and less stressed at home than at work, the reactiontimes are longer after a night shift and mates working in a 2-watchsystem are sleepier than those working in a 3-watch system.

indicate that participants in the 3-watch sys-tem are more satisfied with their workinghours and working situation than partici-pants in the 2-watch system. Tendenciesalso suggest that participants in the 2-watchsystem often get less than six hours sleep aday, more often nod off and fight againstsleep than participants in the 3-watch sys-tem. When asked to judge how much sleepthe participants need the answers for bothwatch systems are very similar. The meanvalues for each watch system suggest thatthe participants in the 2- watch systemthink they need slightly less sleep (7.03 h)than the participants in the 3-watch system(7.43 h).

KSS and time of dayThe mean values of KSS and stress valuesfrom the diaries, for each participant andevery hour, were calculated both from theon board ratings and for the at homeratings. These were then compared for thetwo watch systems. The values are generallynot very high, but tendencies suggest thatthe participants in the 2-watch system are abit more tired, especially in the early mor-ning and in the afternoon, whereas thestress level is about the same. The meanvalues also indicate that both watches areless sleepy and less stressed at home thanon board. The highest mean KSS scoreswere recorded in the late night and earlymorning hours. Night time hours inducedhigher tiredness than day time work.

Analysing only high KSS scores forwatch system and time of day reveals that

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Contact: Margareta Lützhöft,[email protected]

For more information: www.vti.se/fatigueatsea

2-watch led to a larger amount of high KSSscores. Figure 2 shows the percentage ofKSS scores higher than 7 (when the firstsigns of sleepiness appear) for both shiftsystems. The average percentage of KSSscores over 7 was 3.46 for 2-watch and 1.29for 3-watch. In 2.7 per cent of the scoresparticipants had difficulties in stayingawake (8 or 9) and in 82 per cent of thesethe participant worked in 2-watch.

Participants in the 2-watch system thinkthey need less sleep than participants inthe 3-watch think. A possible explanation isthat the 2-watch mates are used to sleepingless and do not remember the feeling ofbeing totally rested. We have heard com-ments like: “I did not know how tired I wasuntil I changed from 2-watch to 3-watch” or“After a few days at home I know what alert is”and “It was worth the lower pay”.

Most ratings over 7 come from 2-watchparticipants and most from the night shifts.During 39 occurrences the participantshad difficulties in staying awake. Whetherthese numbers are scored on watch or not,one should consider that seafarers arealways “on call” and can be called upon toperform safety-critical tasks.

Stress data, reaction times and EOGThe 2-watch system had a mean stress valueof 3.23 and the 3-watch system 2.84. No sig-nificant effect of watch system was showed,but a significant interaction with shift num-ber – the more shifts the higher the stressscores. The reaction times after a nightshift had much higher variance than after aday shift. After the night shift more sco-rings with long reaction times were presentsuggesting difficulty to focus and to con-centrate for long periods of time. This kindof variance is seen when testing after alco-hol. Generally it can be said that partici-pants scored higher reaction times after anight shift than after a day time shift. Themean value after night shift was 0.35seconds and after day shift 0.31 seconds(only a slight tendency to higher values forthe 2-watch was found). This has beenshown before in many domains, and here,again, it is shown that night work is notwhat people are made for. The results fromthe EOG did not add much useful informa-tion to the study and could be left outcompletely in similar studies.

ConclusionsBesides the analysis presented here theproject Fatigue at Sea also consists of a lite-rature review, an interview series with ship-ping companies and a study of marinepilots, boatmen and other personnel. Also,a simulator study has been conducted andwill be analysed later this year.

However, from the on board study anumber of conclusions could be drawn.These are, in short• Mates in the 3-watch are more satisfied

with the working times and the workingsituation.

• Mates in the 2-watch system are sleepier,especially in early morning and after-noon.

• Most mates think they need at leasteight hours of sleep a day.

• All mates are less sleepy and less stressedat home.

• KSS values are highest at night shifts.• The most sleepy participants work in the

2-watch system.• Reaction times are longer for all partici-

pants after a night shift.

• Variation in reaction times is larger forparticipant in the 2-watch system thesuggesting them to be more unfocussed.

• 2-watch participants are more fatigued atthe end of shift than 3-watch participants.There is a lack of “hard data” to support

stakeholders in their decision-making, and alack of recommendations tuned to theneeds and constraints of the shipping busi-ness. Finding solutions to this problem isconstrained from many perspectives: sugges-tions must not lead to significant extra costsfor the concerned parties and stakeholders.The challenge is to find solutions that areeffective, economical and easy to use.

Birgitta Thorslund and Albert Kircher, VTI,Sweden Margareta Lützhöft, VTI & Chalmers, Sweden

Figure 1. KSS at bed time andget up time.

Figure 2. Percentage of KSSover 7 for time of day and thetwo shift systems.


PPP – the Key to FutureInfrastructure?

Around the world it is becoming more and more common forpublic roads to be financed by private means. This form of part-nership is called PPP, public private partnership. Commissionedby the Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communications, and in cooperation with the Swedish Road Administration andBanverket, VTI has recently analysed the ways and possibilitiesof using PPP for Swedish infrastructure investments.

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PPP involves different forms of long-term cooperation between parties in

the private and public sector. Great Britainhas been using such forms of agreementssince the 1990s, not only for buildingroads, but also for hospitals, prisons etc. InSweden, interest in different forms of part-nership solutions is growing and especiallyin the case of partnerships dealing withinfrastructure projects such as new roadsand railways.

A step towards increased cooperationThe Swedish Road Administration isresponsible for building and maintainingSweden’s state roads. The contracting ofprivate companies to carry out construc-tion has been going on for many years, andsince the beginning of the 1990s also main-tenance has been outsourced. PPP involvesa further step towards increased coopera-tion. Jan-Eric Nilsson, head of VTI’s depart-ment of Transport economics, explains:

– Instead of procuring the building andmaintenance separately, a complete pack-age is put out for tender. The consortiumthat wins the contract should also financethe construction. Those responsible will bepaid for the duration of the contract. Onepart of an annual payment is in return forrunning and maintaining the new facilityand another part is down payments forbuilding costs.

PPP has been tested in three road pro-jects in Norway and two in Finland, but theonly actual example from Sweden isArlandabanan, a railway connecting ArlandaAirport and downtown Stockholm. Arlanda-banan is owned by the state, but is run by thecompany A-Train AB, who also built the rail-way. A-Train financed Arlandabanan andwill, until 2045, be reimbursed for theirinvestment through ticket proceeds from thetrains that use the railway.

Contracts are a challengeVTI’s recent assignment from the govern-ment is to investigate the prerequisites forpublic private partnerships in infrastructu-re investments.

– It is something our government wantsto be doing. Now they just wanted to knowhow to best go about doing it, says Jan-EricNilsson.

The challenge lies in drawing up thecontract that will regulate the agreement.Both parties should benefit and the roador railway in question should not suffer interms of quality. An analysis has thereforebeen made of which contractual obliga-tions that should apply. For example, onemust set standards with regards to the roadsurface’s condition and the environment,i.e. by setting limits for particle and noiselevels. One must also consider the risk ofaccidents. If, after a certain number ofyears, it can be shown that fewer accidentsoccur on the new road compared to anequivalent road one should consider givinga bonus to the company responsible. Thisis a model that has been used in countriessuch as Finland.

Jan-Eric Nilsson believes that PPP can beone way to develop the cooperation betwe-en the public sector and commercial enter-prises, but emphasises the importance of aproperly drafted contract.

– I do believe PPP is an interesting con-cept, but if applied badly it can cause pro-blems and we see examples of such mista-kes in other countries.

He tells of a Hungarian privately finan-ced road procured in accordance with PPP.The road was, after being built, to be finan-ced by means of tolls, but since the old toll-free roads remained, drivers chose thoseinstead.

– Öresundsbron, the bridge that con-nects Sweden and Denmark, is also finan-

For more information: Jan-Eric Nilsson, [email protected]

ced by tolls, but in that case there were onlypoor alternatives, and for that reason, theidea of using tolls has worked out muchbetter. It is precisely these types of issuesthat have to be considered in beforehand.

PPP internationallyVTI will also conduct another PPP studycommissioned by the Committee onTransport and Communications. The studyis an overview of information that systema-tically compares PPP to other procurementmethods. The analysis looks at cost efficien-cy and how one chooses the “right” projectand finance it in the “right” way. It will alsoshow how PPP has been handled interna-tionally. Research material in the area isrelatively scarce compared to the numberof projects carried out. This is largely aresult of the fact that no PPP projects have,to date, been completed as the contractperiod is normally at least 20 years. Theoverview will function as a base when theCommittee on Transport andCommunications deal with an upcomingproposition from the government.

– The Ministry of Finance has said no toPPP once before. In that case there was afailure in demonstrating how the work oninfrastructure could become more effici-ent if handled in the right way, says Jan-EricNilsson. PPP is not a means of financingbut a way to make building and maintenan-ce more efficient, which we will try to showin these projects.


Over the past fifteen years, the building and maintenance of roads has been contracted to external companies. PPP is a further step towards cooperation.

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In 1994 the Norwegian government ope-ned up for competitive tendering, and

today half of the counties responsible forlocal public transport have introducedcompetitive tendering. This has led to anaverage cost saving for public authorities ofabout ten per cent. The authorities may, inother words, reduce their public spendingon local public transport and prioritizeother political areas, or improve the localpublic transport service.

As employees make up approximatelytwo thirds of the production costs of a buscompany, there is a discussion going onwhether the employees, and especially thebus drivers, pay for the cost reduction.According to labour unions the employeeshave experienced worsened working condi-tions in terms of wages, pensions, shorterbreaks and so on.

The employees’ rightsIn a study carried out last year, the Instituteof Transport Economics evaluated howemployees’ rights are protected in theNorwegian regulatory regime today. In thestudy state regulations, collective agree-ments and contracts regulating the rela-tions between counties and operators areanalysed. We find that most aspects of emp-

Competitive tendering within the Norwegian local public transportleads to reduced job security for the employees. But there areways to improve the employment protection. Introducing nationalregulations is one alternative.

loyment relations, i.e. wages and pensions,working time, qualification requirementsand workers’ participation are highly regu-lated in Norway today. The primary excep-tion is job security and work intensifica-tion. Hence, the most important negativeeffect of tendering for employees is redu-ced employment protection. Competitivetendering implies increased job turnover.Workers may loose their job if their compa-

ny looses the competition and has to redu-ce its production.

Measures to improve job security for busdrivers may be introduced in differentways. Some of these are also used in compe-titive tendering today. One measure is toenhance contract length. Another is torequire the winning operator to hire dri-vers from the loosing company if the newoperator is in need of drivers. In suchcases, the Public Transport Authority mayalso demand that employees who are 55years or older should be prioritized. This isin order to reduce the risk faced by olderjob seekers to be discriminated when jobsare distributed.

National regulationsAnother alternative is to introduce thenational regulation that the public trans-port authorities may demand similar rightsin cases of competitive tendering as emp-loyees’ rights in the events of transfer ofundertakings. Such a regulation wouldimply that the employees in the transfer-ring company, whose tasks are associatedwith the area or routes put out for compe-titive tendering, will be transferred to thewinning company. This requirementincreases the job security of employees

Competitive Tendering andEmployees’ Rights in NorwegianLocal Public Transport

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Employees in the Norwegian local public transporthave experienced worsened working conditions, according to labor unions.

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working in the firm may arise because ofdifferent agreements or seniority. The sizeof the risk may vary according to whetherthe route or area has been put out for com-petitive tendering in the period before thecall for tender, type of contract (gross-costversus net-cost contracts), and characteris-tics of the labour market, i.e. whether thereis a lack of drivers or not.

Increased stability Notwithstanding the probability of suchshort-term effects, one could argue that, inthe long term, effects of such regulationsmay increase stability in the labour marketfor drivers. Increased job security will pro-bably lead to increased stability in the workforce, and may even attract other employe-

Contact: Merethe Dotterud Leiren, [email protected]

For more information: Oddgeir Osland andMerethe Dotterud Leiren; Competitive Tenderingand Employment Relations in Local PublicTransport. TØI report 860/2006 (in Norwegian)

es as it is not an uncertain job. In the longrun this may improve the situation for ope-rators as well as for Public TransportAuthorities in terms of getting a stablework force in the sector.

Merethe Dotterud Leiren and Oddgeir Osland,Institute of Transport Economics, Norway

from the transferring company. Such regu-lations are today used in different varia-tions at regional level both in Norway(Nordland) and in the neighbouring coun-tries (in the city areas of Stockholm andCopenhagen).

How may the introduction of such natio-nal regulations affect cost efficiency gainedthrough competitive tendering? The regu-lation of employees’ rights in the event oftransfer of undertakings will probably addto the costs of the Public TransportAuthorities, as operators may add costsrelated to the following risks in their bids:The operators are uncertain about who thetransferred employees are and what agree-ments they may have and acquire. Conflictsbetween new employees and those already

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Vision Zero: Radical Progress or Empty Rhetoric?

Vision Zero introduces a new way of thinking about safety inNorwegian road transport. But how is this general vision trans-lated into local practice? Research conducted at NTNU SocialResearch Ltd. and SINTEF shows that although the introductionof Vision Zero has lead to increased attention on road safety,many employees in road administration feel that the vision hasfailed to actuate more concrete goals and measures.

The logo of the Norwegian VisionZero: No fatalities or (permanent)serious injuries.

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The idea of envisioning zero fatalities intransport was first adopted in Sweden in1997. In 2002, the Norwegian Parliamentfollowed the lead from Sweden. TheNational Transport Plan 2002-2011 statedthat no fatalities or serious injuries shouldbe the ultimate goal for Norwegian trans-port systems. There has been some contro-versy and confusion as to whether VisionZero is to be seen as a concrete goal or as amore general ethical imperative (the majo-rity would probably agree with the latter).However, no matter which of these twointerpretations of Vision Zero one wouldprefer, the fact remains that Vision Zerorepresents a radical shift from previoussafety philosophies in road transport. Itimplies that we no longer accept that roadtransport claims hundreds of lives eachyear, statistics that would have been seen asoutrageous in any other branch of trans-port. Vision Zero transfers some of theresponsibility for road safety from the roadusers to the organizations that build, mana-ge and maintain roads. Previously, thisresponsibility was placed solely upon theusers, through §3 in the Norwegian roadtraffic act, which stated that each user wasresponsible for driving carefully and obser-vantly.

Studying the interpretation of VisionZeroAlthough many have discussed thestrengths and weaknesses of Vision Zero,there have been few attempts to analysehow this general vision translates into localpractice and action. Therefore, a group ofresearchers from NTNU Social ResearchLtd. and SINTEF conducted a study that,among other things, aimed to assess howemployees of the Norwegian Directorate ofPublic Roads perceived and interpretedthe vision, and whether the vision had ledto any actual changes. The research wasfunded by the Norwegian Research

Council’s programme for Risk and Safetyin the Transport sector (RISIT). The studycombined questionnaire and interviewassessment, and was a case study of one dis-trict within the Directorate of PublicRoads.

Increased attention on road safetyOur results indicate that the introductionof Vision Zero has had some positiveeffects. 79 per cent of the respondents feltthat Vision Zero had led to increased atten-tion on road traffic safety. Especially, theemployees perceived that there was anincreasing interest in and debate on theuse of central reserve safety barriers and tosome extent also on roadside design.

Despite these positive effects, the majo-rity of the employees still see the need forthe general vision to be accompanied bymore concrete goals and measures. Only48 per cent of the respondents agree thatVision Zero has had real effects on thework to improve road safety. Especially,many employees complain that the ambi-tious vision has not been followed byincreased budgets. In fact, some perceivethat there has been a decrease in the grantsavailable for maintaining road infrastruc-ture. The increased focus on road safetyseems to have been mostly directedtowards high profile projects, rather thanthe continuous work in the organization.The following quotation illustrates this:

“We pretty much think the same way as wealways have (...) In Sweden, Vision Zero wassomething that pervaded everything. I feel thatwe have been more focused on singular projects,rather than Vision Zero being a movement wit-hin the entire organization (...) The Swedesaccomplished more by granting more money,which made it more visible in the department.”

Expectations have not been fulfilledOur work with the Directorate of PublicRoads has left an impression of an organi-

zation which is quite susceptible to theideas of Vision Zero. However, the intro-duction of Vision Zero created expecta-tions that the resources available for safetymeasures would be increased. So far, theseexpectations have not been fulfilled. In ourview, the gap between expectation andresult can have important implications.

As have been shown by recent researchon safety culture, managers’ consistentprioritization of safety is essential in foste-ring commitment to safety among the emp-loyees. Perceived differences betweenespoused ideals and concrete practice mayerode the confidence and trust in manage-ment’s valuation of safety. This insight ishighly relevant also for the introduction ofVision Zero in road transport. When thereis too big a distance between the messagesexpressed in speeches, and the messagesconveyed in concrete prioritizations, therisk is that the organization becomes indif-ferent. Such indifference would form aneffective barrier to future work towardssafety improvement. Thus, introducinghigh-flying visions that are not accompa-nied by concrete priorities are not only use-less, it can even be counterproductive. Thevisions have to be translated and integratedinto real practices so that the employeesperceive that the vision really contribute tochange the way people and the organiza-tion think and act.

Stian Antonsen, NTNU Social Research Ltd.,NorwayLone S. Ramstad, Norwegian MarineTechnology Research Institute (MARINTEK),Norway

Contact: Stian Antonsen, [email protected]

For more information: www.samforsk.no

In 2002, the Norwegian Parliament stated in TheNational Transport Plan 2002–2011 that no fatalitiesor serious injuries should be the ultimate goal forNorwegian transport systems.©

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ANNOTATED REPORTS

Integrating Noise in PavementManagement Systems

Title: Integration of noise in PM Systems.Pavement Management and noise Authors: Hans Bendtsen and Bjarne SchmidtSeries: Report 150Language: EnglishAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: Noise in PM Systems

Noise abatement is an increasing challengefor the European road administrations.Cost effective solutions are needed inorder to fulfil the requirements for goodliving conditions for the people living asneighbours to the road infrastructure. Onepromising approach can be to integratenoise abatement considerations and solu-tions in the ongoing processes of main-taining the road infrastructure. Pavementmanagement systems are often used as aneffective tool in the planning of mainte-nance of the road networks. Therefore it isan obvious challenge to integrate noiseconsiderations in pavement managementsystems in an operational and effective way.Against this background the EU projectSILENCE that started in February 2005also includes the Task F3 focusing on thissubject. The title of the task is “Improvedsystems for maintenance of quieter surfa-ces”. In this report noise-related parame-ters of existing pavement monitoring sys-tems are presented and evaluated and thepossibilities of integrating acoustic parame-ters in pavement management systems arediscussed.

Lower Noise Level withSinusoidal Strips

Title: Traffic noise and rumble stripsAuthors: Jørgen Kragh and Bent AndersenSeries: External note 51Language: Danish with English summaryAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: Noise and rumble strips

In this study five different types of rumblestrips in the middle of a few two-lane ruralroads were tested: 1) Maximum 10 mm deep segments of a

circle2) Maximum 7 mm deep sinusoidal shape3) Maximum 4 mm deep sinusoidal shape4) 8 mm deep rectangular shape5) 4 mm deep rectangular shape

Strips number 1–3 had a wavelength of0.6 m, while strips 4–5 had a wavelength of0.33 m.

Three different passenger cars were dri-ven repeatedly in both lanes at a speed of80 km/h with their left wheels on the rum-ble strips. The noise was recorded 7.5 mfrom the middle of the road. For compari-son, the same vehicles were passing themicrophone at rumble strip number 3 dri-ving on the pavement, an old stone masticasphalt, without having their left wheels onthe rumble strip.

The rectangular shaped strips number4–5 gave rise to 3–7 dB higher noise levelsthan the sinusoidal strips and 2–5 dB highernoise levels than the circle segment strip. Thesinusoidal strips led to only 0.5–1 dB increasein noise level while the circle segment stripgave an increase of 2–3 dB in relation to thenoise level on the old stone mastic asphaltsurface. The results are valid at distancesexceeding 25 m or so from the road.

Noise Measurements on Roadswith Paving Stones

Title: Roads with paving stones. Noise measure-mentsAuthors: Sigurd N. Thomsen, Jørgen Kragh andHans BendtsenSeries: Technical note 50Language: Danish with English abstractAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: Paving stones

Four roads each with different types ofpaving stones in the Copenhagen area havebeen selected for noise measurements.One type was of cement blocks and threetypes were of granite blocks with differentlevels of surface “roughness”. To achieve aless noisy type of paving stones, a specialtype of granite blocks has been developedand tested. The best noise performance inthis investigation was achieved by using flatconcrete blocks or flat granite blocks.When using paving stones contra concreteor flat granite blocks the low frequency(vibration) noise is substantially increased.The difference between the noisiest andthe quietest paving stone surfaces was 10 dB.

Noise Measurements on RailwayCrossings

Title: Railway crossings, Road traffic noise measu-rements Authors: Sigurd N. Thomsen, Jørgen Kragh andHans BendtsenSeries: Technical note 49Language: Danish with English abstractAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: Railway Crossings

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ANNOTATED REPORTS

railway crossing as well as the joints betweenthe pavement and the rails is important,especially when it comes to traffic noise. Ina study executed at the Danish RoadDirectorate six railway crossings were selec-ted for noise measurements. The resultsshowed that the angle at which the vehiclescrossed the rails was of importance to thenoise levels. Rail crossings at an angle ofapproximately 45° relative to the road gene-rally were less noisy than rail crossings at90°. The least noisy and the most noisy railcrossing gave rise to a vehicle noise level of70.9 dB and 78.5 dB, respectively; a differen-ce of 7.6 dB. This highlights that the designof rail/tram crossings significantly affectsthe noise from road traffic. The surface tex-ture at the rail crossings was also measuredbut no unique relation with the measurednoise levels could be seen.

unattended zebra crossings. It has popular-ly become known as the Zebra Law. Sinceits implementation, accidents at zebra cros-sings have increased, both in terms ofpedestrians being hit and car collisions.This can in part be explained by driversdetecting pedestrians about to cross at toolate a stage. The problem is exasperated inevening and night traffic. This study by VTIoutlines and evaluates the measures takenby three municipalities to reduce the risks.

The most common steps taken toincrease safety at unattended zebra cros-sings include intensive lighting, narrowingoff of the driving lane and marking out ofthe crossing using bollards. It is notuncommon for these measures to be usedin combination with each other to furthergain the attention of drivers and increasethe detection of pedestrians.

The evaluation has shown that intensivelighting is not always sufficient to increasedetection of pedestrians. Indeed, a pede-strian wearing a dark jacket, crossing aroad slightly behind the crossing may bemore difficult to detect when the intensivelighting is on compared to when it’s not.Instead, it is recommended that intensivelighting should be used in conjunctionwith narrowing off of the lanes towards thecrossing. Furthermore, a light backgroundis to be preferred to a dark one, for whichreason another possible measure could beto cover the road and the pavement’s surfa-ce with a light stone material or light tiles.This is expected to improve detection ofpedestrians, even those wearing dark cloth-ing, who are usually the hardest to detect.

Difficult to Detect Pedestrians atDark Zebra Crossings

Title: Night-time visibility of pedestrians at zebracrossingsAuthors: Sven-Olof Lundkvist and Sara NygårdhsSeries: Notat 5-2007Language: Swedish with English abstractContact: [email protected],[email protected] Available at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: Night-time visibility

In 2000 Sweden introduced a law meaningthat drivers must yield to pedestrians at PH

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Less Congestion and IncreasedTraffic Safety

Title: VMS – Variable Message Signs. A literaturereviewAuthors: Sara Nygårdhs and Gabriel HelmersSeries: R570ALanguage: EnglishContact: [email protected] at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: VMS

A new type of road sign is used more andmore along Swedish roads. The so calledVMS, or Variable Message Sign, is designedto display messages that can alter accor-ding to traffic conditions. In a VTI literatu-re review, the relation between driver beha-viour and the information on the VMS isinvestigated. The report focuses on studiesthat have been conducted in Europe orthat deal with European traffic conditions.Topics such as design, recall and under-standing of VMS are regarded. The litera-ture review is further supplemented by abehavioural science analysis of driver attitu-des and behaviour in relation to VMS.

Positive comments relating to variablemessage signs often highlight possible increa-sed traffic safety and decreased traffic conges-tion effects. It is a major advantage that theVMS can contain constantly updated infor-mation about road and traffic conditions.

Both the driver’s expectations of the infor-mation and its reliability are important fac-tors when using VMS in traffic. Since the dri-ver is expecting to get correct and updatedinformation from the signs, it must be pos-sible to constantly provide such information.It is important that the driver, also in the futu-re, trusts the signs and follows the instruc-tions. When the variable message sign states alower speed limit and at the same time is sup-plemented by an explanation of why the limithas been lowered, drivers usually obey to ahigher degree. This is described in a study inthe literature review and at the same time itclarifies that traffic warning signs without anaccompanying speed limit do not affect dri-ver behaviour to the same extent.

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ANNOTATED REPORTS

In-vehicle Information ServicesBeneficial to Traffic Safety

Title: Potential Safety Impacts of In-vehicleInformation ServicesAuthor: Elina AittoniemiSeries: Ministry of Transport andCommunications, AINO publications 46/2007Language: Finnish with English abstractAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: Potential Safety Impacts

The range and amount of telematic devicesin cars has been increasing rapidly. Newdevices are introduced in the hope ofimproving traffic safety or traffic flow, butthe safety effects are not undisputed. Sofar, the quantitative safety impacts have notbeen studied comprehensively.

In this study, the potential safety impactsof weather and road condition warning ser-vices, incident warning services and routeguidance services were assessed by anexpert survey applying the Delphi method.The participants were asked to estimate themagnitudes of different factors of the useof in-vehicle information systems on driverbehaviour and accident risk. The surveywas implemented as an Internet survey intwo stages, and 135 Finnish and internatio-nal experts participated. From the results,the potential impacts of different factorson the amount of injury accidents were cal-culated.

The results of the study show that usinga weather and road condition warning ser-vice, 11–18 per cent of injury accidents dueto bad weather and road conditions couldbe avoided per year in Finland. Using aroute guidance service, all injury accidentscould be reduced by 0.5–2.5 per cent. Dueto the low amount of incidents on Finnishroads, the incident warning service doesnot have a notable impact on the amountof injury accidents. Based on the main fin-dings of this study, it is recommended toimplement a weather and road conditionwarning service as extensively as possible inFinland. The incident warning service does

not provide significant benefits regardinginjury accidents, but it could be implemen-ted as part of a route guidance system. Theroute guidance service has a positiveimpact on injury accidents, but attentionhas to be paid to its implementation inorder to keep the driver workload on anacceptable level.

PROMIT for Faster ImprovementsinIintermodal Transports

Title: Promoting Innovative Intermodal FreightTransportAuthor: Antti PermalaSeries: Promit Outcomes / Deliverables / WP 5 /D5.1Language: English Available at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: PROMIT

PROMIT is a European CoordinationAction for intermodal freight transport.The strategic PROMIT objective is to con-tribute to a faster improvement and imple-mentation of intermodal transport techno-logies and procedures and to help promo-te intermodal logistics and mode shift. Thisis done by creating awareness of innova-tions, best practices and intermodal trans-port opportunities for potential users aswell as for politicians and for the researchcommunity.

The project implementation covers athree-year period ending in February 2009,with three Intermodal Innovation DayConferences and at least 15 clusterWorkshops being planned. The first PRO-MIT Innovation Day Conference was orga-nized in March 2007 jointly with theEuropean Intermodal Association (EIA).VTT leads the WP5, Intermodal strategiesand recommendations, which aims to deve-lop a vision to kindle the attractiveness,efficiency and quality of intermodal trans-port. As roads are being increasingly over-loaded, intermodal transport can offer reli-able, cost-effective delivery in an environ-

mentally conscious manner. Developingfreight transport logistics is primarily abusiness-related activity and a task forindustry. Nevertheless, the authorities havea clear role to play in creating the approp-riate framework conditions and keepinglogistics on the political agenda.

The first year report D5.1 analyses sixbusiness cases from strategy point of view:Cargo Domino, Stora Enso base port sys-tem/Netts, Rail4Chem, Distrivaart, D2Dand GITS. Cargo Domino shows the possi-bilities of intermodal transport over shortdistances, StoraEnso and Rail4Chem thepossibilities that the freight volumesenable, Distrivaart a totally new way of thin-king and innovative technology in the deli-very of pallets, and D2D and GIFTS thepossibilities for the ICT sector. EU is in theprocess of defining new intermodal policygoals. The White Paper, White PaperReview and Communication give directionfor the new strategies. Swiss transport poli-cy is based on distinct aims for modal shiftand clearly shows the power of policy tools.In Germany, financial aid for terminal con-struction has stimulated the implementa-tion of new intermodal terminals.

PROMIT cluster 5 collected extensivedata on national transport policies suppor-ting intermodality. This analysis showsmany strategies available for supportingsustainable transport.

Frequent Users of Internet Showsa High Level of Physical Mobility

Title: Physical and virtual mobility. Interaction bet-ween daily travel pattern and PC use Authors: Randi Hjorthol and Åse NossumSeries: TØI report 871/2007Language: Norwegian with English abstractAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: Physical and virtual mobility

The results in this report are based on a sur-vey carried out on the Internet. About 2,700persons have answered questions abouttheir use of Internet at home. In addition

NORDIC NO. 2 2007 | 39

ANNOTATED REPORTS

The Importance of Rut Depth,Roughness and Changes inCross-slope for Road Safety

Title: The importance of rut depth, roughness (IRI)and changes in cross-slope for road safetyAuthors: Peter Christensen and Arild RagnøySeries: TØI report 840/2006Language: Norwegian with English abstractAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports, name: Rut depth, roughness changes in cross-slope

The annual expenditure of The NorwegianPublic Roads Administration on mainte-nance and resurfacing of roads is conside-

the answers they gave in the Norwegiannational passenger travel survey from 2005(NPTS 2005) are added. Based on theresults from this survey it is difficult to draw anunambiguous conclusion about the relation-ship between physical and virtual mobility. The results indicate that the frequent usersof Internet for various purposes also have arelatively high level of physical mobility. Thedistribution and use of Internet are continu-ously increasing, and those who take thisnew technology in use are different fromthose who don’t. When access to this tech-nology becomes even more common, thiswill probably change. The distinction betwe-en users and non-users are significant in thissurvey. Those who do not have access toInternet have also less access to privatetransport resources. It seems that the highlymobile groups also are highly frequentInternet users.

rable. It is therefore essential to have know-ledge of the effect of the road surface con-dition on the risk of accidents. This is areport of a study of this effect. The condi-tion of the road surface is described by rutdepth and roughness (IRI). Changes incross-slope have also been studied. Twomethodological approaches have beenused to establish the relationship betweenother variables and the accident risk, themost important being logistic regression.An increase in rut dept entails an increasedrisk. The relationship is not linear.Compared with rut depths lower than 4mm, the risk in all rut depths in all otherintervals is higher. Risk is highest in theinterval 4–9 mm and above 25 mm wherethe risk is approximately 20 per cent hig-her than for rut depth lower than 4 mm.Increased IRI entails an approximatelylinear reduction in accident risk. The rela-tive risk increases by approximately 3 percent when IRI increases by 1 mm/m.

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Commuting in Norway

Title: Commuting in Norway. Norwegian TravelSurvey 2005Author: Øystein EngebretsenSeries: TØI report 868/2006Language: Norwegian with English abstractAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: NTS 2005, Commuting

This Norwegian Travel Survey 2005 reportconcentrates on commuting and businesstravel. 19–25 per cent of the daily trips arecommuting, however during rush hours thecommuters dominate. 70 per cent of thecommuting is done by car. The mode oftransport varies by the location of the workplace and the access to free parking.Business travel constitutes only two percentof all trips, but 14 per cent of interregionaltrips (28 per cent of air travel). The travelsurvey also gives insight into spatial patternsof labour markets and business interactions.

Walking and Cycling

Title: Walking and cycling. Norwegian TravelSurvey 2005Author: Liva VåganeSeries: TØI report 858/2006Language: Norwegian with English abstractAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: NTS 2005, Walking anc cycling

The report analyses pedestrian and bicycletrips. Every third person has made a trip onfoot, while six per cent have been cyclingduring an average day. Walking trips are onaverage 1.7 km and cycling trips 3.2 km.Young people, females and people living inthe larger cities walk more than average.The cyclists are mainly young people. Thenumber who say they walk daily increases byage up to the age of 30–40. Men, peopleaged 35–44 and people living in less centralareas often use the car even on short trips.

Car Ownership and Car Use inNorway

Title: Car ownership and car use in Norway.Norwegian Travel Survey 2005Author: Liva VåganeSeries: TØI report 856/2006Language: Norwegian with English abstractAvailable at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,name: NTS 2005, Car use

This report analyses access to car and caruse. The percentage of driving license hol-ders is lowest among young people, olderwomen and people living in Oslo. Carownership is lowest in low income house-holds and in central parts of Oslo. Car dri-vers make 54 per cent of all trips, and mendrive more than women. The trip purposeis an important factor in explaining caruse. Car use is relatively high on short trips,but many of these are part of trip chains.

Danish Road Institute Helen Hasz-SinghGuldalderen 12DK-2640 HedehusenePhone +45 72 44 70 00Fax +45 72 44 71 05Email [email protected] www.roaddirectorate.dk

NORDICDENMARK

VTT Technical Research Centreof FinlandKari MäkeläP.O.Box 1000FI-02044 VTTPhone +358 20 722 4586Fax +358 20 722 7056Email [email protected] www.vtt.fi

FINLAND

Icelandic Road AdministrationG. Pétur MatthiassonBorgartún 7IS-105 ReykjavikPhone +354 522 1000Fax +354 522 1009Email [email protected] www.vegagerdin.is

ICELANDInstitute of Transport EconomicsNils FearnleyGaustadalléen 21NO-0349 OsloPhone +47 22 57 38 00Fax +47 22 60 92 00Email [email protected] www.toi.no

NORWAYNorwegian Public RoadsAdministrationThorbjørn Chr. RisanP.O. Box 8142 DepNO-0033 OsloPhone +47 22 07 35 00Fax +47 22 07 37 68Email [email protected] www.vegvesen.no

NORWAY

VTIMagdalena GreenSE-581 95 LinköpingPhone +46 13 20 42 26Fax +46 13 14 14 36Orderphone +46 13 20 42 69Email [email protected] www.vti.se

SWEDEN

Questions concerning the content ofthe articles, or orders forthe publications referred to,should be directed to thepublishing institution, seeaddressed above.

Requests for back issues, and notifi-cation of address changes.Readers outside the Nordiccountries: see Swedishaddress. Readers in theNordic countries: seeadresses above.

Web www.nordicroads.com

Documents

Nordic Road and Transport Research 2-2007