Nordic Road and Transport Research 3-2007

NORDICROAD AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH | NO.3 | 2007

Economics &SocietyP8

What’s up in the Nordic Countries?P7

Amphibians andRoadsP26

2 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 NORDIC NO. 3 2007 | 3www.vti.se/nordic

News from Contents

Swedish National Road and

Transport Research Institute

(VTI)VTI is an independent, internationally establishedresearch institute which is engaged in the transportsector. Our work covers all modes, and our core com-petence is in the fields of safety, economy, environ-ment, traffic and transport analysis, public transport,behaviour and the man-vehicle-transport system inte-raction, and in road design, operation and maintenan-ce. VTI is a world leader in several areas, for instancein simulator technology.

Danish Road Directorate (DRD)

Danish Road Institute (DRI)The Road Directorate, which is a part of TheMinistry of Transport & Energy, Denmark, isresponsible for development and management ofthe national highways and for servicing and facilita-ting traffic on the network. As part of this responsi-bility, the Directorate conducts R&D, the aim ofwhich is to contribute to efficient road manage-ment and to the safe use of the network. The mate-rials research component is carried out by theDanish Road Institute.

Technical Research Centre

of Finland (VTT) VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland is a con-tract research organisation with a staff of 2,800. Inthis joint publication, the VTT expertise areas coverresearch and development of transportation, logis-tics and road structures. The work is carried out infive research groups employing a staff of 60.

Icelandic Road

Administration (ICERA)The ICERA's mission is to provide the

Icelandic society with a road system in accordancewith its needs and to provide a service with the aimof smooth and safe traffic. The number of employe-es is about 340. Applied research and developmentand to some extent also basic research concerningroad construction, maintenance, traffic and safety isperformed or directed by the ICERA. Developmentdivision is responsible for road research in Iceland.

Norwegian Public Roads

Administration (NPRA)The Norwegian Public Roads Administration is oneof the administrative agencies under the Ministry ofTransport and Communications in Norway. TheNPRA is responsible for the development and mana-gement of public roads and road traffic, as well as theVehicle Department. This responsibility includesresearch and development of all areas related to roadtransport and the implementation of R&D results.

Institute of Transport

Economics (TØI), NorwayThe Institute of Transport Economics is the natio-nal institution for transport research and develop-ment in Norway. The main objectives of theInstitute are to carry out applied research and pro-mote the application and use of results throughconsultative assistance to public authorities, thetransport industry and others. The Institute is anindependent research foundation employing aboutone hundred persons.

Editorial notesNordic Road & Transport Research is a joint publi-cation of six public road and transport researchorganisations in the Nordic countries, Denmark,Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. The mainobjective of the publication is to disseminate re-search results and news from the institutions, espe-cially to researchers and decision makers. Each insti-tution is responsible for the selection and presenta-tion of the material from its own scope of activities.

Nordic Road & Transport Research is publishedthree times a year. It is regularly sent out, free ofcharge, to recipients selected by the six jointpublishers. Free sample copies are also sent out onspecial request.

Reproduction and quotation of the texts are allow-ed if reference is made to the author and source.However, legislation regulates and restricts the rightto reproduce the illustrations. Please contact therespective publishing institution for information.

Advertising is not accepted.Correspondence about the contents of the publi-

cation:

Please write to the author or to the respectivepublishing organisation.

Requests for back issues, and notification of add-ress changes:

Readers outside the Nordic countries: please writeto the Editor-in-chief at the VTI in Sweden.

Readers in the Nordic countries: please contactthe publishing institution of your country.

Addresses: see back cover.

The Editorial Board consists of the following representatives of the publishing institutions

Editor-in-Chief, SwedenMagdalena Green, [email protected]

DenmarkHelen Hasz-Singh, [email protected]

FinlandKari Mäkelä, [email protected]

IcelandG. Pétur Matthiasson, [email protected]

NorwayThorbjørn Chr. Risan, [email protected] Aas, TØI [email protected]

Graphic DesignJohnny Dahlgren Grafisk produktion AB,

Linköping, Sweden

Issue 3,900

ISSN 1101-5179

Cover Photos.com

In Brief | p4

What’s Up in the Nordic Countries? | p7

No Lorries, no Growth | p8

Long Term Performance-based Maintenance Contracts in Denmark | p10

WCARS Puts a Price on Safety | p12

Pricing of Infrastructure Use – VTI's Contribution of to the Debate on Sustainable Development | p13

Optimal Road Maintenance and Operations – Results of New Research and Analysis in Norway | p14

Freight Transport and Logistics Demand More Knowledge | p16

Evaluating the Economic Impacts of Intelligent Transport Systems | p18

The Computer Sees You | p20

Virtual Impact of Safety Barrier | p22

Possibilities of Noise Reduction through Road Traffic Flow Management | p24

Amphibians and Roads | p26

TRANSFORUM - Recommendations on Tools for Policy Impact Appraisal | p28

A Thin Line between a Rock and a Hard Place –Securing the Main Road from Coastal Erosion | p30

Traffic Safety and Noise Reducing Thin Layers | p32

Annotated Reports | p34

2 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 NORDIC NO. 3 2007 | 3www.vti.se/nordic

News from Contents

Swedish National Road and

Transport Research Institute

(VTI)VTI is an independent, internationally establishedresearch institute which is engaged in the transportsector. Our work covers all modes, and our core com-petence is in the fields of safety, economy, environ-ment, traffic and transport analysis, public transport,behaviour and the man-vehicle-transport system inte-raction, and in road design, operation and maintenan-ce. VTI is a world leader in several areas, for instancein simulator technology.

Danish Road Directorate (DRD)

Danish Road Institute (DRI)The Road Directorate, which is a part of TheMinistry of Transport & Energy, Denmark, isresponsible for development and management ofthe national highways and for servicing and facilita-ting traffic on the network. As part of this responsi-bility, the Directorate conducts R&D, the aim ofwhich is to contribute to efficient road manage-ment and to the safe use of the network. The mate-rials research component is carried out by theDanish Road Institute.

Technical Research Centre

of Finland (VTT) VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland is a con-tract research organisation with a staff of 2,800. Inthis joint publication, the VTT expertise areas coverresearch and development of transportation, logis-tics and road structures. The work is carried out infive research groups employing a staff of 60.

Icelandic Road

Administration (ICERA)The ICERA's mission is to provide the

Icelandic society with a road system in accordancewith its needs and to provide a service with the aimof smooth and safe traffic. The number of employe-es is about 340. Applied research and developmentand to some extent also basic research concerningroad construction, maintenance, traffic and safety isperformed or directed by the ICERA. Developmentdivision is responsible for road research in Iceland.

Norwegian Public Roads

Administration (NPRA)The Norwegian Public Roads Administration is oneof the administrative agencies under the Ministry ofTransport and Communications in Norway. TheNPRA is responsible for the development and mana-gement of public roads and road traffic, as well as theVehicle Department. This responsibility includesresearch and development of all areas related to roadtransport and the implementation of R&D results.

Institute of Transport

Economics (TØI), NorwayThe Institute of Transport Economics is the natio-nal institution for transport research and develop-ment in Norway. The main objectives of theInstitute are to carry out applied research and pro-mote the application and use of results throughconsultative assistance to public authorities, thetransport industry and others. The Institute is anindependent research foundation employing aboutone hundred persons.

Editorial notesNordic Road & Transport Research is a joint publi-cation of six public road and transport researchorganisations in the Nordic countries, Denmark,Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. The mainobjective of the publication is to disseminate re-search results and news from the institutions, espe-cially to researchers and decision makers. Each insti-tution is responsible for the selection and presenta-tion of the material from its own scope of activities.

Nordic Road & Transport Research is publishedthree times a year. It is regularly sent out, free ofcharge, to recipients selected by the six jointpublishers. Free sample copies are also sent out onspecial request.

Reproduction and quotation of the texts are allow-ed if reference is made to the author and source.However, legislation regulates and restricts the rightto reproduce the illustrations. Please contact therespective publishing institution for information.

Advertising is not accepted.Correspondence about the contents of the publi-

cation:

Please write to the author or to the respectivepublishing organisation.

Requests for back issues, and notification of add-ress changes:

Readers outside the Nordic countries: please writeto the Editor-in-chief at the VTI in Sweden.

Readers in the Nordic countries: please contactthe publishing institution of your country.

Addresses: see back cover.

The Editorial Board consists of the following representatives of the publishing institutions

Editor-in-Chief, SwedenMagdalena Green, [email protected]

DenmarkHelen Hasz-Singh, [email protected]

FinlandKari Mäkelä, [email protected]

IcelandG. Pétur Matthiasson, [email protected]

NorwayThorbjørn Chr. Risan, [email protected] Aas, TØI [email protected]

Graphic DesignJohnny Dahlgren Grafisk produktion AB,

Linköping, Sweden

Issue 3,900

ISSN 1101-5179

Cover Photos.com

In Brief | p4

What’s Up in the Nordic Countries? | p7

No Lorries, no Growth | p8

Long Term Performance-based Maintenance Contracts in Denmark | p10

WCARS Puts a Price on Safety | p12

Pricing of Infrastructure Use – VTI's Contribution of to the Debate on Sustainable Development | p13

Optimal Road Maintenance and Operations – Results of New Research and Analysis in Norway | p14

Freight Transport and Logistics Demand More Knowledge | p16

Evaluating the Economic Impacts of Intelligent Transport Systems | p18

The Computer Sees You | p20

Virtual Impact of Safety Barrier | p22

Possibilities of Noise Reduction through Road Traffic Flow Management | p24

Amphibians and Roads | p26

TRANSFORUM - Recommendations on Tools for Policy Impact Appraisal | p28

A Thin Line between a Rock and a Hard Place –Securing the Main Road from Coastal Erosion | p30

Traffic Safety and Noise Reducing Thin Layers | p32

Annotated Reports | p34

NORDIC NO. 3 2007 | 54 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 www.vti.se/nordic

IN BRIEF

PH

OTO

: M

AG

DALE

NA G

REEN

, VTI

Correction

In the last issue of Nordic Roadand Transport Research wrongcurrency was given in the articleabout the Bicycle Tube in Bodø.All amounts mentioned were inNorwegian Kroner. The correctcurrency should have been Euro.The mistake is corrected in thearticle distributed on our web site,www.nordicroads.com.

Ongoing transport research willbe put into a database

Nordic on the webOn the new web site for Nordic Road & Transport Researchyou can not only read all the latest issues, but also search artic-les and download annotated reports and older issues of themagazine.

Nordic Road & Transport Research is published threetimes a year. If you want to be notified with an e-mail whenthere is a new issue out on the web site fill in the form onwww.nordicroads.com/subscribe.

Welcome!

Urban Karlström hasleft VTI for the Ministryof FinanceAfter eight years Urban Karlström has left his post as DirectorGeneral of VTI. The Swedish Government resolved to appointhim to Secretary of State atthe Ministry of Finance. Atthe Ministry of Enterprise,Energy and Communica-tions, which is the superviso-ry authority for VTI, work hasbegun to find UrbanKarlström's successor asDirector General. KentGustafson, Research Directorat VTI, will act as DeputyDirector General of VTI untilthe Government has made adecision as to the successor ofUrban Karlström.

International Conferencein Thailand on RoadSafety

www.transguide.se

Contact: Birgitta Sandstedt,

[email protected]

Contact: Kent Gustafson,

[email protected]

www.nordicroads.com

Systems finances a pilot study which will bemade by BIC in the autumn of 2007.

The database is intended to provide agood overview of ongoing Swedish trans-port research and link up project informa-tion, results and membership of centres orresearch programmes. It will also enablecoupling to international information sys-tems for further information.

PH

OTO

: PH

OTO

S.C

OM

PH

OTO

: H

EJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

ER

/VTI

The VTI Library and Information Centre,BIC, has for a long time been responsiblefor the provision of information on trans-port research in Sweden. Part of thisresponsibility is to run the web siteTransguide in which links to web sites, lite-rature, full-text electronic documents,databanks, forthcoming conferences etc.are collected, described and classified. Itnow seems that Transguide will be expan-ded to include also a database containinginformation regarding ongoing nationaltransport research. The SwedishGovernmental Agency for Innovation

Urban Karlström has left his post asDirector General of VTI.

During a period of nearly twenty years, starting in Göteborg,Sweden, in 1987, an international road safety conference hasbeen organised by VTI. In November the 14th internationalconference was held in Bangkok, Thailand. In Bangkok theconference was arranged together with the Ministry ofTransport, Thailand.

During three days about 250 participants from all conti-nents took part in an extensive programme of sessions withpresentations by speakers from a large number of countries.The main themes of the conference were exchange of new fin-dings on road safety, transfer of road safety knowledge, exchan-ge of evaluated good practises and road safety as a workingenvironment problem.

The conference aroused much interest in Thailand, especi-ally when the Thailand Minister of Transport, Thira Hao-Charoen, and the Deputy Minister of Transport, SansernWongcha-Um, and the Swedish Ambassador of Thailand,Lennart Linnér, took part in the opening ceremony.

"It is very gratifying that the delegates really appreciate thatVTI arranges this kind of global conference on traffic safety,"says Kent Gustafson, VTI Deputy Director General.

"This is the only conference of its kind, since the focus ison the transfer of experience from countries with a highstandard of traffic safety to countries where this workhas only just begun."

The day before the conference a bilateral semi-nar on traffic safety was held at the ThailandMinistry of Transport. This was arranged by theSwedish embassy together with OTP, Office ofTransport and Traffic Policy and Planning, Ministryof Transport, Thailand.

"It was a very successful seminar that gave rise to manyinteresting discussions,” says Kent Gustafson.

Read more about the conference at www.vti.se/rs4c


IN BRIEF

PH

OTO

: M

AG

DALE

NA G

REEN

, VTI

Correction

In the last issue of Nordic Roadand Transport Research wrongcurrency was given in the articleabout the Bicycle Tube in Bodø.All amounts mentioned were inNorwegian Kroner. The correctcurrency should have been Euro.The mistake is corrected in thearticle distributed on our web site,www.nordicroads.com.

Ongoing transport research willbe put into a database

Nordic on the webOn the new web site for Nordic Road & Transport Researchyou can not only read all the latest issues, but also search artic-les and download annotated reports and older issues of themagazine.

Nordic Road & Transport Research is published threetimes a year. If you want to be notified with an e-mail whenthere is a new issue out on the web site fill in the form onwww.nordicroads.com/subscribe.

Welcome!

Urban Karlström hasleft VTI for the Ministryof FinanceAfter eight years Urban Karlström has left his post as DirectorGeneral of VTI. The Swedish Government resolved to appointhim to Secretary of State atthe Ministry of Finance. Atthe Ministry of Enterprise,Energy and Communica-tions, which is the superviso-ry authority for VTI, work hasbegun to find UrbanKarlström's successor asDirector General. KentGustafson, Research Directorat VTI, will act as DeputyDirector General of VTI untilthe Government has made adecision as to the successor ofUrban Karlström.

International Conferencein Thailand on RoadSafety

www.transguide.se

Contact: Birgitta Sandstedt,

[email protected]

Contact: Kent Gustafson,

[email protected]

www.nordicroads.com

Systems finances a pilot study which will bemade by BIC in the autumn of 2007.

The database is intended to provide agood overview of ongoing Swedish trans-port research and link up project informa-tion, results and membership of centres orresearch programmes. It will also enablecoupling to international information sys-tems for further information.

PH

OTO

: PH

OTO

S.C

OM

PH

OTO

: H

EJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

ER

/VTI

The VTI Library and Information Centre,BIC, has for a long time been responsiblefor the provision of information on trans-port research in Sweden. Part of thisresponsibility is to run the web siteTransguide in which links to web sites, lite-rature, full-text electronic documents,databanks, forthcoming conferences etc.are collected, described and classified. Itnow seems that Transguide will be expan-ded to include also a database containinginformation regarding ongoing nationaltransport research. The SwedishGovernmental Agency for Innovation

Urban Karlström has left his post asDirector General of VTI.

During a period of nearly twenty years, starting in Göteborg,Sweden, in 1987, an international road safety conference hasbeen organised by VTI. In November the 14th internationalconference was held in Bangkok, Thailand. In Bangkok theconference was arranged together with the Ministry ofTransport, Thailand.

During three days about 250 participants from all conti-nents took part in an extensive programme of sessions withpresentations by speakers from a large number of countries.The main themes of the conference were exchange of new fin-dings on road safety, transfer of road safety knowledge, exchan-ge of evaluated good practises and road safety as a workingenvironment problem.

The conference aroused much interest in Thailand, especi-ally when the Thailand Minister of Transport, Thira Hao-Charoen, and the Deputy Minister of Transport, SansernWongcha-Um, and the Swedish Ambassador of Thailand,Lennart Linnér, took part in the opening ceremony.

"It is very gratifying that the delegates really appreciate thatVTI arranges this kind of global conference on traffic safety,"says Kent Gustafson, VTI Deputy Director General.

"This is the only conference of its kind, since the focus ison the transfer of experience from countries with a highstandard of traffic safety to countries where this workhas only just begun."

The day before the conference a bilateral semi-nar on traffic safety was held at the ThailandMinistry of Transport. This was arranged by theSwedish embassy together with OTP, Office ofTransport and Traffic Policy and Planning, Ministryof Transport, Thailand.

"It was a very successful seminar that gave rise to manyinteresting discussions,” says Kent Gustafson.

Read more about the conference at www.vti.se/rs4c

WHAT’S UP IN THE NORDIC COUNTRIES?

SWEDENTransportforum®

January 9–10, Linköping, Sweden

This year, Transportforum will be arrangedfor the 25th year since its start in 1984.Transportforum has developed into thelargest annual conference for the transportsector in the Nordic countries, and willtake place at Linköping Konsert &Kongress. The entire transport sector willmeet to exchange information and makecontacts over two well-filled days. The con-tents of the Jubilee Year 2008 will provideadditional attraction.

equipment and exhibition, and it is a co-operation between road authorities, con-tractors, equipment suppliers, researchinstitutes and the Norwegian University ofScience and Technology (NTNU).

The purpose of the conference is to crea-te a meeting place for environment specia-lists and participants involved in maintai-ning winter roads. The outcome of such ameeting should be exchange of experienceand discussions of challenges on the roadmaintenance area from the perspective ofroad users (transporters, pedestrians anddrivers), the road maintainers (contractors),the Government, car rescue associations etc.The main focus of the discussions will beenvironment, technology, cost effectiveness,regularity and safety.

Target group of the conference is politi-cians, road associations, counties, road andairport professionals, press, transporters,road maintenance equipment suppliers,research and educational establishments etc.

The conference language will mainly beNorwegian but specialists speaking Nordiclanguages are very welcome to participatein the conference.

For more information and booking,please send an e-mail with your contactinformation to: [email protected].

FINLAND27th Winter Road Congress

February 12–14, Turku, Finland

Winter Road Congress in Finland is anevent specializing in winter service ofroads, streets, public areas and estates. Thetraditional programme of Winter Road

Congress contains international congress,exhibition, demonstrations and social pro-gramme. The event is organised everyother year.

The Congress has attracted recently500–600 participants from 10–15 countries,while the number of visitors to the exhibi-tion has been as much as 5 000.

Official languages are Finnish, Englishand Swedish.

The event is organised by Finnish RoadAssociation, Finnish Road Administrationand the Hosting City, in this case TurkuCity. Also major Finnish maintenance con-tractors Destia and YIT are closely involved.

6 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 www.vti.se/nordic NORDIC NO. 3 2007 | 7

The rail vehicle simulator, called SST, awakedgratifying interest at the biannual fair NordicRail, held in Jönköping, Sweden, in October.

VTI had a stand at the fair as many timesbefore. This time the institute focused itsactivities at the stand on the SST.

– We were very pleased with the attentionpaid to the simulator, state Jerker Sundströmand Mats Lidström, who work with the deve-lopment and marketing of the simulator.

Four VTI researchers gave a lecture at thestand, too. The topics were security in publictransportation, functional disturbances inrailway infrastructure, particle emissions inrailway environment and the effect of railtraffic noise and vibrations on sleep.

VTI was represented at the 23rd Piarc WorldRoad Congress, 17–21 September in Paris,in the joint Nordic stand. The device of thestand was ‘Nordic Solutions’.

At the VTI stand the visitors were,among other things, introduced to themagazine Nordic Road & TransportResearch (the magazine you are readingjust now) and the conference Road Safetyon Four Continents, which was held inBangkok, Thailand, in November. TheSwedish work for traffic safety and above allthe Vision Zero were mentioned in positiveterms by many visitors.

The visitors at the VTI stand were alsointerested in receiving continuous infor-mation about traffic safety research perfor-med at VTI.

VTI’s library and information centrewas also represented at the stand.

A number of VTI researchers took part inthe conference part of the congress represen-ting research news, acting as chair of sessionor taking part in committee meetings.

Simulator for rail traffic awakesinterest at rail fair

VTI at PIARC World Road Congress in Paris

As an example of a well-attended cong-ress workshop there was the one with thetitle ”Impact of emerging vehicle, pave-ment and monitoring technologies onroad vehicle interaction: where will we bein 30 years?”. At this workshop Anita Ihsfrom VTI, to mention a VTI contribution,presented a vision based on a EU projectHeavyRoute (Intelligent route guidancefor heavy vehicles).

For more information:

www.vti.se/railbound

www.vti.se/ssteng

ECTRI meeting in OsloThe European Conference of TransportResearch Institutes (ECTRI) aims to be anindependent knowledge organisationcapable of advising authorities in strategicpolicy issues in the transport sector. InSeptember 2007, researchers from the mem-ber institutes gathered in Oslo for theThematic Working Groups kick-off meetings.

The Institute of Transport Economics inOslo hosted the kick-off meetings.ECTRI’s members are 20 major transportresearch institutes or universities in Euro-pean countries. Together, they account formore than 3 000 European scientific andresearch staff in the field of transport.

ECTRI’s president, Guy Bourgeois, fromINRETS in France, underlined in his speechthe importance of working together tobuild a strong organisation. ECTRI’s aim isto contribute to the building of the"European Research Area" (ERA) in surfa-ce transport by cooperation in thematicand process-oriented working groups, taskforces, framework programme projects,and seminars. The 80 researchers workedtwo days in Oslo, divided into seven diffe-rent thematic groups, where they preparedoutlines for possible research projects.

ECTRI is also engaged in launching anopen access European journal dedicated totransport, an alternative to the many US-oriented transport journals existing today.The journal will be launched in June 2008available on internet free of charge.

IN BRIEF

PH

OTO

: M

AG

DALE

NA G

REEN

, VTI

PH

OTO

: PH

OTO

S.C

OM

President of ECTRI, Guy Bourgeois, and ManagingDirector Lasse Fridstrøm, Institute of TransportEconomics (TØI), both regard the kick-off meetings inOslo as an important step for closer cooperationamong the ECTRI members. The technical session themes are:

• Climate is changing – what about wintermaintenance

• Weather, road conditions and road safety• Ice control• Road users´ expectations in winter.

Wide range of winter maintenance equip-ment will be at disposal in the exhibition.Furthermore, latest innovations of relatedmaterials, technology and methods can befound at the congress. Part of the exhibitionmachines will participate in demonstrations.

Social programme and interesting ex-cursions are also included in the congressprogramme.

The congress will be organised in TurkuFair & Congress Centre.

Further information and registrations:www.tieyhdistys.fi., e-mail: [email protected].

Transportforum is a unique meetingplace where researchers and the many play-ers of the transport sector come together. Fortwo days, almost 1 600 people, 400 of whompresent papers, will meet to learn about thelatest research findings, share experiencesand discuss timely issues. The entire trans-port sector is represented, from roads andrailways to aviation and maritime transport.At the same time as development over 25years will be reviewed, the focus will be onvehicles and transport systems of the future.

Further information and registration:www.vti.se/transportforum.

NORWAYWinter Days 2008

January 28–31, Beitostølen, Norway

As announced in NR&TR no 2/2007 a winterconference will be held by the NorwegianPublic Roads Administration in Beitostølen,high up in the mountains in the south ofNorway. The conference will include semi-nars, demonstration of winter maintenance

WHAT’S UP IN THE NORDIC COUNTRIES?

SWEDENTransportforum®

January 9–10, Linköping, Sweden

This year, Transportforum will be arrangedfor the 25th year since its start in 1984.Transportforum has developed into thelargest annual conference for the transportsector in the Nordic countries, and willtake place at Linköping Konsert &Kongress. The entire transport sector willmeet to exchange information and makecontacts over two well-filled days. The con-tents of the Jubilee Year 2008 will provideadditional attraction.

equipment and exhibition, and it is a co-operation between road authorities, con-tractors, equipment suppliers, researchinstitutes and the Norwegian University ofScience and Technology (NTNU).

The purpose of the conference is to crea-te a meeting place for environment specia-lists and participants involved in maintai-ning winter roads. The outcome of such ameeting should be exchange of experienceand discussions of challenges on the roadmaintenance area from the perspective ofroad users (transporters, pedestrians anddrivers), the road maintainers (contractors),the Government, car rescue associations etc.The main focus of the discussions will beenvironment, technology, cost effectiveness,regularity and safety.

Target group of the conference is politi-cians, road associations, counties, road andairport professionals, press, transporters,road maintenance equipment suppliers,research and educational establishments etc.

The conference language will mainly beNorwegian but specialists speaking Nordiclanguages are very welcome to participatein the conference.

For more information and booking,please send an e-mail with your contactinformation to: [email protected].

FINLAND27th Winter Road Congress

February 12–14, Turku, Finland

Winter Road Congress in Finland is anevent specializing in winter service ofroads, streets, public areas and estates. Thetraditional programme of Winter Road

Congress contains international congress,exhibition, demonstrations and social pro-gramme. The event is organised everyother year.

The Congress has attracted recently500–600 participants from 10–15 countries,while the number of visitors to the exhibi-tion has been as much as 5 000.

Official languages are Finnish, Englishand Swedish.

The event is organised by Finnish RoadAssociation, Finnish Road Administrationand the Hosting City, in this case TurkuCity. Also major Finnish maintenance con-tractors Destia and YIT are closely involved.

6 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 www.vti.se/nordic NORDIC NO. 3 2007 | 7

The rail vehicle simulator, called SST, awakedgratifying interest at the biannual fair NordicRail, held in Jönköping, Sweden, in October.

VTI had a stand at the fair as many timesbefore. This time the institute focused itsactivities at the stand on the SST.

– We were very pleased with the attentionpaid to the simulator, state Jerker Sundströmand Mats Lidström, who work with the deve-lopment and marketing of the simulator.

Four VTI researchers gave a lecture at thestand, too. The topics were security in publictransportation, functional disturbances inrailway infrastructure, particle emissions inrailway environment and the effect of railtraffic noise and vibrations on sleep.

VTI was represented at the 23rd Piarc WorldRoad Congress, 17–21 September in Paris,in the joint Nordic stand. The device of thestand was ‘Nordic Solutions’.

At the VTI stand the visitors were,among other things, introduced to themagazine Nordic Road & TransportResearch (the magazine you are readingjust now) and the conference Road Safetyon Four Continents, which was held inBangkok, Thailand, in November. TheSwedish work for traffic safety and above allthe Vision Zero were mentioned in positiveterms by many visitors.

The visitors at the VTI stand were alsointerested in receiving continuous infor-mation about traffic safety research perfor-med at VTI.

VTI’s library and information centrewas also represented at the stand.

A number of VTI researchers took part inthe conference part of the congress represen-ting research news, acting as chair of sessionor taking part in committee meetings.

Simulator for rail traffic awakesinterest at rail fair

VTI at PIARC World Road Congress in Paris

As an example of a well-attended cong-ress workshop there was the one with thetitle ”Impact of emerging vehicle, pave-ment and monitoring technologies onroad vehicle interaction: where will we bein 30 years?”. At this workshop Anita Ihsfrom VTI, to mention a VTI contribution,presented a vision based on a EU projectHeavyRoute (Intelligent route guidancefor heavy vehicles).


www.vti.se/railbound

www.vti.se/ssteng

ECTRI meeting in OsloThe European Conference of TransportResearch Institutes (ECTRI) aims to be anindependent knowledge organisationcapable of advising authorities in strategicpolicy issues in the transport sector. InSeptember 2007, researchers from the mem-ber institutes gathered in Oslo for theThematic Working Groups kick-off meetings.

The Institute of Transport Economics inOslo hosted the kick-off meetings.ECTRI’s members are 20 major transportresearch institutes or universities in Euro-pean countries. Together, they account formore than 3 000 European scientific andresearch staff in the field of transport.

ECTRI’s president, Guy Bourgeois, fromINRETS in France, underlined in his speechthe importance of working together tobuild a strong organisation. ECTRI’s aim isto contribute to the building of the"European Research Area" (ERA) in surfa-ce transport by cooperation in thematicand process-oriented working groups, taskforces, framework programme projects,and seminars. The 80 researchers workedtwo days in Oslo, divided into seven diffe-rent thematic groups, where they preparedoutlines for possible research projects.

ECTRI is also engaged in launching anopen access European journal dedicated totransport, an alternative to the many US-oriented transport journals existing today.The journal will be launched in June 2008available on internet free of charge.

IN BRIEF

PH

OTO

: M

AG

DALE

NA G

REEN

, VTI

PH

OTO

: PH

OTO

S.C

OM

President of ECTRI, Guy Bourgeois, and ManagingDirector Lasse Fridstrøm, Institute of TransportEconomics (TØI), both regard the kick-off meetings inOslo as an important step for closer cooperationamong the ECTRI members. The technical session themes are:

• Climate is changing – what about wintermaintenance

• Weather, road conditions and road safety• Ice control• Road users´ expectations in winter.

Wide range of winter maintenance equip-ment will be at disposal in the exhibition.Furthermore, latest innovations of relatedmaterials, technology and methods can befound at the congress. Part of the exhibitionmachines will participate in demonstrations.

Social programme and interesting ex-cursions are also included in the congressprogramme.

The congress will be organised in TurkuFair & Congress Centre.

Further information and registrations:www.tieyhdistys.fi., e-mail: [email protected].

Transportforum is a unique meetingplace where researchers and the many play-ers of the transport sector come together. Fortwo days, almost 1 600 people, 400 of whompresent papers, will meet to learn about thelatest research findings, share experiencesand discuss timely issues. The entire trans-port sector is represented, from roads andrailways to aviation and maritime transport.At the same time as development over 25years will be reviewed, the focus will be onvehicles and transport systems of the future.

Further information and registration:www.vti.se/transportforum.

NORWAYWinter Days 2008

January 28–31, Beitostølen, Norway

As announced in NR&TR no 2/2007 a winterconference will be held by the NorwegianPublic Roads Administration in Beitostølen,high up in the mountains in the south ofNorway. The conference will include semi-nars, demonstration of winter maintenance


The European Commission White Paper,“European Transport Policy for 2010:

Time to Decide” (COM (2001)370) statestwo main challenges:1. To decouple transport growth and GDP

growth2. To shift freight from roads to rail and sea.

The White Paper argues that the limitedcapacity of the existing transport infra-structure cannot support continuedgrowth in transport. Ultimately, the capaci-ty problems will hamper economic growthand cause further environmental damage.

The deregulation of rail freight has pro-vided some new transport solutions andthe entry of some new firms. However, theeffects are not sufficient to significantlyalter modal shares on a European level.The rhetorical shift from “intermodality”to “co-modality”, which to most peoplemust seem indistinguishable, conveys anunderstanding of the fact that improve-ments in the rail sector cannot solve futureproblems alone.

Our study of benefits of lorry transport– financed by the Norwegian Haulier’s

Transport, and especially road freight transport, is a necessaryprerequisite for economic growth. The transport industry’s cen-tral role in industrial and social development is, however, not wellreflected in the industry’s share of national value formation: Asin a host of other activities in a society marked by a large degreeof mutual dependency, the hauling industry does not capture thefull economic benefit of its impact on economic development.Goods transport is a prerequisite for a well-functioning economy.Given the spread of populations and a global economy, one can-not escape the need for freight transport. The lorry is the winnerbecause it is flexible and efficient. Despite this, increasingamount of goods transported on roads is politically undesirable,but an inevitable fact.

Association – offers an alternative approachcompared to the overwhelming amount ofresearch focusing on the negative aspects ofroad freight transport. But can such bene-fits be revealed by established economictheory? Immediately, the counterfactualquestion arises: what kind of society wouldthere be if there were no goods transport,and specifically no lorry transport?

A good remedy necessitates a correctdiagnosis. i.e., in this case, to study the cau-

No Lorries, no Growth

sal relations that produce the observedeffects. In order to understand the twoabove-mentioned issues, one needs tounderstand how freight transport is anintegral part of the value formation processand the manifestations in time and place ofindustrial organisation, which to a largeextent rely on road transport. Withouttransport of goods, we would have to relyon self-subsistence, or at least on small-scaleproduction for local markets. A society freeof transport today would imply a welfarelevel so low it would be hard to imagine.

Adam Smith provides an approach tounderstanding the role of transport in eco-nomic growth. According to him, divisionof labour was almost the only source of eco-nomic growth. Growth depends on, and islimited to, the size of the market: ”the divi-sion of labour – cause of the increased pro-ductivity of labour – is limited by the extentof the market” (Smith, 1776, Ch. 3). Thelarger volumes produced, the more specia-lised and efficient production, which againfacilitates greater markets. Transport playsa key role if market expansion means geo-

graphical expansion. As such, transport is afacilitator for the division of labour.

Internally, i.e. within an enterprise, anotable feature of spatially dispersedindustrial networks is that the actors mutu-ally depend on each other, and power rela-tions prevail. This applies even if they act asindependent enterprises. In other words,modern industrial networks, the technicaldivision of labour transcends the juridicallimits of the firm in such way that it influen-ces not only the production site but appliesto the whole network: Investment and mar-ket risks are diversified, while control overthe accumulation process is retained.

The notion of transport as a facilitatorfor the division of labour holds regardlessof the means of transport at hand. Thestrength of road transport lies in the factthat it has been, and is, the mode of trans-port which is most compatible with thetechnical, organisational and spatial mani-festations of industrial networks.

The relation between transport and divi-sion of labour is of the greatest interest ifthe division has spatial implications. Greatimprovements in transport and informa-tion technologies enable coordinated pro-duction even if the different parts of theproduction are spread globally. Whereasintegrated production ideally should belocated where the cost of production fac-tors are lowest in total, transport enablesthe different production stages to be car-ried out and located independently wherethey are cheapest.

A study of the Japanese car industrypoints out that:

“the just-in-time-system is an extensionof the principles of the Ford conveyorbelt system of factory production to theregional production system of assemblyplants and subcontractors … The timingand specialisation which characteriseauto-production systems in Japan areanalogous to those achieved in modernfactory production” (Sheard, 1983,referred to in Asheim, B.T., 1997:168).Such a spatial dispersion of the produc-

tion process implies that transport within afirm, by means of a conveyor belt, is repla-ced by transport based on publicly avai-lable infrastructure. Further it implies thattransport, through the increased focus onlogistics, has become a key element of theenterprises’ production strategies. Theincreased globalisation observed over thepast few decades is, i.a., attributed to morecost efficient supply of transport.

In general therefore, transport is a pre-requisite for achieving the benefitsbrought about by division of labour, specia-lisation and economies of scale. Roadtransport has been by far the most suppor-tive means of transport in the developmentof industrial networks.

In order to understand the driving for-ces behind transport in general and roadtransport in particular, one needs toacknowledge the fact that transport is anecessary condition for the increased pro-ductivity that follows from division of

labour and specialisation, and that roadtransport has been particularly good atmeeting the needs for speed, precision andflexibility. These are key elements for suc-cessful administration of industrial net-works that are geographically dispersed.

Goods transport appears in other wordsprimarily internally within dispersed enter-prises or within industrial networks.Transport growth is not therefore only aresult of more production or higher con-sumption, but also a consequence of howproduction is organised technically, organi-sationally and geographically.

References:Asheim, B.T. (1997): ’Learning Regions’ ina globalised world economy: Towards anew competitive advantage of industrialdistricts?, in Conti, S. og M. Taylor (ed):Interdependent and UnevenDevelopment: Global-Local Perspectives.Ashgate: Aldershot

Smith, A. (1776): An Inquiry into theNature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations. London: Strahan and Cadell

Thorkel C. Askildsen, Institute of TransportEconomics

Title: Road Freight Transport: The hauling indust-

ry’s impact on growth, welfare and settlement

Authors: Thorkel C. Askildsen and Anne Gjerdåker

TØI report no. 901/2007. Available on www.toi.no

PH

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: VTI

/HEJD

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A B

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PHOTO: VTI/HEJDLÖSA BILDER

ECONOMICS & SOCIETY


The European Commission White Paper,“European Transport Policy for 2010:

Time to Decide” (COM (2001)370) statestwo main challenges:1. To decouple transport growth and GDP

growth2. To shift freight from roads to rail and sea.

The White Paper argues that the limitedcapacity of the existing transport infra-structure cannot support continuedgrowth in transport. Ultimately, the capaci-ty problems will hamper economic growthand cause further environmental damage.

The deregulation of rail freight has pro-vided some new transport solutions andthe entry of some new firms. However, theeffects are not sufficient to significantlyalter modal shares on a European level.The rhetorical shift from “intermodality”to “co-modality”, which to most peoplemust seem indistinguishable, conveys anunderstanding of the fact that improve-ments in the rail sector cannot solve futureproblems alone.

Our study of benefits of lorry transport– financed by the Norwegian Haulier’s

Transport, and especially road freight transport, is a necessaryprerequisite for economic growth. The transport industry’s cen-tral role in industrial and social development is, however, not wellreflected in the industry’s share of national value formation: Asin a host of other activities in a society marked by a large degreeof mutual dependency, the hauling industry does not capture thefull economic benefit of its impact on economic development.Goods transport is a prerequisite for a well-functioning economy.Given the spread of populations and a global economy, one can-not escape the need for freight transport. The lorry is the winnerbecause it is flexible and efficient. Despite this, increasingamount of goods transported on roads is politically undesirable,but an inevitable fact.

Association – offers an alternative approachcompared to the overwhelming amount ofresearch focusing on the negative aspects ofroad freight transport. But can such bene-fits be revealed by established economictheory? Immediately, the counterfactualquestion arises: what kind of society wouldthere be if there were no goods transport,and specifically no lorry transport?

A good remedy necessitates a correctdiagnosis. i.e., in this case, to study the cau-

No Lorries, no Growth

sal relations that produce the observedeffects. In order to understand the twoabove-mentioned issues, one needs tounderstand how freight transport is anintegral part of the value formation processand the manifestations in time and place ofindustrial organisation, which to a largeextent rely on road transport. Withouttransport of goods, we would have to relyon self-subsistence, or at least on small-scaleproduction for local markets. A society freeof transport today would imply a welfarelevel so low it would be hard to imagine.

Adam Smith provides an approach tounderstanding the role of transport in eco-nomic growth. According to him, divisionof labour was almost the only source of eco-nomic growth. Growth depends on, and islimited to, the size of the market: ”the divi-sion of labour – cause of the increased pro-ductivity of labour – is limited by the extentof the market” (Smith, 1776, Ch. 3). Thelarger volumes produced, the more specia-lised and efficient production, which againfacilitates greater markets. Transport playsa key role if market expansion means geo-

graphical expansion. As such, transport is afacilitator for the division of labour.

Internally, i.e. within an enterprise, anotable feature of spatially dispersedindustrial networks is that the actors mutu-ally depend on each other, and power rela-tions prevail. This applies even if they act asindependent enterprises. In other words,modern industrial networks, the technicaldivision of labour transcends the juridicallimits of the firm in such way that it influen-ces not only the production site but appliesto the whole network: Investment and mar-ket risks are diversified, while control overthe accumulation process is retained.

The notion of transport as a facilitatorfor the division of labour holds regardlessof the means of transport at hand. Thestrength of road transport lies in the factthat it has been, and is, the mode of trans-port which is most compatible with thetechnical, organisational and spatial mani-festations of industrial networks.

The relation between transport and divi-sion of labour is of the greatest interest ifthe division has spatial implications. Greatimprovements in transport and informa-tion technologies enable coordinated pro-duction even if the different parts of theproduction are spread globally. Whereasintegrated production ideally should belocated where the cost of production fac-tors are lowest in total, transport enablesthe different production stages to be car-ried out and located independently wherethey are cheapest.

A study of the Japanese car industrypoints out that:

“the just-in-time-system is an extensionof the principles of the Ford conveyorbelt system of factory production to theregional production system of assemblyplants and subcontractors … The timingand specialisation which characteriseauto-production systems in Japan areanalogous to those achieved in modernfactory production” (Sheard, 1983,referred to in Asheim, B.T., 1997:168).Such a spatial dispersion of the produc-

tion process implies that transport within afirm, by means of a conveyor belt, is repla-ced by transport based on publicly avai-lable infrastructure. Further it implies thattransport, through the increased focus onlogistics, has become a key element of theenterprises’ production strategies. Theincreased globalisation observed over thepast few decades is, i.a., attributed to morecost efficient supply of transport.

In general therefore, transport is a pre-requisite for achieving the benefitsbrought about by division of labour, specia-lisation and economies of scale. Roadtransport has been by far the most suppor-tive means of transport in the developmentof industrial networks.

In order to understand the driving for-ces behind transport in general and roadtransport in particular, one needs toacknowledge the fact that transport is anecessary condition for the increased pro-ductivity that follows from division of

labour and specialisation, and that roadtransport has been particularly good atmeeting the needs for speed, precision andflexibility. These are key elements for suc-cessful administration of industrial net-works that are geographically dispersed.

Goods transport appears in other wordsprimarily internally within dispersed enter-prises or within industrial networks.Transport growth is not therefore only aresult of more production or higher con-sumption, but also a consequence of howproduction is organised technically, organi-sationally and geographically.

References:Asheim, B.T. (1997): ’Learning Regions’ ina globalised world economy: Towards anew competitive advantage of industrialdistricts?, in Conti, S. og M. Taylor (ed):Interdependent and UnevenDevelopment: Global-Local Perspectives.Ashgate: Aldershot

Smith, A. (1776): An Inquiry into theNature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations. London: Strahan and Cadell

Thorkel C. Askildsen, Institute of TransportEconomics

Title: Road Freight Transport: The hauling indust-

ry’s impact on growth, welfare and settlement

Authors: Thorkel C. Askildsen and Anne Gjerdåker

TØI report no. 901/2007. Available on www.toi.no

PH

OTO

: VTI

/HEJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

ER


ECONOMICS & SOCIETY


Municipalities use this type of contractform to turn over maintenance of the

road network - typically between 100 and300 km - to a contractor for a period of fif-teen years. Beside the actual paved surface,often maintenance of road markings,shoulders and ditches, and maybe also bi-cycle tracks and footpaths are included. Asof today, more than 3 000 km of municipa-lity roads are covered by such long-termmaintenance contracts.

Contracts ensure priority to roadsThe reason for choosing such a contract ispartly political, as there is a move towards“privatisation”, and partly because pave-ment maintenance has had low priority inmany municipalities, and now there is aneed to do something drastic. This type ofperformance contracts generally give a fas-ter rate of surface renewal in the first yearsof the contract, at a competitive price. Andan argument is that the money is fixed tothe roads, and cannot be used for otherpurposes when extra money is needed inthe municipality.

Another reason for introducing longterm performance contracts is to strengt-hen innovation by giving the contractormore “free hands”, and to make it a compe-titive parameter to produce good qualitylong lasting pavements.

Long term performance-based maintenance contracting ofasphalt surfaces has become popular in Denmark.

Performance requirements are based onroutine condition measurementsThe most important requirement that thecontractor has to fulfil is the condition ofthe road based on visual inspections(cracks, potholes, etc.). In the PM-system,all distress registered in the visual inspec-tion is transformed into a single number; acondition index, and this condition indexis the primary performance requirement.

Before the tendering process, the entirenetwork has been through a visual inspec-tion. This gives the contractor an idea ofthe road condition, and also makes it pos-sible to set realistic requirements. Duringthe contract period, the requirements tocondition index are routinely monitored.One-third of the network is surveyed everyyear, so that the condition database is re-newed every three years.

There are additional requirements tomaintenance. These are requirements torutting, skid resistance, evenness, profileand light reflection. These requirements arebased on the traditional requirements fornew surfaces with warranty periods of one tofive years, adjusted to fit for long term usealso. Common for these requirements isthat they are not checked routinely, but onlyon request from the municipality. Theycould easily be checked routinely, but theyare not routine measurements in municipa-

Long Term Performance-basedMaintenance Contracts in Denmark

2. The work can be planned almost entire-ly by the contractor, which gives them awelcome opportunity to even out theuse of resources.Unfortunately, experience until now

also shows that the municipality engineerdoes not spend much less time on pave-ment maintenance than he used to do.This is partly because all requests or obser-vations from the citizens naturally still go tothe municipality. The municipalities workin a way where the relevant issues are add-ressed directly to the contractor (i.e. obser-vations of potholes, comments regardingasphalt works etc.). Controlling the visualrequirements that are not routinely measu-red can also be time-consuming (i.e. roadmarkings and shoulders). So it seems thatthe contracts should mainly be chosen foreconomic reasons, not so much for savingresources for the road administration.

Susanne Baltzer, Danish Road Institute,[email protected].

ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

lities today, and there is no reason for themto be, just because of a new contract form.

Typically for these contracts, the con-tractor takes over the responsibility for theroad “as it is”, so no matter for what reasonthe cracks appear, the contractor is respon-sible for the maintenance. It is also goodadvice that shoulders and ditches are inclu-ded in the contract. It only provides a basisfor conflicts if the roads show distressesdue to low priority given to the maintenan-ce of the drainage system.

The contractor is paid an equal yearlypayment. The principle is that the productis a road network maintained to a standarddescribed with identical requirementsthroughout all 15 years, resulting in a sub-sequent equal payment.

Positive experienceThe first long term performance contractin a municipality was signed in 2001, givingsix years of experience. And the experien-ce is positive so far. In the first years of thecontract, the municipalities experience afaster rate of surface renewal than whattheir budget typically allows. And yet theprice is very competitive. The contractorsgive a good price for at least two reasons:1. It is a long contract to have in the order

book; they do not need to spend resour-ces every year on tenders.

For many municipalities, long term perfor-mance contracts are a means of ensuringpriority to pavement maintenance.

PH

OTO

: ALL

AN

NØ

RR

EG

AAR

DPH

OTO

: VTI

/HEJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

ER

PHOTO: ALLAN NØRREGAARD


Municipalities use this type of contractform to turn over maintenance of the

road network - typically between 100 and300 km - to a contractor for a period of fif-teen years. Beside the actual paved surface,often maintenance of road markings,shoulders and ditches, and maybe also bi-cycle tracks and footpaths are included. Asof today, more than 3 000 km of municipa-lity roads are covered by such long-termmaintenance contracts.

Contracts ensure priority to roadsThe reason for choosing such a contract ispartly political, as there is a move towards“privatisation”, and partly because pave-ment maintenance has had low priority inmany municipalities, and now there is aneed to do something drastic. This type ofperformance contracts generally give a fas-ter rate of surface renewal in the first yearsof the contract, at a competitive price. Andan argument is that the money is fixed tothe roads, and cannot be used for otherpurposes when extra money is needed inthe municipality.

Another reason for introducing longterm performance contracts is to strengt-hen innovation by giving the contractormore “free hands”, and to make it a compe-titive parameter to produce good qualitylong lasting pavements.

Long term performance-based maintenance contracting ofasphalt surfaces has become popular in Denmark.

Performance requirements are based onroutine condition measurementsThe most important requirement that thecontractor has to fulfil is the condition ofthe road based on visual inspections(cracks, potholes, etc.). In the PM-system,all distress registered in the visual inspec-tion is transformed into a single number; acondition index, and this condition indexis the primary performance requirement.

Before the tendering process, the entirenetwork has been through a visual inspec-tion. This gives the contractor an idea ofthe road condition, and also makes it pos-sible to set realistic requirements. Duringthe contract period, the requirements tocondition index are routinely monitored.One-third of the network is surveyed everyyear, so that the condition database is re-newed every three years.

There are additional requirements tomaintenance. These are requirements torutting, skid resistance, evenness, profileand light reflection. These requirements arebased on the traditional requirements fornew surfaces with warranty periods of one tofive years, adjusted to fit for long term usealso. Common for these requirements isthat they are not checked routinely, but onlyon request from the municipality. Theycould easily be checked routinely, but theyare not routine measurements in municipa-

Long Term Performance-basedMaintenance Contracts in Denmark

2. The work can be planned almost entire-ly by the contractor, which gives them awelcome opportunity to even out theuse of resources.Unfortunately, experience until now

also shows that the municipality engineerdoes not spend much less time on pave-ment maintenance than he used to do.This is partly because all requests or obser-vations from the citizens naturally still go tothe municipality. The municipalities workin a way where the relevant issues are add-ressed directly to the contractor (i.e. obser-vations of potholes, comments regardingasphalt works etc.). Controlling the visualrequirements that are not routinely measu-red can also be time-consuming (i.e. roadmarkings and shoulders). So it seems thatthe contracts should mainly be chosen foreconomic reasons, not so much for savingresources for the road administration.

Susanne Baltzer, Danish Road Institute,[email protected].

ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

lities today, and there is no reason for themto be, just because of a new contract form.

Typically for these contracts, the con-tractor takes over the responsibility for theroad “as it is”, so no matter for what reasonthe cracks appear, the contractor is respon-sible for the maintenance. It is also goodadvice that shoulders and ditches are inclu-ded in the contract. It only provides a basisfor conflicts if the roads show distressesdue to low priority given to the maintenan-ce of the drainage system.

The contractor is paid an equal yearlypayment. The principle is that the productis a road network maintained to a standarddescribed with identical requirementsthroughout all 15 years, resulting in a sub-sequent equal payment.

Positive experienceThe first long term performance contractin a municipality was signed in 2001, givingsix years of experience. And the experien-ce is positive so far. In the first years of thecontract, the municipalities experience afaster rate of surface renewal than whattheir budget typically allows. And yet theprice is very competitive. The contractorsgive a good price for at least two reasons:1. It is a long contract to have in the order

book; they do not need to spend resour-ces every year on tenders.

For many municipalities, long term perfor-mance contracts are a means of ensuringpriority to pavement maintenance.

PH

OTO

: ALL

AN

NØ

RR

EG

AAR

DPH

OTO

: VTI

/HEJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

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PHOTO: ALLAN NØRREGAARD


Awell functioning infrastructure impo-ses high costs on both society and indi-

viduals. Management of such large sums isthe reason for the transport policy objecti-ve of economic efficiency in the transportsystem, which can be established usingbenefit-cost analysis (BCA) in macroecono-mic calculations in which benefits are con-sidered in relation to costs. The problem inthe transport sector is that the benefits areoften in the form of cleaner air, shortertrip times, more comfortable journeys andgreater safety – i.e. non-market goods forwhich there are no prices. If no considera-tion is given in BCA to the benefit of e.g.reduced emissions because these have nomarket prices, there is an appreciable riskthat important measures will not be taken.In order to avoid this, these goods should asfar as possible be valued in monetary termsso that they may be included in the BCA.One approach to setting a price on these ismade in the WCARS study.

WCARS investigates willingness to pay,WTP, on the basis of the car choice ofSwedish consumers. The non-market goodin focus is greater safety. A "hedonic" pri-cing method is used in estimating theobserved WTP. The same car owners arealso asked about their hypothetical WTP ina contingent valuation study. In this way,access is obtained, for one and the same

WCARS Puts a Price on Safety

Factors such as cleaner air, shorter trip times, morecomfortable journeys and greater safety may be dif-ficult to justify from a macroeconomic perspectivebecause they have no market prices. In the VTI pro-ject WCARS (Willingness to pay for car safety asrevealed and stated), a price is put on safety in carsby investigating the willingness to pay of Swedish carconsumers.

individual, to his/her actual and hypothe-tical WTP, data to which there has normal-ly been no access in similar studies. Thevery fusion of these methods is innovative,and it enables a comparison between obser-ved and hypothetical WTP which can beconsidered a validity test of estimated WTP.

Make, comfort and performance are allfactors that affect the price of a car; safetyis another factor. By determining how theprice level is influenced by changes in thevarious factors, i.e. the marginal WTP forvarious factors can be estimated. If a con-trol is made with respect to make, comfort,performance and similar factors, thereremains a relationship between actual safe-

ty and the car's price. This relationship isan expression for the market price of safe-ty in that type of car. If safety is one of thebenefits in a planned project, its value isexpressed in concrete terms by the calcula-ted consumer´s WTP. In this way, safety canbe included as an item in the BCA. This isan amplification that is correct if it isborne in mind that greater safety ought tobe seen as a societal benefit.

Sandra Johansson, VTI

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Henrik Andersson, [email protected]

ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

Issues concerning the effects of the infra-structure on the environment through

air pollution, reinforcement of the green-house effect, accidents, infrastructure wearand tear, etc. have been the subjects of dis-cussion for a long time. In the future also,these issues will be discussed, and technicaldevelopment with more advanced pricingsystems will make contributions to thedebate. The project PINA commenced in2004 and has the aim to intensify researchconcerning the macroeconomic marginalcosts of the transport sector in order tocreate the basis for an important knowled-ge base in this area. Thanks to favourablefunding of the project in Sweden, VTÌ willbe able to highlight the changes that arenecessary in all fields of transport. Owingto work on previous projects and commis-sions, VTI also has a large pool of knowled-ge that will be useful in PINA.

– Individuals choose the transport thatsuits them best. But do people think aboutthe way in which the choice of mode affectssociety and its costs? asks Gunnar Lindbergof VTI who is project leader for PINA.

– When a price is determined, all costs

To make progress in achieving sustainable growth in society, itis necessary for infrastructure to be used more effectively. Onestep in the right direction is to create a correct pricing system forall transport modes. The project PINA, Pricing of infrastructureuse, is VTI's contribution to the recurrent political debate onsustainable development.

should be included in the charge, he says,and describes how a lot of the work onPINA has related to differentiated costs.

This means, for instance, that in a com-parison between a noisy train and one thatruns quietly, the costs for society are consi-derably higher in the first case. This is oneexample of the factors which, according toGunnar Lindberg, ought to determine thecharges and be included when pricing forthe infrastructure is revised.

The project has a broad-based referencegroup and, on the basis of the group's dis-cussions, researchers at VTI work on anumber of subprojects within the frame-work of PINA. The ultimate aim of theoverriding project is to create a compre-hensive picture that describes the bestknowledge from the project.

The national Swedish rail admini-stration, Banverket, one of the fund provi-ders for the project, has been very pleasedwith the results that PINA has so far produ-ced. When the new rules of the EU concer-ning the type of data required for accesscharges to the rail network were published,PINA's research results for the administra-

tion were already available. The cost calcu-lations in the project have been one of thefactors that influenced their new accesscharges.

It is expected that PINA will be comple-ted some time during 2007, and one of thesubprojects in progress at present is aninvestigation concerning environmentalcosts. Another study relates to noise andlorries, and in a third the costs of accidentsare calculated. An analysis will also bemade of the consequences that the ongo-ing trade with emission rights outside thetransport sector will have for the climatepolicy of the transport sector and for thecarbon dioxide tax. The access charges arealready proof of the effect created byPINA's results, and it remains to be seen howthe other transport areas will be affected.

Elin Frejd, VTI

Pricing of Infrastructure Use – VTI's Contribution of to the Debateon Sustainable Development


Gunnar Lindberg, [email protected]



Awell functioning infrastructure impo-ses high costs on both society and indi-

viduals. Management of such large sums isthe reason for the transport policy objecti-ve of economic efficiency in the transportsystem, which can be established usingbenefit-cost analysis (BCA) in macroecono-mic calculations in which benefits are con-sidered in relation to costs. The problem inthe transport sector is that the benefits areoften in the form of cleaner air, shortertrip times, more comfortable journeys andgreater safety – i.e. non-market goods forwhich there are no prices. If no considera-tion is given in BCA to the benefit of e.g.reduced emissions because these have nomarket prices, there is an appreciable riskthat important measures will not be taken.In order to avoid this, these goods should asfar as possible be valued in monetary termsso that they may be included in the BCA.One approach to setting a price on these ismade in the WCARS study.

WCARS investigates willingness to pay,WTP, on the basis of the car choice ofSwedish consumers. The non-market goodin focus is greater safety. A "hedonic" pri-cing method is used in estimating theobserved WTP. The same car owners arealso asked about their hypothetical WTP ina contingent valuation study. In this way,access is obtained, for one and the same

WCARS Puts a Price on Safety

Factors such as cleaner air, shorter trip times, morecomfortable journeys and greater safety may be dif-ficult to justify from a macroeconomic perspectivebecause they have no market prices. In the VTI pro-ject WCARS (Willingness to pay for car safety asrevealed and stated), a price is put on safety in carsby investigating the willingness to pay of Swedish carconsumers.

individual, to his/her actual and hypothe-tical WTP, data to which there has normal-ly been no access in similar studies. Thevery fusion of these methods is innovative,and it enables a comparison between obser-ved and hypothetical WTP which can beconsidered a validity test of estimated WTP.

Make, comfort and performance are allfactors that affect the price of a car; safetyis another factor. By determining how theprice level is influenced by changes in thevarious factors, i.e. the marginal WTP forvarious factors can be estimated. If a con-trol is made with respect to make, comfort,performance and similar factors, thereremains a relationship between actual safe-

ty and the car's price. This relationship isan expression for the market price of safe-ty in that type of car. If safety is one of thebenefits in a planned project, its value isexpressed in concrete terms by the calcula-ted consumer´s WTP. In this way, safety canbe included as an item in the BCA. This isan amplification that is correct if it isborne in mind that greater safety ought tobe seen as a societal benefit.

Sandra Johansson, VTI

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/HEJD

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ILD

ER


Henrik Andersson, [email protected]

ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

Issues concerning the effects of the infra-structure on the environment through

air pollution, reinforcement of the green-house effect, accidents, infrastructure wearand tear, etc. have been the subjects of dis-cussion for a long time. In the future also,these issues will be discussed, and technicaldevelopment with more advanced pricingsystems will make contributions to thedebate. The project PINA commenced in2004 and has the aim to intensify researchconcerning the macroeconomic marginalcosts of the transport sector in order tocreate the basis for an important knowled-ge base in this area. Thanks to favourablefunding of the project in Sweden, VTÌ willbe able to highlight the changes that arenecessary in all fields of transport. Owingto work on previous projects and commis-sions, VTI also has a large pool of knowled-ge that will be useful in PINA.

– Individuals choose the transport thatsuits them best. But do people think aboutthe way in which the choice of mode affectssociety and its costs? asks Gunnar Lindbergof VTI who is project leader for PINA.

– When a price is determined, all costs

To make progress in achieving sustainable growth in society, itis necessary for infrastructure to be used more effectively. Onestep in the right direction is to create a correct pricing system forall transport modes. The project PINA, Pricing of infrastructureuse, is VTI's contribution to the recurrent political debate onsustainable development.

should be included in the charge, he says,and describes how a lot of the work onPINA has related to differentiated costs.

This means, for instance, that in a com-parison between a noisy train and one thatruns quietly, the costs for society are consi-derably higher in the first case. This is oneexample of the factors which, according toGunnar Lindberg, ought to determine thecharges and be included when pricing forthe infrastructure is revised.

The project has a broad-based referencegroup and, on the basis of the group's dis-cussions, researchers at VTI work on anumber of subprojects within the frame-work of PINA. The ultimate aim of theoverriding project is to create a compre-hensive picture that describes the bestknowledge from the project.

The national Swedish rail admini-stration, Banverket, one of the fund provi-ders for the project, has been very pleasedwith the results that PINA has so far produ-ced. When the new rules of the EU concer-ning the type of data required for accesscharges to the rail network were published,PINA's research results for the administra-

tion were already available. The cost calcu-lations in the project have been one of thefactors that influenced their new accesscharges.

It is expected that PINA will be comple-ted some time during 2007, and one of thesubprojects in progress at present is aninvestigation concerning environmentalcosts. Another study relates to noise andlorries, and in a third the costs of accidentsare calculated. An analysis will also bemade of the consequences that the ongo-ing trade with emission rights outside thetransport sector will have for the climatepolicy of the transport sector and for thecarbon dioxide tax. The access charges arealready proof of the effect created byPINA's results, and it remains to be seen howthe other transport areas will be affected.

Elin Frejd, VTI

Pricing of Infrastructure Use – VTI's Contribution of to the Debateon Sustainable Development


Gunnar Lindberg, [email protected]



ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

Optimal Road Maintenance andOperations – Results of NewResearch and Analysis in Norway

The Norwegian Public Roads Administration has recently carriedout two projects that focus on backlog in road maintenance andhow road condition affects the users both in summer and winter.Research on how pavement condition affects road user costshas been done, with emphasis on traffic safety issues. Theresults are being used in the ongoing revision of the maintenan-ce and operational standards for national roads.

The Norwegian Public Road Administra-tion (NPRA) has since 2002 carried out

two projects that have improved the basisfor finding optimal levels of service formaintenance and operations of nationalroads. The first projects focused on met-hods for valuation of road assets and main-tenance backlog, including the calculationof these for the Norwegian road network.The second project focused on how roadcondition (both in summer and winter)affects the consequences for road user,with emphasis on traffic safety. This articlepresents the results from this project.Models have been developed for pave-ments, both in summer and winter condi-tions, giving the NPRA an improved basisfor revising the corresponding maintenan-ce and operational standards. They mayalso be used for analysing the effects ofbudget levels and allocation of maintenan-ce funds. Other participants in the projectwere the Institute of Transport Economics(TØI), SINTEF Technology and Society,ViaNova Plan og Trafikk AS and theSwedish National Road and TransportResearch Institute (VTI).

New researchSeveral studies were carried out to increaseknowledge of basic relationships between

road condition and effects both for roadusers and road managers. The studies thathave been carried out are:Winter operations • Time distribution of driving conditions

(snow, ice, sleet etc.)• Driving conditions and traffic safety• Speed adaptation to different driving

conditions• Effect of winter operations on driving

conditions• Roads with special winter problems (e.g.

mountain roads) • Roads with low traffic volumes• Agency costs of winter operations.Pavements • Pavement condition models • Pavement condition and traffic safety• Speed adaptation as a function of pave-

ment condition• Seasonal variation of pavement condition.

In addition information from numerousearlier studies was used in the project. Theanalyses did not include environmentalissues.

Analysis and results – winter operationsA schematic overview of the model used isshown in Figure 1.

The basic situation of driving conditiondistributions was established from empiri-cal data. Alternative driving condition dis-tributions were established (Changed situa-tion in Figure 1) in order to assess howagency and user costs vary with driving con-dition distributions. Details relating to thedifferent models can be found in thereports from the project. An example of themodel used, relating accident frequenciesto driving conditions, is shown in Table 1.

Two types of climate were included:cold (in-land) and mild (coastal). The

roads within these climate types were grou-ped according to speed limits of 60 km/hand less and above 60 km/h. Three servicelevels were analysed: the current servicelevel and one higher and one lower servicelevel.

The main conclusions of the analysiswere:• For roads where the Winter road strate-

gy (without extensive use of salt) is usedit is not economical to lower the servicelevel, even for roads with low trafficlevels.

• For roads where the Winter road strate-gy is used it is economical to increasethe service level for roads with trafficlevels above 1 500 – 3 000 AADT, depen-ding on climate and speed-limit.

• The Bare road strategy (with use of salt)is economical whenever use of salt hasthe intended effect for the prevailingclimatic condition and traffic.

Analysis and results – pavements Three service levels were analysed: the cur-rent service level and one higher and onelower service level. The pavement condi-tion parameters used were rutting androughness (IRI). Pavement performancewas modelled using both empirical andmechanistic models. The effect of pave-

ment maintenance actions on conditionwas modelled based on empirical data.

Road user cost models were used to cal-culate time costs, vehicle operating costsand accident costs. The models for acci-dent costs were developed by analysingdata from the Norwegian road network,and examples of the resulting models areshown in Figure 2 and Figure 3.

The main conclusions of the analysis were:• It is economical to lower the service

level for roads with traffic levels below 3 000 AADT.

• It is economical to increase the servicelevel for roads with traffic levels above 5 000 AADT.These conclusions are valid with some

important limitations. The effect of howdifferent service levels for the drainage sys-tem affects pavement condition were notexplicitly included in the analysis. There is

Contact: Bjørn Iuell, [email protected]

Figure 1: Schematic overview of winter model.

Table 1: Accident frequencies for different driving conditions.

Driving condition Absolute accident Relative Dry – no snow Relative Dry – no snow

frequency (Most recent study) (Adjusted – used in analysis)

Dry - no snow 0,19 1,00 1,00

Wet - no snow 0,193 1,02 1,30

No snow in wheel paths 0,245 1,29 1,30

Other winter conditions 0,409 2,15 2,20

Figure 3: Relationship between roughness (IRI) and relative accident frequency.

Figure 2: Relationship between rutting and relative accidentfrequency.

Model – Driving conditionsBasis situation

Model – Driving conditionsChanged situation

Model – Speed adaptation

Model – Operational actions

Model – Total costsBenefif-cost ratio

Model – Accident costs Model – VehicleOperating Costs

Model – Time costs Model – Road AgencyCosts

0,7

0,75

0,8

0,85

0,9

0,95

1

1,05

1,1

1,15

1,2

2 3 4 5 6

IRI (mm/m)

Rel

ativ

e ac

cide

nt fr

eque

ncy

<=60 km/h - cars<=60 km/h - heavy vehicles>60 km/h -cars>60 km/h -heavy vehicles

0,7

0,8

0,9

1

1,1

1,2

1,3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Rut depth (mm)

Rel

ativ

e ac

cide

nt fr

eque

ncy

also uncertainty regarding how well the twoparameters rutting and roughness comple-tely represents the pavement conditionand its effects on user costs. Interactingeffects of rutting and roughness were notincluded.

The results from the project are beingused in the current revision of the definedservice levels in the maintenance and ope-rational standard for national roads. Theyare also being used in socio-economicalanalyses of both winter and pavement stra-tegies. More research is needed to increaseconfidence in the conclusions.

Even K. Sund, NPRA, Norway


ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

Optimal Road Maintenance andOperations – Results of NewResearch and Analysis in Norway

The Norwegian Public Roads Administration has recently carriedout two projects that focus on backlog in road maintenance andhow road condition affects the users both in summer and winter.Research on how pavement condition affects road user costshas been done, with emphasis on traffic safety issues. Theresults are being used in the ongoing revision of the maintenan-ce and operational standards for national roads.

The Norwegian Public Road Administra-tion (NPRA) has since 2002 carried out

two projects that have improved the basisfor finding optimal levels of service formaintenance and operations of nationalroads. The first projects focused on met-hods for valuation of road assets and main-tenance backlog, including the calculationof these for the Norwegian road network.The second project focused on how roadcondition (both in summer and winter)affects the consequences for road user,with emphasis on traffic safety. This articlepresents the results from this project.Models have been developed for pave-ments, both in summer and winter condi-tions, giving the NPRA an improved basisfor revising the corresponding maintenan-ce and operational standards. They mayalso be used for analysing the effects ofbudget levels and allocation of maintenan-ce funds. Other participants in the projectwere the Institute of Transport Economics(TØI), SINTEF Technology and Society,ViaNova Plan og Trafikk AS and theSwedish National Road and TransportResearch Institute (VTI).

New researchSeveral studies were carried out to increaseknowledge of basic relationships between

road condition and effects both for roadusers and road managers. The studies thathave been carried out are:Winter operations • Time distribution of driving conditions

(snow, ice, sleet etc.)• Driving conditions and traffic safety• Speed adaptation to different driving

conditions• Effect of winter operations on driving

conditions• Roads with special winter problems (e.g.

mountain roads) • Roads with low traffic volumes• Agency costs of winter operations.Pavements • Pavement condition models • Pavement condition and traffic safety• Speed adaptation as a function of pave-

ment condition• Seasonal variation of pavement condition.

In addition information from numerousearlier studies was used in the project. Theanalyses did not include environmentalissues.

Analysis and results – winter operationsA schematic overview of the model used isshown in Figure 1.

The basic situation of driving conditiondistributions was established from empiri-cal data. Alternative driving condition dis-tributions were established (Changed situa-tion in Figure 1) in order to assess howagency and user costs vary with driving con-dition distributions. Details relating to thedifferent models can be found in thereports from the project. An example of themodel used, relating accident frequenciesto driving conditions, is shown in Table 1.

Two types of climate were included:cold (in-land) and mild (coastal). The

roads within these climate types were grou-ped according to speed limits of 60 km/hand less and above 60 km/h. Three servicelevels were analysed: the current servicelevel and one higher and one lower servicelevel.

The main conclusions of the analysiswere:• For roads where the Winter road strate-

gy (without extensive use of salt) is usedit is not economical to lower the servicelevel, even for roads with low trafficlevels.

• For roads where the Winter road strate-gy is used it is economical to increasethe service level for roads with trafficlevels above 1 500 – 3 000 AADT, depen-ding on climate and speed-limit.

• The Bare road strategy (with use of salt)is economical whenever use of salt hasthe intended effect for the prevailingclimatic condition and traffic.

Analysis and results – pavements Three service levels were analysed: the cur-rent service level and one higher and onelower service level. The pavement condi-tion parameters used were rutting androughness (IRI). Pavement performancewas modelled using both empirical andmechanistic models. The effect of pave-

ment maintenance actions on conditionwas modelled based on empirical data.

Road user cost models were used to cal-culate time costs, vehicle operating costsand accident costs. The models for acci-dent costs were developed by analysingdata from the Norwegian road network,and examples of the resulting models areshown in Figure 2 and Figure 3.

The main conclusions of the analysis were:• It is economical to lower the service

level for roads with traffic levels below 3 000 AADT.

• It is economical to increase the servicelevel for roads with traffic levels above 5 000 AADT.These conclusions are valid with some

important limitations. The effect of howdifferent service levels for the drainage sys-tem affects pavement condition were notexplicitly included in the analysis. There is

Contact: Bjørn Iuell, [email protected]

Figure 1: Schematic overview of winter model.

Table 1: Accident frequencies for different driving conditions.

Driving condition Absolute accident Relative Dry – no snow Relative Dry – no snow

frequency (Most recent study) (Adjusted – used in analysis)

Dry - no snow 0,19 1,00 1,00

Wet - no snow 0,193 1,02 1,30

No snow in wheel paths 0,245 1,29 1,30

Other winter conditions 0,409 2,15 2,20

Figure 3: Relationship between roughness (IRI) and relative accident frequency.

Figure 2: Relationship between rutting and relative accidentfrequency.

Model – Driving conditionsBasis situation

Model – Driving conditionsChanged situation

Model – Speed adaptation

Model – Operational actions

Model – Total costsBenefif-cost ratio

Model – Accident costs Model – VehicleOperating Costs

Model – Time costs Model – Road AgencyCosts

0,7

0,75

0,8

0,85

0,9

0,95

1

1,05

1,1

1,15

1,2

2 3 4 5 6

IRI (mm/m)

Rel

ativ

e ac

cide

nt fr

eque

ncy

<=60 km/h - cars<=60 km/h - heavy vehicles>60 km/h -cars>60 km/h -heavy vehicles

0,7

0,8

0,9

1

1,1

1,2

1,3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Rut depth (mm)

Rel

ativ

e ac

cide

nt fr

eque

ncy

also uncertainty regarding how well the twoparameters rutting and roughness comple-tely represents the pavement conditionand its effects on user costs. Interactingeffects of rutting and roughness were notincluded.

The results from the project are beingused in the current revision of the definedservice levels in the maintenance and ope-rational standard for national roads. Theyare also being used in socio-economicalanalyses of both winter and pavement stra-tegies. More research is needed to increaseconfidence in the conclusions.

Even K. Sund, NPRA, Norway


ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

In one year, freight transport by road, rail,sea and air amounts to over 100 billion

tonne kilometres in Sweden and it is fore-casted to increase further. The result is thatenvironmental and climatic problems areon the increase, and such transport alsohas an impact on traffic safety.

Through its internal thematic projectGODIS, VTI is formulating the startingpoints for an R&D programme that is newin this field. Through GODIS, VTI will beinstrumental in increasing knowledgeabout the transport sector. The SwedishGovernment also wants to increase know-ledge, and is creating a new advisory agen-cy that has been given the name LogisticsForum and will be chaired by Minister forCommunications, Åsa Torstensson.

VTI acts as the secretariat for LogisticsForum.

– The Logistiscs Forum is really a goodstep in the right direction, and the fact thatthe Minister for Communications takes thechair sends a signal that the Government

Freight transport is an important part of the economy, but at thesame time it creates serious problems for society. In spite ofthis, research and information concerning freight transport arestill relatively limited in scope. But there are high hopes that theVTI thematic project GODIS (Freight transport in society) willincrease this knowledge.

wants to invest in research on logistics andtransport, says Inge Vierth of VTI who hasbeen engaged on the work to implementGODIS.

– It is remarkable that there is still so litt-le information today on the structure andextent of freight transport and the way itcan be modified, she says.

It was at the end of the 1990s that the

issue of freight transport in society beganto attract attention in Sweden when thethen Government set up the FreightTransport Delegation. The delegation hasbeen at work on developing an approachthat comprises all traffic modes and willhave the effect of making freight transportmore effective and safer and will reduce itseffect on the environment. The new

Freight Transport and LogisticsDemand More Knowledge

Title: Freight transport in society. A VTI research

theme, N 12-2007

Contact: Inge Vierth, [email protected]


PH

OTO

: VTI

/HEJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

ER

Logistics Forum now takes over this workand at the same time expands it. TheLogistics Forum follows the line of the EUCommission that research concerning trans-port should be broadened by also endeavou-ring to understand the driving forcesbehind the various logistics solutions.

The number of firms whose productiontakes place in a country outside Sweden isincreasing. Because of various driving for-ces, the areas where people live and workare also becoming fewer and are concen-trated in the cities. Logistics solutionswhich will deal with this are thereforebeing developed, and to a certain extentthese demand a lot of transport. Eventhough vehicles are improved all the time,through e.g. better engines and fuels, thisis not happening at the same rate as therapid increase in traffic volume. Because ofthis, the negative effects on the environ-ment remain and to some extent increase.

– VTI has good expertise which can beutilised in GODIS and the new R&D area,

says Inge Vierth. We can count both finis-hed and current projects as part of ourknowledge in this field. But we appreciatethat it is time now for us to develop thisfield further.

Within the thematic project GODIS,action and R&D issues are proposed in sixareas:• estimation of marginal costs and formu-

lation of control measures• demand models• macroeconomic calculations• competition and funding• local and regional transport• impact analyses.

The project started last summer andwork has now commenced on many of theprojects which the new R&D in the area hasgiven rise to.

– During the work on GODIS, we werealso commissioned by the Government tostudy the effect of long lorries on the trans-port system, says Inge Vierth.

She knows that VTI is in a good position

to produce results of the quality demandedby clients in this area. At the same time, theknowledge available at VTI must be utilisedin a better way. Through greater coopera-tion among units and departments, know-ledge about freight transport can be furt-her broadened.

One of the results of the work onGODIS is that ideas concerning new pro-jects are being put forward. One proposalis to initiate a research project that studiesthe relationship between logistics, freighttransport flows, lorry emissions and theeffects on human health in towns. Thiscould in future result in a new and stimula-ting cooperative project at VTI.

Elin Frejd, VTI


ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

In one year, freight transport by road, rail,sea and air amounts to over 100 billion

tonne kilometres in Sweden and it is fore-casted to increase further. The result is thatenvironmental and climatic problems areon the increase, and such transport alsohas an impact on traffic safety.

Through its internal thematic projectGODIS, VTI is formulating the startingpoints for an R&D programme that is newin this field. Through GODIS, VTI will beinstrumental in increasing knowledgeabout the transport sector. The SwedishGovernment also wants to increase know-ledge, and is creating a new advisory agen-cy that has been given the name LogisticsForum and will be chaired by Minister forCommunications, Åsa Torstensson.

VTI acts as the secretariat for LogisticsForum.

– The Logistiscs Forum is really a goodstep in the right direction, and the fact thatthe Minister for Communications takes thechair sends a signal that the Government

Freight transport is an important part of the economy, but at thesame time it creates serious problems for society. In spite ofthis, research and information concerning freight transport arestill relatively limited in scope. But there are high hopes that theVTI thematic project GODIS (Freight transport in society) willincrease this knowledge.

wants to invest in research on logistics andtransport, says Inge Vierth of VTI who hasbeen engaged on the work to implementGODIS.

– It is remarkable that there is still so litt-le information today on the structure andextent of freight transport and the way itcan be modified, she says.

It was at the end of the 1990s that the

issue of freight transport in society beganto attract attention in Sweden when thethen Government set up the FreightTransport Delegation. The delegation hasbeen at work on developing an approachthat comprises all traffic modes and willhave the effect of making freight transportmore effective and safer and will reduce itseffect on the environment. The new

Freight Transport and LogisticsDemand More Knowledge

Title: Freight transport in society. A VTI research

theme, N 12-2007

Contact: Inge Vierth, [email protected]


PH

OTO

: VTI

/HEJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

ER

Logistics Forum now takes over this workand at the same time expands it. TheLogistics Forum follows the line of the EUCommission that research concerning trans-port should be broadened by also endeavou-ring to understand the driving forcesbehind the various logistics solutions.

The number of firms whose productiontakes place in a country outside Sweden isincreasing. Because of various driving for-ces, the areas where people live and workare also becoming fewer and are concen-trated in the cities. Logistics solutionswhich will deal with this are thereforebeing developed, and to a certain extentthese demand a lot of transport. Eventhough vehicles are improved all the time,through e.g. better engines and fuels, thisis not happening at the same rate as therapid increase in traffic volume. Because ofthis, the negative effects on the environ-ment remain and to some extent increase.

– VTI has good expertise which can beutilised in GODIS and the new R&D area,

says Inge Vierth. We can count both finis-hed and current projects as part of ourknowledge in this field. But we appreciatethat it is time now for us to develop thisfield further.

Within the thematic project GODIS,action and R&D issues are proposed in sixareas:• estimation of marginal costs and formu-

lation of control measures• demand models• macroeconomic calculations• competition and funding• local and regional transport• impact analyses.

The project started last summer andwork has now commenced on many of theprojects which the new R&D in the area hasgiven rise to.

– During the work on GODIS, we werealso commissioned by the Government tostudy the effect of long lorries on the trans-port system, says Inge Vierth.

She knows that VTI is in a good position

to produce results of the quality demandedby clients in this area. At the same time, theknowledge available at VTI must be utilisedin a better way. Through greater coopera-tion among units and departments, know-ledge about freight transport can be furt-her broadened.

One of the results of the work onGODIS is that ideas concerning new pro-jects are being put forward. One proposalis to initiate a research project that studiesthe relationship between logistics, freighttransport flows, lorry emissions and theeffects on human health in towns. Thiscould in future result in a new and stimula-ting cooperative project at VTI.

Elin Frejd, VTI


Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is based onmeasuring the costs and benefits of a

project to whomever they may occur. Theoverall task is to measure if the benefits ofthe projects outweigh the costs or morespecifically, if the net social benefits arepositive. Although there are other methodsavailable for project appraisal, CBA is themost widespread one.

The main summary measure in CBA isthe Net Present Value (NPV) which is defi-ned as follows:

Here I0 denotes the investment costs,Bt the benefits in year t, C1 the costs in yeart, r the social discount rate and n the hori-zon year.

From an economic point of view thedecision to carry out a project will rest onthe project having a positive NPV.

CBA of ITS projectsITS projects are often considered to be anefficient method for utilising existing trans-port infrastructure capacity. An example

Evaluating the Economic Impacts ofIntelligent Transport Systems

The use of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) is on the increasethroughout the world. What these systems have in common isthat they are introduced to generate benefits to the users and tosociety. These benefits must, however, by definition outweigh thetotal costs of implementing and operating the systems to providea net benefit to society. Given limited public budgets, ITS pro-jects must be proven to provide greater benefits to society thancompeting alternatives. The net benefits of traditional transportprojects are normally assessed using some sort of quantitativemethodology, among which cost-benefit analysis being the mostcommon method.

could be an automatic traffic informationsystem where road users are informedabout queues or congestion on certainroad segments with the use of electronicsignboards situated along corridors andwhere alternative routes could be sugges-ted. The impacts for road users would besavings in travel time without the supply ofmore capacity.

However, for ITS to be preferred over tra-ditional expenditure such as supplying morecapacity, its merits must be demonstratedusing economic evaluation techniques. CBAcan be used to determine which project, eit-her ITS or more capacity supply, that meetthe social profitability test, and to assess expost which project that has been successfulin meeting the initial assumptions.

ITS projects are relatively new and still attheir early stages in many countries.Ascertaining their expected effects is therefo-re considered difficult. This might make tra-ditional evaluation methods inappropriate.

Evaluation of ITS projectsA literature study has revealed that there isa clear need for harmonisation of evalua-

tion practices for Nordic and NorwegianITS projects. More work needs to be donein order to include ITS specific effects inthe CBA framework to allow a better com-parison and ranking of ITS and more tradi-tional transport projects.

There is no clear methodology for ITSevaluation available. Although projectssometimes are subjected to ex ante evalua-tion there is no clear framework or metho-dology as to how projects should be evalua-ted. Attempts to carry out a full CBA of ITSprojects are rare and evaluation is oftenjust based on cost-effectiveness analysis inwhich the benefit side is not monetised.This is an easy way of evaluation and certa-inly less time consuming than CBA but thesignificant disadvantages of the methodo-logy includes an inability to measures andsum several benefits as well as a very crudevaluation of effects.

Evaluations of ITS projects appearincomprehensive and economic conse-quences are often not valued at all. Theend result of this is that several potentialeffects will not be demonstrated and anevaluation that appears narrow, fragmen-

Contact: Morten Welde, e-mail:

[email protected] or

James Odeck, e-mail: [email protected]

ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

NPV = 10 + Bt – Ct

(1+r)t

n

t=0∑

ted and less interesting to planners anddecision makers. Moreover, the evaluationsare often positively biased, focusing moreon the positive effects and choosing themost positive estimates where more thanone alternative is available.

The evaluation results are imprecise.The effects have largely been describedverbally and there is very rarely any mone-tisation of effects. This makes comparisonsbetween projects difficult and comparisonsbetween ITS projects and ordinary projectsimpossible.

The Norwegian case suggests that ITSproject evaluation too often is characteri-sed by personal opinion rather than a syste-matic statement of costs and benefitsexpressed in monetary terms using dis-counted values. Evaluation of ITS projectsappears arbitrary and unsuited for crossproject comparisons.

ConclusionITS is an increasing feature of moderntransport systems and an increasing pro-portion of road administrations’ project

portfolios are made up of such projects.ITS projects differ in nature from ordinarytransport projects and traditional methodsof evaluation such as CBA might not beapplicable. There is, however, a clear needto evaluate ITS projects both ex post andex ante both in order to demonstratepotential net benefits but also to test whet-her initial assumptions of these have beenmet.

CBA is the most widespread and in ouropinion the most suitable method of eva-luation for all transport projects. The met-hod does, however, have some weaknessesin that it is not fully adapted to incorpora-te all the attributes of modern technolo-gies. Examples from several countries showthat ITS evaluation at times has been insuf-ficient and that there is a clear need toexpose ITS to more rigid evaluation. Inorder to achieve this, we need a change ofminds and of methodology. ITS must moveon from the R&D sphere were all projectsare regarded as experimental were thebenefits lie in just demonstrating ex postthat the systems have had some effect and

into a situation were ITS are considered asrelevant alternatives to traditional trans-port measures such as supplying morecapacity. What's more, CBA frameworksmust be revised in order to incorporate thespecific effects of ITS. This will ensure thatthe right ITS projects are chosen for eva-luation and that other projects with poten-tially higher implementation costs andlower net benefits to society are rejected.The end result will be in the accordancewith the overall objective of project evalua-tion – better value for money and increa-sed social surplus.

Morten Welde and James Odeck, NPRA

This article is based on a paper presented at the

World Congress on Intelligent Transport

Systems in Beijing, October 9-13, 2007.



Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is based onmeasuring the costs and benefits of a

project to whomever they may occur. Theoverall task is to measure if the benefits ofthe projects outweigh the costs or morespecifically, if the net social benefits arepositive. Although there are other methodsavailable for project appraisal, CBA is themost widespread one.

The main summary measure in CBA isthe Net Present Value (NPV) which is defi-ned as follows:

Here I0 denotes the investment costs,Bt the benefits in year t, C1 the costs in yeart, r the social discount rate and n the hori-zon year.

From an economic point of view thedecision to carry out a project will rest onthe project having a positive NPV.

CBA of ITS projectsITS projects are often considered to be anefficient method for utilising existing trans-port infrastructure capacity. An example

Evaluating the Economic Impacts ofIntelligent Transport Systems

The use of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) is on the increasethroughout the world. What these systems have in common isthat they are introduced to generate benefits to the users and tosociety. These benefits must, however, by definition outweigh thetotal costs of implementing and operating the systems to providea net benefit to society. Given limited public budgets, ITS pro-jects must be proven to provide greater benefits to society thancompeting alternatives. The net benefits of traditional transportprojects are normally assessed using some sort of quantitativemethodology, among which cost-benefit analysis being the mostcommon method.

could be an automatic traffic informationsystem where road users are informedabout queues or congestion on certainroad segments with the use of electronicsignboards situated along corridors andwhere alternative routes could be sugges-ted. The impacts for road users would besavings in travel time without the supply ofmore capacity.

However, for ITS to be preferred over tra-ditional expenditure such as supplying morecapacity, its merits must be demonstratedusing economic evaluation techniques. CBAcan be used to determine which project, eit-her ITS or more capacity supply, that meetthe social profitability test, and to assess expost which project that has been successfulin meeting the initial assumptions.

ITS projects are relatively new and still attheir early stages in many countries.Ascertaining their expected effects is therefo-re considered difficult. This might make tra-ditional evaluation methods inappropriate.

Evaluation of ITS projectsA literature study has revealed that there isa clear need for harmonisation of evalua-

tion practices for Nordic and NorwegianITS projects. More work needs to be donein order to include ITS specific effects inthe CBA framework to allow a better com-parison and ranking of ITS and more tradi-tional transport projects.

There is no clear methodology for ITSevaluation available. Although projectssometimes are subjected to ex ante evalua-tion there is no clear framework or metho-dology as to how projects should be evalua-ted. Attempts to carry out a full CBA of ITSprojects are rare and evaluation is oftenjust based on cost-effectiveness analysis inwhich the benefit side is not monetised.This is an easy way of evaluation and certa-inly less time consuming than CBA but thesignificant disadvantages of the methodo-logy includes an inability to measures andsum several benefits as well as a very crudevaluation of effects.

Evaluations of ITS projects appearincomprehensive and economic conse-quences are often not valued at all. Theend result of this is that several potentialeffects will not be demonstrated and anevaluation that appears narrow, fragmen-

Contact: Morten Welde, e-mail:

[email protected] or

James Odeck, e-mail: [email protected]

ECONOMICS & SOCIETY

NPV = 10 + Bt – Ct

(1+r)t

n

t=0∑

ted and less interesting to planners anddecision makers. Moreover, the evaluationsare often positively biased, focusing moreon the positive effects and choosing themost positive estimates where more thanone alternative is available.

The evaluation results are imprecise.The effects have largely been describedverbally and there is very rarely any mone-tisation of effects. This makes comparisonsbetween projects difficult and comparisonsbetween ITS projects and ordinary projectsimpossible.

The Norwegian case suggests that ITSproject evaluation too often is characteri-sed by personal opinion rather than a syste-matic statement of costs and benefitsexpressed in monetary terms using dis-counted values. Evaluation of ITS projectsappears arbitrary and unsuited for crossproject comparisons.

ConclusionITS is an increasing feature of moderntransport systems and an increasing pro-portion of road administrations’ project

portfolios are made up of such projects.ITS projects differ in nature from ordinarytransport projects and traditional methodsof evaluation such as CBA might not beapplicable. There is, however, a clear needto evaluate ITS projects both ex post andex ante both in order to demonstratepotential net benefits but also to test whet-her initial assumptions of these have beenmet.

CBA is the most widespread and in ouropinion the most suitable method of eva-luation for all transport projects. The met-hod does, however, have some weaknessesin that it is not fully adapted to incorpora-te all the attributes of modern technolo-gies. Examples from several countries showthat ITS evaluation at times has been insuf-ficient and that there is a clear need toexpose ITS to more rigid evaluation. Inorder to achieve this, we need a change ofminds and of methodology. ITS must moveon from the R&D sphere were all projectsare regarded as experimental were thebenefits lie in just demonstrating ex postthat the systems have had some effect and

into a situation were ITS are considered asrelevant alternatives to traditional trans-port measures such as supplying morecapacity. What's more, CBA frameworksmust be revised in order to incorporate thespecific effects of ITS. This will ensure thatthe right ITS projects are chosen for eva-luation and that other projects with poten-tially higher implementation costs andlower net benefits to society are rejected.The end result will be in the accordancewith the overall objective of project evalua-tion – better value for money and increa-sed social surplus.

Morten Welde and James Odeck, NPRA

This article is based on a paper presented at the

World Congress on Intelligent Transport

Systems in Beijing, October 9-13, 2007.



The Computer Sees You

Research results show that only 35 per cent of all lorry drivers inSweden wear a seat belt, and that 70 per cent drive too fast.These figures must be improved to increase safety on our roads.Technology today makes it possible to monitor how fast peopledrive, and there is a hope that this will make them drive moresafely.

The objective of the research projectUPPÅT is to test the effects that careful

monitoring of speed limit transgressionsand seat belt use will have on truck drivers.It is hoped that, by combining experienceand knowledge from the research worldwith new technology from an IT company,good results will be achieved in this project.

The research programme IVSS, IntelligentVehicle Safety Systems, was involved inlaunching this project and is also providingsome of the finance. The objective of theprogramme is to stimulate research anddevelopment for the road safety of tomor-row, something that may result in smarttechnology and IT solutions that preventroad accidents due to collisions. It alsofocuses on developing intelligent vehicleand traffic systems.

Data for the project will be provided bya total of 120 heavy trucks from the aroundten transport companies, that constitutethe test group. These trucks have for sometime been equipped with vehicle compu-ters from the IT company Vehco. Vehco hasdeveloped new applications for these com-puters which measure speed transgressionsand seat belt use, and also show what speedlimit applies on the road the truck is travel-ling on. It is not only the driver who isgiven a warning when he/she drives too

fast, but everything is also recorded andcan be monitored by the employer. Theresults are then processed by the transportfirms. The results can, for instance, be dis-played in the coffee room so that driverscan see how their driving style compareswith that of their colleagues.

Positive effectsUp to now, around 30 drivers have used thetechnology long time enough for a firstevaluation. It is found that the technologyhas been well received by most drivers,even though there were some misgivings inthe beginning. Many feel that the pace ofwork has become slower and that the newtechnology has provided support for this.Showing the results to everybody has the

positive effect that the drivers can see howtheir driving styles compares to others, andit may also result in an indirect competi-tion to see who drives most safely.

Easy to revert to the old patternThe initial results and previous experienceshow that the users will improve their drivingstyle for a start but will revert to their usualbehaviour after a week or two and will nolonger have the feeling of being watched.

– To maintain the positive effect, it isessential to have a constant dialogue andfollow-up at the trucking companies, saysMagnus Hjälmdahl, researcher at VTI.

– To motivate the drivers, they will everymonth be given a feedback on how well theyhave kept to the speed limits and used theseat belt, and a bonus system will also be tes-ted to provide additional motivation, saysMagnus Hjälmdahl. Those who have kept tothe speed limits will be rewarded with a cine-ma ticket by VTI every month. Some trans-port firms also have their own bonus systemswhich make an addition to the wages, andthe transport firms consider that some ofthe money saved on fuel consumption bythe drivers should benefit the drivers.

– Some kind of motivation system is nee-ded for the positive results to be maintai-ned, says Magnus Hjälmdahl.

The result – a commercial productThe project UPPÅT is coming to an endand it is intended that, if the results arefavourable, the computer system will belaunched by Vehco as a commercial pro-duct. The system will test the willingness oftransport firms to pay for road safetyfunctions and will make it easier for thepurchasers of transport services to demandimprovements in road safety.

The research results will be compiled in

a report that will be presented at Transport-forum in January. See p. 7.

Magdalena Green, VTI

MagnusHjälmdahl,researcher at VTI,works with theproject UPPÅT.


PH

OTO

: VTI

/HEJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

ER

For more information: www.ivss.se

Contact: Magnus Hjälmdahl,

[email protected]


The Computer Sees You

Research results show that only 35 per cent of all lorry drivers inSweden wear a seat belt, and that 70 per cent drive too fast.These figures must be improved to increase safety on our roads.Technology today makes it possible to monitor how fast peopledrive, and there is a hope that this will make them drive moresafely.

The objective of the research projectUPPÅT is to test the effects that careful

monitoring of speed limit transgressionsand seat belt use will have on truck drivers.It is hoped that, by combining experienceand knowledge from the research worldwith new technology from an IT company,good results will be achieved in this project.

The research programme IVSS, IntelligentVehicle Safety Systems, was involved inlaunching this project and is also providingsome of the finance. The objective of theprogramme is to stimulate research anddevelopment for the road safety of tomor-row, something that may result in smarttechnology and IT solutions that preventroad accidents due to collisions. It alsofocuses on developing intelligent vehicleand traffic systems.

Data for the project will be provided bya total of 120 heavy trucks from the aroundten transport companies, that constitutethe test group. These trucks have for sometime been equipped with vehicle compu-ters from the IT company Vehco. Vehco hasdeveloped new applications for these com-puters which measure speed transgressionsand seat belt use, and also show what speedlimit applies on the road the truck is travel-ling on. It is not only the driver who isgiven a warning when he/she drives too

fast, but everything is also recorded andcan be monitored by the employer. Theresults are then processed by the transportfirms. The results can, for instance, be dis-played in the coffee room so that driverscan see how their driving style compareswith that of their colleagues.

Positive effectsUp to now, around 30 drivers have used thetechnology long time enough for a firstevaluation. It is found that the technologyhas been well received by most drivers,even though there were some misgivings inthe beginning. Many feel that the pace ofwork has become slower and that the newtechnology has provided support for this.Showing the results to everybody has the

positive effect that the drivers can see howtheir driving styles compares to others, andit may also result in an indirect competi-tion to see who drives most safely.

Easy to revert to the old patternThe initial results and previous experienceshow that the users will improve their drivingstyle for a start but will revert to their usualbehaviour after a week or two and will nolonger have the feeling of being watched.

– To maintain the positive effect, it isessential to have a constant dialogue andfollow-up at the trucking companies, saysMagnus Hjälmdahl, researcher at VTI.

– To motivate the drivers, they will everymonth be given a feedback on how well theyhave kept to the speed limits and used theseat belt, and a bonus system will also be tes-ted to provide additional motivation, saysMagnus Hjälmdahl. Those who have kept tothe speed limits will be rewarded with a cine-ma ticket by VTI every month. Some trans-port firms also have their own bonus systemswhich make an addition to the wages, andthe transport firms consider that some ofthe money saved on fuel consumption bythe drivers should benefit the drivers.

– Some kind of motivation system is nee-ded for the positive results to be maintai-ned, says Magnus Hjälmdahl.

The result – a commercial productThe project UPPÅT is coming to an endand it is intended that, if the results arefavourable, the computer system will belaunched by Vehco as a commercial pro-duct. The system will test the willingness oftransport firms to pay for road safetyfunctions and will make it easier for thepurchasers of transport services to demandimprovements in road safety.

The research results will be compiled in

a report that will be presented at Transport-forum in January. See p. 7.

Magdalena Green, VTI

MagnusHjälmdahl,researcher at VTI,works with theproject UPPÅT.


PH

OTO

: VTI

/HEJD

LÖS

A B

ILD

ER

For more information: www.ivss.se

Contact: Magnus Hjälmdahl,

[email protected]


Virtual Impact of Safety Barrier

Virtual tests as a complementary test to full-scale tests – arethey reliable? Outcome of the EU project ROBUST.

FE software can be used to calculate thesafety of bridges, aeroplanes and even a

journey to the moon, but until now safetybarrier approval requires full-scale testsaccording to European standards. Over thelast 10–15 years several attempts on usingcomputational mechanics (CM) for impac-ting safety barrier have been made withmixed results. The conclusion has beenthat the use of software calculation for safe-ty barrier approval is not reliable enough.Until very recently, research had not beencarried out on a large enough scale to secu-re the use of CM.

During the last couple of years a num-ber of simulations have been carried out byForce Technology, on behalf of theNorwegian Public Roads Administration(NPRA), with good results compared tofull-scale tests. The experience from thesimulations formed the basis for NPRA par-ticipating in the EU project ROBUST –Road Barrier Upgrade of Standard.

The ROBUST project had nine workpackages, of which two were the full-scaletest and CM. The intention was to comparethe results of full-scale tests with virtualtests carried out using computationalmechanics.

Four institutes participated in the CMwork package:• Politecnico di Milano (POMI) - Italy• Centre for Automotive Research and

Development (CIDAUT) – Spain• Norwegian Public Roads Administra-

tion (NPRA) – Norway

• Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) –Great Britain.

Test objectiveThe objective was: • To evaluate and enhance the use of CM

as a supplement to experimental activity. • To elaborate criteria and procedures for

the validation of CM results throughcomparison with test results.

• To identify the activity needed for furt-her enhancement of the use of CM.The model of the car used in CM was

the GeoMetro, which is identical to aSuzuki Swift. The cars used in full-scale tes-ting were Peugeot 106 and Fiat Uno.

Twelve simulations were carried out bythree different institutes in Europe. Theresults were remarkably similar to eachother and to the full-scale test results. Theyeven had smaller scatter than the full-scaletests. The differences between the full-scaletests were mainly due to different groundfriction at the test facilities.

The ROBUST project was carried outfor concrete, steel N2, steel H2 and steelH4 barriers. This article only reports thetest on the N2 barrier. It was crucial that allsimulations were performed as blind tests,i.e. performed without prior knowledge ofthe results from the full-scale tests.

The results from the full-scale tests andsimulations show that the difference betweenfull-scale tests performed in four test hou-ses and simulations performed in threeinstitutes are minor. All the full-scale tests

were performed according to the regula-tions set out in EN1317.Simulation:The ASI value & working width:• Std deviation = 0,08 – 63mm• Mean value = 0,75 – 834mm.Full-scale test:The ASI value & working width:• Std deviation: 0,08 – 83mm• Mean value: 0,79 – 758mm.

The mean value of working width issomewhat more for simulation than for thefull-scale test. When calculated with norma-lised values, the difference in mean wor-king width is reduced from 76 to 49 mm.The scatter for simulation is equal for ASIand less for working width than in the full-scale test.

DocumentationThe calculation of ASI-value is based onresults from the accelerometer. Because of adifferent transmitter in the simulation com-pared to full-scale tests, a precalculation ofthe result from the simulations is neededbefore final calculation is performed.

The working width is easier to docu-ment and visualise based on a simulationthan a full-scale test.

It is possible to eliminate forces and tostudy the behaviour of the safety barrier inmore detail with simulation compared tofull-scale tests.

The same overall picture emerges fromthe concrete barrier test. Contact: Otto Kleppe.

E-mail: [email protected]

Parameter studySome parameter studies have been carriedout with the variation of yield point, modu-lus of elasticity and steel thickness withinthe requirement of the existing EN-stan-dards. Difference in steel thickness andyield point in particular had a great effecton the working width and some effect onthe severity indexes. The figure shows thatthe working width can vary by three classesfor variation of yield point.

Remaining workSome work remains to be done before theuse of CM in approval of safety barriers isrecommended. Documentation and valida-tion routines need to be established andmore tests need to be performed for several

types of barriers before CM can be used as acomplementary test to full-scale tests.

ConclusionsThis ROBUST project shows a strong corre-lation between the results from full-scaletest and simulation, given the same condi-tions. This is valid for the two types of barri-er, steel and concrete, which have beenextensively tested. The severity indices andthe deflection are within the scatter fromfull-scale tests. Work is already being carriedout, and will continue to reduce the scatterfor CM. The results from CM are as reliableas the results from full-scale tests when per-formed by experienced institutes. CM canalso be used for calculation of the securitylevel of the safety barrier, calculation of pro-

bability of failure, risk analyses and reliabili-ty analyses.

Use of one full-scale test as validation forsimulation is difficult since the scatter istoo great for that purpose. The use of simu-lation is much less costly than the full-scaletest. The cost is 20–50 per cent lower thana full-scale test depending on the complici-ty in the modelling of the barrier. The costsof carrying out a parameter study (modelcost only once) are lower.

Otto Kleppe, NPRA

0,45

0,50

0,55

0,60

0,65

0,70

0,75

0,80

0,85

0,90

0,95

600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950

Working width

ASI

SimulationsFull-scale tests

Simulation: Documentation

Conclusions


Virtual Impact of Safety Barrier

Virtual tests as a complementary test to full-scale tests – arethey reliable? Outcome of the EU project ROBUST.

FE software can be used to calculate thesafety of bridges, aeroplanes and even a

journey to the moon, but until now safetybarrier approval requires full-scale testsaccording to European standards. Over thelast 10–15 years several attempts on usingcomputational mechanics (CM) for impac-ting safety barrier have been made withmixed results. The conclusion has beenthat the use of software calculation for safe-ty barrier approval is not reliable enough.Until very recently, research had not beencarried out on a large enough scale to secu-re the use of CM.

During the last couple of years a num-ber of simulations have been carried out byForce Technology, on behalf of theNorwegian Public Roads Administration(NPRA), with good results compared tofull-scale tests. The experience from thesimulations formed the basis for NPRA par-ticipating in the EU project ROBUST –Road Barrier Upgrade of Standard.

The ROBUST project had nine workpackages, of which two were the full-scaletest and CM. The intention was to comparethe results of full-scale tests with virtualtests carried out using computationalmechanics.

Four institutes participated in the CMwork package:• Politecnico di Milano (POMI) - Italy• Centre for Automotive Research and

Development (CIDAUT) – Spain• Norwegian Public Roads Administra-

tion (NPRA) – Norway

• Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) –Great Britain.

Test objectiveThe objective was: • To evaluate and enhance the use of CM

as a supplement to experimental activity. • To elaborate criteria and procedures for

the validation of CM results throughcomparison with test results.

• To identify the activity needed for furt-her enhancement of the use of CM.The model of the car used in CM was

the GeoMetro, which is identical to aSuzuki Swift. The cars used in full-scale tes-ting were Peugeot 106 and Fiat Uno.

Twelve simulations were carried out bythree different institutes in Europe. Theresults were remarkably similar to eachother and to the full-scale test results. Theyeven had smaller scatter than the full-scaletests. The differences between the full-scaletests were mainly due to different groundfriction at the test facilities.

The ROBUST project was carried outfor concrete, steel N2, steel H2 and steelH4 barriers. This article only reports thetest on the N2 barrier. It was crucial that allsimulations were performed as blind tests,i.e. performed without prior knowledge ofthe results from the full-scale tests.

The results from the full-scale tests andsimulations show that the difference betweenfull-scale tests performed in four test hou-ses and simulations performed in threeinstitutes are minor. All the full-scale tests

were performed according to the regula-tions set out in EN1317.Simulation:The ASI value & working width:• Std deviation = 0,08 – 63mm• Mean value = 0,75 – 834mm.Full-scale test:The ASI value & working width:• Std deviation: 0,08 – 83mm• Mean value: 0,79 – 758mm.

The mean value of working width issomewhat more for simulation than for thefull-scale test. When calculated with norma-lised values, the difference in mean wor-king width is reduced from 76 to 49 mm.The scatter for simulation is equal for ASIand less for working width than in the full-scale test.

DocumentationThe calculation of ASI-value is based onresults from the accelerometer. Because of adifferent transmitter in the simulation com-pared to full-scale tests, a precalculation ofthe result from the simulations is neededbefore final calculation is performed.

The working width is easier to docu-ment and visualise based on a simulationthan a full-scale test.

It is possible to eliminate forces and tostudy the behaviour of the safety barrier inmore detail with simulation compared tofull-scale tests.

The same overall picture emerges fromthe concrete barrier test. Contact: Otto Kleppe.

E-mail: [email protected]

Parameter studySome parameter studies have been carriedout with the variation of yield point, modu-lus of elasticity and steel thickness withinthe requirement of the existing EN-stan-dards. Difference in steel thickness andyield point in particular had a great effecton the working width and some effect onthe severity indexes. The figure shows thatthe working width can vary by three classesfor variation of yield point.

Remaining workSome work remains to be done before theuse of CM in approval of safety barriers isrecommended. Documentation and valida-tion routines need to be established andmore tests need to be performed for several

types of barriers before CM can be used as acomplementary test to full-scale tests.

ConclusionsThis ROBUST project shows a strong corre-lation between the results from full-scaletest and simulation, given the same condi-tions. This is valid for the two types of barri-er, steel and concrete, which have beenextensively tested. The severity indices andthe deflection are within the scatter fromfull-scale tests. Work is already being carriedout, and will continue to reduce the scatterfor CM. The results from CM are as reliableas the results from full-scale tests when per-formed by experienced institutes. CM canalso be used for calculation of the securitylevel of the safety barrier, calculation of pro-

bability of failure, risk analyses and reliabili-ty analyses.

Use of one full-scale test as validation forsimulation is difficult since the scatter istoo great for that purpose. The use of simu-lation is much less costly than the full-scaletest. The cost is 20–50 per cent lower thana full-scale test depending on the complici-ty in the modelling of the barrier. The costsof carrying out a parameter study (modelcost only once) are lower.

Otto Kleppe, NPRA

0,45

0,50

0,55

0,60

0,65

0,70

0,75

0,80

0,85

0,90

0,95

600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950

Working width

ASI

SimulationsFull-scale tests

Simulation: Documentation

Conclusions


Possibilities of NoiseReduction through RoadTraffic Flow Management

As part of the EU research pro-ject SILENCE, an extensive lite-rature study of the noise andannoyance effects of variousroad traffic flow measures hasbeen carried out. Below, someof the results are given.

accelerating vehicles make more noisethan vehicles driving at a steady pace.Several surveys have shown that round-abouts lead to less noise than intersectionswith or without signalization. This is to alarge extent because more vehicles canpass without having to come to a completestand-still. Coordinated signalization in theform of calming green waves may also be ameasure to secure more even driving pat-terns. This needs further testing.

Research needs Speed humps and cushions are by far themeasures which have been subject to moststudies. The main research need for thesemeasures is to determine the optimal dis-tance between the measures in order tomaintain an even driving pattern withoutlarge differences in speeds at and betweenthe measures. Such optimal distances may

One way of reducing road traffic noise isto reduce traffic volumes. On minor

roads with low traffic volumes, it may be aneffective measure to move large percenta-ges of traffic to major roads, where trafficvolumes already are high. This could, forexample, be achieved by impedingthrough-traffic or by completely closingroads to through-traffic through physicalmeasures or bans. The use of road humps,chicanes or other measures can also beapplied. Narrow cushions and round-tophumps are preferable from a noise pers-pective.

On major roads, however, reductions intraffic volumes are rarely feasible solutionsto noise problems. Due to the logarithmicnature of the dB scale, large numbers ofvehicles would have to be removed in orderto result in any significant level of noisereduction. A twenty per cent reduction in

traffic results in a 1 dB noise reduction,provided that speed, traffic compositionand driving pattern are unchanged. Resultsfrom London and Stockholm indicate thata general initiative such as congestion char-ging, even if it does limit traffic volumessomewhat, has little or no effect on noiselevels.

The traffic composition is also a factorin determining noise levels. Heavy vehiclesand motorcycles are noisier than cars.Noisier vehicles produce noise peaks,which may cause annoyance, disturbanceand/or awakening. It may be possible toreduce the number of heavy vehicles on aroad or in an area through planning initia-tives, which move this traffic to less vulne-rable roads and areas, or through city logis-tics initiatives, which concentrate freight ina city on fewer vehicles. Problems of sleepdisturbance may be reduced through night

time bans or charging on trucks and per-haps also motorcycles. However, bans arelikely to move some of the traffic to the day-time and thus may worsen daytime noiselevels and problems of disturbance andannoyance.

Speed reductionsSpeed reductions are a way of reducingtraffic noise, provided that the necessarymeasures do not lead to an increase inaccelerations and decelerations. The effectdepends on the traffic composition, but forboth light and heavy vehicles, the largestreductions are achieved at low speeds. Atspeeds below 50 km/h, noise reductions of2–3 dB LAeq are realistic as a result of 10km/h reductions in actual speeds.

The driving pattern of traffic on a roadinfluences noise levels. Stop-and-go drivingleads to higher noise emissions, because

be general for speed-reducing measures,also including chicanes and miniround-abouts, or they may be specific for thevarious types and layouts of measures. Thisneeds to be clarified.

If dummy humps are to be used, itshould be clarified whether their effect onspeed is permanent or there is a driverhabituation. Chicanes and road narrowingshould be studied further to gather know-ledge on the noise and annoyance effectsof such measures. Especially the use ofvarious forms of overrun areas in chicanesneeds to be studied.

There is a great need for clarifying thenoise and annoyance effect of various lay-outs of junctions, both signalized and non-signalized intersections and roundabouts.Also miniroundabouts should be studiedfurther in relation to the effect on noiseand annoyance. It should also be clarified

whether there is a difference in the effecton speed, noise and annoyance dependingon the construction of miniroundabouts,whether painted, constructed with variouspaving stones, or otherwise constructed.

Calming green waves appear to be a pro-mising measure for securing even drivingpatterns at low speed, and thus also fornoise reduction. The initial results foundin literature merit further surveys to clarifythe potential.

Lars Ellebjerg, Danish Road Institute, [email protected].

For full details on this study, please seehttp://www.roadinstitute.dk and thenpublications (to be published shortlyon the internet).


Possibilities of NoiseReduction through RoadTraffic Flow Management

As part of the EU research pro-ject SILENCE, an extensive lite-rature study of the noise andannoyance effects of variousroad traffic flow measures hasbeen carried out. Below, someof the results are given.

accelerating vehicles make more noisethan vehicles driving at a steady pace.Several surveys have shown that round-abouts lead to less noise than intersectionswith or without signalization. This is to alarge extent because more vehicles canpass without having to come to a completestand-still. Coordinated signalization in theform of calming green waves may also be ameasure to secure more even driving pat-terns. This needs further testing.

Research needs Speed humps and cushions are by far themeasures which have been subject to moststudies. The main research need for thesemeasures is to determine the optimal dis-tance between the measures in order tomaintain an even driving pattern withoutlarge differences in speeds at and betweenthe measures. Such optimal distances may

One way of reducing road traffic noise isto reduce traffic volumes. On minor

roads with low traffic volumes, it may be aneffective measure to move large percenta-ges of traffic to major roads, where trafficvolumes already are high. This could, forexample, be achieved by impedingthrough-traffic or by completely closingroads to through-traffic through physicalmeasures or bans. The use of road humps,chicanes or other measures can also beapplied. Narrow cushions and round-tophumps are preferable from a noise pers-pective.

On major roads, however, reductions intraffic volumes are rarely feasible solutionsto noise problems. Due to the logarithmicnature of the dB scale, large numbers ofvehicles would have to be removed in orderto result in any significant level of noisereduction. A twenty per cent reduction in

traffic results in a 1 dB noise reduction,provided that speed, traffic compositionand driving pattern are unchanged. Resultsfrom London and Stockholm indicate thata general initiative such as congestion char-ging, even if it does limit traffic volumessomewhat, has little or no effect on noiselevels.

The traffic composition is also a factorin determining noise levels. Heavy vehiclesand motorcycles are noisier than cars.Noisier vehicles produce noise peaks,which may cause annoyance, disturbanceand/or awakening. It may be possible toreduce the number of heavy vehicles on aroad or in an area through planning initia-tives, which move this traffic to less vulne-rable roads and areas, or through city logis-tics initiatives, which concentrate freight ina city on fewer vehicles. Problems of sleepdisturbance may be reduced through night

time bans or charging on trucks and per-haps also motorcycles. However, bans arelikely to move some of the traffic to the day-time and thus may worsen daytime noiselevels and problems of disturbance andannoyance.

Speed reductionsSpeed reductions are a way of reducingtraffic noise, provided that the necessarymeasures do not lead to an increase inaccelerations and decelerations. The effectdepends on the traffic composition, but forboth light and heavy vehicles, the largestreductions are achieved at low speeds. Atspeeds below 50 km/h, noise reductions of2–3 dB LAeq are realistic as a result of 10km/h reductions in actual speeds.

The driving pattern of traffic on a roadinfluences noise levels. Stop-and-go drivingleads to higher noise emissions, because

be general for speed-reducing measures,also including chicanes and miniround-abouts, or they may be specific for thevarious types and layouts of measures. Thisneeds to be clarified.

If dummy humps are to be used, itshould be clarified whether their effect onspeed is permanent or there is a driverhabituation. Chicanes and road narrowingshould be studied further to gather know-ledge on the noise and annoyance effectsof such measures. Especially the use ofvarious forms of overrun areas in chicanesneeds to be studied.

There is a great need for clarifying thenoise and annoyance effect of various lay-outs of junctions, both signalized and non-signalized intersections and roundabouts.Also miniroundabouts should be studiedfurther in relation to the effect on noiseand annoyance. It should also be clarified

whether there is a difference in the effecton speed, noise and annoyance dependingon the construction of miniroundabouts,whether painted, constructed with variouspaving stones, or otherwise constructed.

Calming green waves appear to be a pro-mising measure for securing even drivingpatterns at low speed, and thus also fornoise reduction. The initial results foundin literature merit further surveys to clarifythe potential.

Lars Ellebjerg, Danish Road Institute, [email protected].

For full details on this study, please seehttp://www.roadinstitute.dk and thenpublications (to be published shortlyon the internet).

26 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 www.vti.se/nordic

Amphibians and Roads

Most amphibians (frogs, toads andnewts) need water bodies for bree-

ding, whereas during the non-breedingperiod of their life cycle they may live inthe water, at the water's edge or on land.Many species thus migrate seasonally bet-ween different habitat types. In spring,adults migrate from their winter habitats totheir breeding sites which some of themthen leave after breeding to reach their ter-restrial habitat. During summer, after meta-morphosis, juveniles leave their birth pondto migrate to terrestrial habitats. In autumn,some species migrate back to their winterhabitats. Some amphibians will return totheir natal pond year on year, e.g. commonfrog and common toad have been reportedto return to their breeding site even severalyears after its destruction. Other speciesbreed in temporary aquatic ponds.

Amphibians move rather slowly on land,and they easily get killed while attempting tocross roads. The concentration of move-ments towards spawning sites requires speci-fic measures to ensure safe crossing of roads.There are mainly two ways to handle this:• To block the access onto the road to

prevent road kills.• To enable amphibians to safely cross

roads while moving between breedingand non-breeding sites.The best solution is to combine these

two measures; i.e. blocking the access and

When traffic and wildlife have been discussed, traditionally themain issue is about traffic safety and accidents with bigger ani-mals. Still during the last 10–15 years more and more countrieshave become concerned in the fragmentation of natural areasand impacts on habitats and migrations routes also for smallerspecies that have no influence on traffic safety at all, for exampleamphibians.

leading the animals to safe crossing points.In Norway, as in many other countries,

there is a growing awareness for the conser-vation of the amphibians’ different habitatsand their need for safe connections betweenthem. Amphibian crossing points have beenconstructed in several places, and new tun-nels are integrated in coming road schemes.

The amphibian tunnel at SkoklefallAt Skoklefall on the peninsula ofNesodden south of Oslo, a local biologisthas for several years marked the dead toadson the road by painting white circles on theasphalt. The biologist’s children sent a let-ter to the Norwegian Public RoadsAdministration about the high numbers ofdead toads on this road, and it was decidedto establish a safe crossing point in connec-tion with other construction work on thesite. An amphibian specialist was engagedto find the best location for an amphibiantunnel, and to monitor the effect of themeasures taken. The tunnel itself was madeof a 60 cm corrugated steel pipe, with aconcrete sole at the bottom. 170 meters of30 cm high stone kerbs were placed oneach side of the tunnel to lead the amphi-bians towards the tunnel.

The first reports after the spring migra-tion indicate that the kerb stone wall actu-ally leads the amphibians the right way, andthat they are following the scent of others.

The first animals were a little bit reluctantand hesitated to enter the tunnel, but thelater arrivals picked up the scent and wentthrough without hesitation. The autumnmigration was not quite as successful, most-ly because the leading structure has beenless efficient on the “autumn-side” of theroad. Adjustments will therefore be madeto lead the animals in the right direction.The main conclusion is that the amphibiantunnel has had a positive effect in givingthe amphibians a safer crossing of theroad, and fewer animals have been killedduring migration.

ConclusionAmphibians don't necessarily need specialtypes of crossing structures. Culverts desig-ned for a variety of small animals can besuitable for amphibians as well. However,some points are particularly important foramphibians:• Guiding structures leading the animals

to tunnels are particularly importantand have to be fitted very carefully.

• Amphibians are sensitive to drying out,in particular young animals. Long drytunnels are therefore unsuitable, while acombination of functions with a draina-ge channel or a tiny stream can providehumid parts at the edge of the stream.

Bjørn Iuell, NPRAToads moving to their spawning site by safe crossing under the road.

PH

OTO

: S

IRI G

ULD

SETH

, N

PR

A

26 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 www.vti.se/nordic

Amphibians and Roads

Most amphibians (frogs, toads andnewts) need water bodies for bree-

ding, whereas during the non-breedingperiod of their life cycle they may live inthe water, at the water's edge or on land.Many species thus migrate seasonally bet-ween different habitat types. In spring,adults migrate from their winter habitats totheir breeding sites which some of themthen leave after breeding to reach their ter-restrial habitat. During summer, after meta-morphosis, juveniles leave their birth pondto migrate to terrestrial habitats. In autumn,some species migrate back to their winterhabitats. Some amphibians will return totheir natal pond year on year, e.g. commonfrog and common toad have been reportedto return to their breeding site even severalyears after its destruction. Other speciesbreed in temporary aquatic ponds.

Amphibians move rather slowly on land,and they easily get killed while attempting tocross roads. The concentration of move-ments towards spawning sites requires speci-fic measures to ensure safe crossing of roads.There are mainly two ways to handle this:• To block the access onto the road to

prevent road kills.• To enable amphibians to safely cross

roads while moving between breedingand non-breeding sites.The best solution is to combine these

two measures; i.e. blocking the access and

When traffic and wildlife have been discussed, traditionally themain issue is about traffic safety and accidents with bigger ani-mals. Still during the last 10–15 years more and more countrieshave become concerned in the fragmentation of natural areasand impacts on habitats and migrations routes also for smallerspecies that have no influence on traffic safety at all, for exampleamphibians.

leading the animals to safe crossing points.In Norway, as in many other countries,

there is a growing awareness for the conser-vation of the amphibians’ different habitatsand their need for safe connections betweenthem. Amphibian crossing points have beenconstructed in several places, and new tun-nels are integrated in coming road schemes.

The amphibian tunnel at SkoklefallAt Skoklefall on the peninsula ofNesodden south of Oslo, a local biologisthas for several years marked the dead toadson the road by painting white circles on theasphalt. The biologist’s children sent a let-ter to the Norwegian Public RoadsAdministration about the high numbers ofdead toads on this road, and it was decidedto establish a safe crossing point in connec-tion with other construction work on thesite. An amphibian specialist was engagedto find the best location for an amphibiantunnel, and to monitor the effect of themeasures taken. The tunnel itself was madeof a 60 cm corrugated steel pipe, with aconcrete sole at the bottom. 170 meters of30 cm high stone kerbs were placed oneach side of the tunnel to lead the amphi-bians towards the tunnel.

The first reports after the spring migra-tion indicate that the kerb stone wall actu-ally leads the amphibians the right way, andthat they are following the scent of others.

The first animals were a little bit reluctantand hesitated to enter the tunnel, but thelater arrivals picked up the scent and wentthrough without hesitation. The autumnmigration was not quite as successful, most-ly because the leading structure has beenless efficient on the “autumn-side” of theroad. Adjustments will therefore be madeto lead the animals in the right direction.The main conclusion is that the amphibiantunnel has had a positive effect in givingthe amphibians a safer crossing of theroad, and fewer animals have been killedduring migration.

ConclusionAmphibians don't necessarily need specialtypes of crossing structures. Culverts desig-ned for a variety of small animals can besuitable for amphibians as well. However,some points are particularly important foramphibians:• Guiding structures leading the animals

to tunnels are particularly importantand have to be fitted very carefully.

• Amphibians are sensitive to drying out,in particular young animals. Long drytunnels are therefore unsuitable, while acombination of functions with a draina-ge channel or a tiny stream can providehumid parts at the edge of the stream.

Bjørn Iuell, NPRAToads moving to their spawning site by safe crossing under the road.

PH

OTO

: S

IRI G

ULD

SETH

, N

PR

A


More information: http://www.transforum-eu.net/

Contact:

Anu Tuominen, Senior Research Scientist

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland

[email protected]

Jan van der Waard (TRANSFORUM co-ordinator)

Rijkswaterstaat, Centre for Transport and

Navigation (former AVV Transport Research

Centre), The Netherlands

[email protected]

TRANSFORUM – Recommendationson Tools for Policy Impact Appraisal

The policy environment for transport ischanging. Trends like globalisation,

worldwide use of communication technolo-gies, the rising importance of the knowled-ge economy, and high energy prices have amajor impact on Europe and its citizensand this requires initiatives at Europeanlevel. The mid-term review of the EuropeanCommission’s 2001 Transport White Paperhas resulted in several shifts of focus regar-ding policy goals and the implementationof policy instruments. Europe needs tokeep its transport policy-making processtargeted at tackling the challenges. Toolsused for the assessment of transport policyproposals will therefore have to integratethese (and other) emerging trends.

Extensive research has been conductedin the past EU Framework Programs todevelop assessment tools for practitionersand policy-makers to help them in thedevelopment of the concept of sustainablemobility and make it operational.Assessments can consist of very differentelements, varying from the development ofmodels to organising public hearings. Indeveloping transport policy, policy-makersshould ideally be supported by transparentand consistent information based on rese-

Over the last three years the TRANSFORUM project in theEuropean Commission's 6th Framework Program has broughttogether policy-makers, analysts and developers of policy impactappraisal tools to assess the state-of-the-art in transport policyevaluation methods and their ‘Fitness for Purpose’ in the chan-ging policy environment.

arch that is accepted by other policy-makers, stakeholders and researchers.Therefore, to be accepted and effectivelyapplied by practitioners and decision-makers, the tools used need to be checkedagainst factors like scientific consistency,transparency and appropriateness in termsof the needs of their final users.

Over the last three years the TRANSFO-RUM project has brought together policy-makers, analysts and developers of policyimpact appraisal tools to assess the state-of-the-art in transport policy evaluation met-hods and their ‘Fitness for Purpose’ (FFP)in the changing policy environment. TheTRANSFORUM FFP assessment methodcomprised of:1. Project screening process in which selec-

tion in nine different steps takes placeto pinpoint and analyse relevant rese-arch projects.

2. The actual FFP analyses of finished/ongoing research projects based oninformation from the screening processand interaction with researchers, stake-holders and policy makers in the network.

3. Transport researcher/civil servant/policy-maker network building throughEuropean-wide forum meetings.

Thanks to this approach, the project hasresulted in several recommendationsaimed at improving the FFP for future poli-cy impact appraisal. The focus of theserecommendations is on improvements inthe whole chain of transport policy impactappraisal, and they can be considered rele-vant for all those involved in assessing theimpacts of transport policies. The recom-mendations address issues such as defini-tions and indicators used, transport model-ling and supporting transport analysistools, and also include suggestions for furt-her research on these topics. Some of theserecommendations are briefly mentionedbelow.

With regards to definitions and indica-tors, we recommend the use of one com-mon set of indicators for transport policyappraisal and present a first proposal forsuch a set, derived from a systematic analy-sis of European Commission policy objecti-ves. A basic, very important recommenda-tion regarding transport models is that themodels should first and foremost be deve-loped based on the user’s informationneeds. In order to make policy-makers’present and future needs clearer, werecommend that roadmaps for model

Figure 2.Results of aTRANSFORUMbrainstormingsession.

development should be drawn up and refi-ned in joint cooperation by policy-makersand researchers, in order to have a jointand consistent agenda for future researchand development. Based on the assessmentof two decades of EU transport modellingresearch, it is recommended to use theTRANS-TOOLS model development as thestarting point for recommended discus-sions on incorporating multiple-actor userneeds. On the more general issue of trans-port policy appraisal, we recommend that,in order to have more impact on policydevelopment and implementation, theresults of policy research projects shouldbe presented in a form that is simple, con-cise and clearly communicating the keyissues. In relation to transport models, werecommend to enhance the efficiency ofpost-processing in order to make modelbehaviour and results understandable to awider audience. We also recommend thatstakeholders’ participation should be abasic element within European transportresearch projects. Mixing theoretical andpractical knowledge and people (i.e. rese-archers and civil servants) within the rese-

arch projects may give the research resultsa great advantage in their implementationphase. We therefore recommend the esta-blishment of innovation networks targetingat co-operative mutual learning of resear-chers and civil servants as an essential taskfor the future. Certain elements of the met-hodology used in the TRANSFORUM pro-ject, to bring together people from diffe-rent disciplines and regional origins, couldbe applied in this process.

Figure 1. Graphic presentation of theFFP Assessment process used inTRANSFORUM.


More information: http://www.transforum-eu.net/

Contact:

Anu Tuominen, Senior Research Scientist

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland

[email protected]

Jan van der Waard (TRANSFORUM co-ordinator)

Rijkswaterstaat, Centre for Transport and

Navigation (former AVV Transport Research

Centre), The Netherlands

[email protected]

TRANSFORUM – Recommendationson Tools for Policy Impact Appraisal

The policy environment for transport ischanging. Trends like globalisation,

worldwide use of communication technolo-gies, the rising importance of the knowled-ge economy, and high energy prices have amajor impact on Europe and its citizensand this requires initiatives at Europeanlevel. The mid-term review of the EuropeanCommission’s 2001 Transport White Paperhas resulted in several shifts of focus regar-ding policy goals and the implementationof policy instruments. Europe needs tokeep its transport policy-making processtargeted at tackling the challenges. Toolsused for the assessment of transport policyproposals will therefore have to integratethese (and other) emerging trends.

Extensive research has been conductedin the past EU Framework Programs todevelop assessment tools for practitionersand policy-makers to help them in thedevelopment of the concept of sustainablemobility and make it operational.Assessments can consist of very differentelements, varying from the development ofmodels to organising public hearings. Indeveloping transport policy, policy-makersshould ideally be supported by transparentand consistent information based on rese-

Over the last three years the TRANSFORUM project in theEuropean Commission's 6th Framework Program has broughttogether policy-makers, analysts and developers of policy impactappraisal tools to assess the state-of-the-art in transport policyevaluation methods and their ‘Fitness for Purpose’ in the chan-ging policy environment.

arch that is accepted by other policy-makers, stakeholders and researchers.Therefore, to be accepted and effectivelyapplied by practitioners and decision-makers, the tools used need to be checkedagainst factors like scientific consistency,transparency and appropriateness in termsof the needs of their final users.

Over the last three years the TRANSFO-RUM project has brought together policy-makers, analysts and developers of policyimpact appraisal tools to assess the state-of-the-art in transport policy evaluation met-hods and their ‘Fitness for Purpose’ (FFP)in the changing policy environment. TheTRANSFORUM FFP assessment methodcomprised of:1. Project screening process in which selec-

tion in nine different steps takes placeto pinpoint and analyse relevant rese-arch projects.

2. The actual FFP analyses of finished/ongoing research projects based oninformation from the screening processand interaction with researchers, stake-holders and policy makers in the network.

3. Transport researcher/civil servant/policy-maker network building throughEuropean-wide forum meetings.

Thanks to this approach, the project hasresulted in several recommendationsaimed at improving the FFP for future poli-cy impact appraisal. The focus of theserecommendations is on improvements inthe whole chain of transport policy impactappraisal, and they can be considered rele-vant for all those involved in assessing theimpacts of transport policies. The recom-mendations address issues such as defini-tions and indicators used, transport model-ling and supporting transport analysistools, and also include suggestions for furt-her research on these topics. Some of theserecommendations are briefly mentionedbelow.

With regards to definitions and indica-tors, we recommend the use of one com-mon set of indicators for transport policyappraisal and present a first proposal forsuch a set, derived from a systematic analy-sis of European Commission policy objecti-ves. A basic, very important recommenda-tion regarding transport models is that themodels should first and foremost be deve-loped based on the user’s informationneeds. In order to make policy-makers’present and future needs clearer, werecommend that roadmaps for model

Figure 2.Results of aTRANSFORUMbrainstormingsession.

development should be drawn up and refi-ned in joint cooperation by policy-makersand researchers, in order to have a jointand consistent agenda for future researchand development. Based on the assessmentof two decades of EU transport modellingresearch, it is recommended to use theTRANS-TOOLS model development as thestarting point for recommended discus-sions on incorporating multiple-actor userneeds. On the more general issue of trans-port policy appraisal, we recommend that,in order to have more impact on policydevelopment and implementation, theresults of policy research projects shouldbe presented in a form that is simple, con-cise and clearly communicating the keyissues. In relation to transport models, werecommend to enhance the efficiency ofpost-processing in order to make modelbehaviour and results understandable to awider audience. We also recommend thatstakeholders’ participation should be abasic element within European transportresearch projects. Mixing theoretical andpractical knowledge and people (i.e. rese-archers and civil servants) within the rese-

arch projects may give the research resultsa great advantage in their implementationphase. We therefore recommend the esta-blishment of innovation networks targetingat co-operative mutual learning of resear-chers and civil servants as an essential taskfor the future. Certain elements of the met-hodology used in the TRANSFORUM pro-ject, to bring together people from diffe-rent disciplines and regional origins, couldbe applied in this process.

Figure 1. Graphic presentation of theFFP Assessment process used inTRANSFORUM.


Contact: Helgi Jóhannesson,

Icelandic Road Administration

[email protected]

ding and erosion. The defense line isshown in Figure 2. Figure 2 also shows thepresent location of the road and the futureroad alignment. The location of the defen-ce line is based on the assumption that theroad alignment east of the river will bechanged.

The total cost of sea defences atBreidamerkursandur is of the order of 13million USD (9,4 million EUR) and it isexpected that these defences will be suffici-ent for the next 50 years or until about2050. The sea defences will be built gradu-ally and it is expected that the above costwill be more or less evenly distributed overthe 50 year period. Looking further aheadthan 50 years it seems possible that seadefences may be a permanent solution tothe problem of maintaining a secure roadacross Breidamerkursandur. This conclu-sion is partly based on the assumption thatsubstantial land uplift will occur in thefuture due to reduced ice volume ofVatnajökull due to the warming climate.

A Thin Line between a Rock and a Hard PlaceSecuring the main road from coastal erosion

The location of the study area withinIceland is shown in Figure 1. Breida-

merkurjökull reached its maximum extentin historical times about 1890 and has sincethen been retreating. From 1890 to 2003the glacier has retreated about 4,7 km, lea-ving behind a lagoon, Jökulsárlón, the areaof which was 17,0 km2 in 2003. Radio echo-soundings of Breidamerkurjökull showthat under the glacier (north ofJökulsárlón) there is a 2 to 4 km wide and20 km long fjord the bottom of which is asmuch as 300 m below sea level.

After the glacier started to retreat, andJökulsárlón emerged, the sediment loadcarried by Jökulsá to the sea changed frombeing about 14 million m3/year to be neg-ligible. The reason for this is that all thesediment load carried by the river is nowtrapped by Jökulsárlón. The shape of thecoast in the beginning of the twentieth cen-tury was influenced by the fact that Jökulsácarried substantial amount of sediment tothe sea (Figure 2). The coast had advan-ced until littoral currents were able tocarry the sediment load of the river to botheast and west of the river outlet. After thesediment load of the river was reduced the

shape of the shoreline was not in equilibri-um with the currents along the coast. Thecurrents are still eroding sediment fromthe shore but no sediment is added to thecoast by the river. Sediment is, therefore,continuously lost from the coast which iseroding towards a new equilibrium.

In Figure 2 the shoreline at the Jökulsáriver outlet is shown for the years 1904,1945, 1960, 1982, 1989 and 1997. The sho-reline erosion, as measured along sectionnumber 9, has been 765 m in 99 years or7.7 m/year on average. Assuming that theerosion started in 1930 when Jökulsárlónstarted to emerge, the erosion rate was atthe highest 20.7 m/year for the period1930-1945, but is 5.5 m/year for the period1982-2003. It can, therefore, be concludedthat the erosion is slowing down.

The impact of future land uplift aroundVatnajökull on coastal erosionThe glaciers in Iceland retreated duringthe twentieth century and it has been esti-mated that the Vatnajökull ice cap reducedby 182 km3 from 1890 to 1978. Currentuplift rates at the edge of Vatnajökull areabout 15 mm/year. It has been estimated

During the twentieth century there has been a substantial coas-tal erosion on Breidamerkursandur near the bridge acrossJökulsá river. From 1904 to 2003 the erosion has been 770 mor about 8 meters in a year. This erosion threatens the safety ofthe road (Route One) across Breidamerkursandur and two power-lines. Since 1990 the Icelandic Road Administration has initiatedvarious research projects in the area, the aim being to maintaina secure road across Breidamerkursandur. Herein, this research isdescribed, the focus being on the possibility of securing the roadby defending the coast.

that the southern part of Vatnajökull icecap may be reduced by about 500 km3 from2000 to 2100 due to a global warming rateof 2.25˚C/100yr. It is therefore not unrea-sonable to expect that the total reductionof Vatnajökull ice cap may be about 1000km3 from 2000 to 2100. This reduction ofice volume will influence the uplift rateswhich may be as high as 40 mm/year in2050, with total uplift at the ice edge of 4 mfrom 2000 to 2100.

The impact of land uplift should havethe same effect on the coast as lowering thesea-level. This means that the future landuplift around Vatnajökull may cause theerosion rate at Breidamerkursandur tolower by as much as 3 m/year by the year2050.

Coastal protectionIn 2003 the banks of Jökulsá river were pro-tected following a substantial erosion ofthe river banks due to a flood in the river inOctober 2002. In conjunction with thisproject a defense line for the road acrossBreidamerkursandur was defined. Thedefence line is the line where sea defenseswill be built in due time to prevent sea floo-

Figure 3. Bridge across Jökulsá river.In the background there is Jökulsárlónand Breidamerkurjökull.

Figure 2. Shoreline changes atBreidamerkursandur. Also shownis the present road/powerlineand a proposed new road/power-line alignment east of Jökulsá.

Figure 1. Location of the studyarea within Iceland. Glaciers arewhite. The picture also shows theIcelandic road system.

Vatnajökull

Study area


Contact: Helgi Jóhannesson,

Icelandic Road Administration

[email protected]

ding and erosion. The defense line isshown in Figure 2. Figure 2 also shows thepresent location of the road and the futureroad alignment. The location of the defen-ce line is based on the assumption that theroad alignment east of the river will bechanged.

The total cost of sea defences atBreidamerkursandur is of the order of 13million USD (9,4 million EUR) and it isexpected that these defences will be suffici-ent for the next 50 years or until about2050. The sea defences will be built gradu-ally and it is expected that the above costwill be more or less evenly distributed overthe 50 year period. Looking further aheadthan 50 years it seems possible that seadefences may be a permanent solution tothe problem of maintaining a secure roadacross Breidamerkursandur. This conclu-sion is partly based on the assumption thatsubstantial land uplift will occur in thefuture due to reduced ice volume ofVatnajökull due to the warming climate.

A Thin Line between a Rock and a Hard PlaceSecuring the main road from coastal erosion

The location of the study area withinIceland is shown in Figure 1. Breida-

merkurjökull reached its maximum extentin historical times about 1890 and has sincethen been retreating. From 1890 to 2003the glacier has retreated about 4,7 km, lea-ving behind a lagoon, Jökulsárlón, the areaof which was 17,0 km2 in 2003. Radio echo-soundings of Breidamerkurjökull showthat under the glacier (north ofJökulsárlón) there is a 2 to 4 km wide and20 km long fjord the bottom of which is asmuch as 300 m below sea level.

After the glacier started to retreat, andJökulsárlón emerged, the sediment loadcarried by Jökulsá to the sea changed frombeing about 14 million m3/year to be neg-ligible. The reason for this is that all thesediment load carried by the river is nowtrapped by Jökulsárlón. The shape of thecoast in the beginning of the twentieth cen-tury was influenced by the fact that Jökulsácarried substantial amount of sediment tothe sea (Figure 2). The coast had advan-ced until littoral currents were able tocarry the sediment load of the river to botheast and west of the river outlet. After thesediment load of the river was reduced the

shape of the shoreline was not in equilibri-um with the currents along the coast. Thecurrents are still eroding sediment fromthe shore but no sediment is added to thecoast by the river. Sediment is, therefore,continuously lost from the coast which iseroding towards a new equilibrium.

In Figure 2 the shoreline at the Jökulsáriver outlet is shown for the years 1904,1945, 1960, 1982, 1989 and 1997. The sho-reline erosion, as measured along sectionnumber 9, has been 765 m in 99 years or7.7 m/year on average. Assuming that theerosion started in 1930 when Jökulsárlónstarted to emerge, the erosion rate was atthe highest 20.7 m/year for the period1930-1945, but is 5.5 m/year for the period1982-2003. It can, therefore, be concludedthat the erosion is slowing down.

The impact of future land uplift aroundVatnajökull on coastal erosionThe glaciers in Iceland retreated duringthe twentieth century and it has been esti-mated that the Vatnajökull ice cap reducedby 182 km3 from 1890 to 1978. Currentuplift rates at the edge of Vatnajökull areabout 15 mm/year. It has been estimated

During the twentieth century there has been a substantial coas-tal erosion on Breidamerkursandur near the bridge acrossJökulsá river. From 1904 to 2003 the erosion has been 770 mor about 8 meters in a year. This erosion threatens the safety ofthe road (Route One) across Breidamerkursandur and two power-lines. Since 1990 the Icelandic Road Administration has initiatedvarious research projects in the area, the aim being to maintaina secure road across Breidamerkursandur. Herein, this research isdescribed, the focus being on the possibility of securing the roadby defending the coast.

that the southern part of Vatnajökull icecap may be reduced by about 500 km3 from2000 to 2100 due to a global warming rateof 2.25˚C/100yr. It is therefore not unrea-sonable to expect that the total reductionof Vatnajökull ice cap may be about 1000km3 from 2000 to 2100. This reduction ofice volume will influence the uplift rateswhich may be as high as 40 mm/year in2050, with total uplift at the ice edge of 4 mfrom 2000 to 2100.

The impact of land uplift should havethe same effect on the coast as lowering thesea-level. This means that the future landuplift around Vatnajökull may cause theerosion rate at Breidamerkursandur tolower by as much as 3 m/year by the year2050.

Coastal protectionIn 2003 the banks of Jökulsá river were pro-tected following a substantial erosion ofthe river banks due to a flood in the river inOctober 2002. In conjunction with thisproject a defense line for the road acrossBreidamerkursandur was defined. Thedefence line is the line where sea defenseswill be built in due time to prevent sea floo-

Figure 3. Bridge across Jökulsá river.In the background there is Jökulsárlónand Breidamerkurjökull.

Figure 2. Shoreline changes atBreidamerkursandur. Also shownis the present road/powerlineand a proposed new road/power-line alignment east of Jökulsá.

Figure 1. Location of the studyarea within Iceland. Glaciers arewhite. The picture also shows theIcelandic road system.

Vatnajökull

Study area


Traffic Safety and Noise Reducing Thin Layers

One of the projects in the DRI-DWWnoise abatement program is dedicated

to development and testing of noise redu-cing thin pavements for highway applica-tion which have a high long-time noisereducing effect and at the same time arealso durable from a structural point of view.But by doing this, it is important not to jeo-pardize other functionalities like trafficsafety etc. The structure of the surface tex-ture can have an influence on the pave-ments in relation to traffic safety.

Thin noise reducing pavements have anopen surface structure in order to reducethe noise generated from air pumping andat the same time they have a smooth evensurface in order to reduce the vibrationsgenerated in the tyre which also inducestyre/road noise. Thin noise reducing pave-ments are often characterised by: 1. The use of a small maximum aggregate

size2. The use of cubic aggregate3. Good compaction4. High built-in air voids5. The pavement layers are thin as the

maximum aggregate size is small.It is generally not considered that there

is a correlation between skid resistance andtyre-road noise. Skid resistance is related

both to the pavements’ micro and macro-texture, whereas noise is mainly related tomacro-texture. The objective was to investi-gate the following two hypotheses regar-ding noise reducing thin layers:1. The pavements have a good skid resi-

stance under wet conditions when theyare new.

2. The skid resistance of the pavement willnot be significantly reduced due to poli-shing of the aggregate or bleeding.The skid resistance of the Danish test

sections has been measured by the ROARdevice operated by DRI. On the back-ground of the available Danish data andthe analyses carried out the following ten-dencies can be seen:1. All pavements included in the test show

a skid resistance that fulfils the require-ments set by the Danish Road standards.

2. Generally, noise reducing thin layers havea high skid resistance when they are new.

3. There is a little reduction in the skidresistance as pavements (dense referen-ce pavements as well as noise reducingthin layer pavements) get older.

4. Noise reducing thin layer pavements hasa skid resistance that is marginally hig-her than the dense reference pavementin Denmark.

The Danish Road Institute (DRI) and the Road and HydraulicEngineering Institute in the Netherlands (DWW) co-operate in theDRI-DWW noise abatement program which is a part of the DutchNoise Innovation Program on Road Traffic (the IPG program).

5. No correlation has been found betweenthe macro texture (MPD) and skid re-sistance.

6. There seems to be a general tendencythat there is an increase in the skid re-sistance if the maximum aggregate sizeis reduced.

7. The inclusion of oversized aggregatesdid not have influence on the skid resis-tance.DRI has carried out an international

literature study on noise reducing thin lay-ers. On traffic safety issues the main fin-dings were that measurements generallyshow that thin noise reducing layers have ahigh skid resistance. No special informa-tion about the performance of thin layersduring winter conditions has been found.DWW and DRI have also conducted a jointstudy tour to France in order to collectinformation. The main findings on trafficsafety issues in France were:1. Thin layer pavements have an excellent

skid resistance. 2. Skid resistance is better for thin pave-

ments than for ordinary dense asphaltconcrete. This is due to the pavementtexture.

3. It is found that the skid resistanceincreases with decreasing maximum

aggregate size. An explanation could bethat the size of contact point betweenthe pavement and the tyre is increasedwith the smaller texture sizes. Hence,the results show that pavements with 6mm aggregate show a better skid resis-tance than pavements with 10 mmaggregate.

4. The polished stone value of the pave-ments is good, because the aggregate isof high quality.

5. The skid resistance can be improved onthe newly laid thin layers by applyingsand during compaction.

6. The skid resistance performance is verygood.

7. It was considered that the reduction ofsplash and spray by using 10 mm aggre-gate is better than by using 6 mm aggre-gate.

Hans Bendtsen, Danish Road Directorate,Danish Road Institute, [email protected].

PHOTO HANS BENDTSEN

Further details on this work can befound on http://www.vejdirektoratet.dk/publikationer/VInot052/index.htm.



Traffic Safety and Noise Reducing Thin Layers

One of the projects in the DRI-DWWnoise abatement program is dedicated

to development and testing of noise redu-cing thin pavements for highway applica-tion which have a high long-time noisereducing effect and at the same time arealso durable from a structural point of view.But by doing this, it is important not to jeo-pardize other functionalities like trafficsafety etc. The structure of the surface tex-ture can have an influence on the pave-ments in relation to traffic safety.

Thin noise reducing pavements have anopen surface structure in order to reducethe noise generated from air pumping andat the same time they have a smooth evensurface in order to reduce the vibrationsgenerated in the tyre which also inducestyre/road noise. Thin noise reducing pave-ments are often characterised by: 1. The use of a small maximum aggregate

size2. The use of cubic aggregate3. Good compaction4. High built-in air voids5. The pavement layers are thin as the

maximum aggregate size is small.It is generally not considered that there

is a correlation between skid resistance andtyre-road noise. Skid resistance is related

both to the pavements’ micro and macro-texture, whereas noise is mainly related tomacro-texture. The objective was to investi-gate the following two hypotheses regar-ding noise reducing thin layers:1. The pavements have a good skid resi-

stance under wet conditions when theyare new.

2. The skid resistance of the pavement willnot be significantly reduced due to poli-shing of the aggregate or bleeding.The skid resistance of the Danish test

sections has been measured by the ROARdevice operated by DRI. On the back-ground of the available Danish data andthe analyses carried out the following ten-dencies can be seen:1. All pavements included in the test show

a skid resistance that fulfils the require-ments set by the Danish Road standards.

2. Generally, noise reducing thin layers havea high skid resistance when they are new.

3. There is a little reduction in the skidresistance as pavements (dense referen-ce pavements as well as noise reducingthin layer pavements) get older.

4. Noise reducing thin layer pavements hasa skid resistance that is marginally hig-her than the dense reference pavementin Denmark.

The Danish Road Institute (DRI) and the Road and HydraulicEngineering Institute in the Netherlands (DWW) co-operate in theDRI-DWW noise abatement program which is a part of the DutchNoise Innovation Program on Road Traffic (the IPG program).

5. No correlation has been found betweenthe macro texture (MPD) and skid re-sistance.

6. There seems to be a general tendencythat there is an increase in the skid re-sistance if the maximum aggregate sizeis reduced.

7. The inclusion of oversized aggregatesdid not have influence on the skid resis-tance.DRI has carried out an international

literature study on noise reducing thin lay-ers. On traffic safety issues the main fin-dings were that measurements generallyshow that thin noise reducing layers have ahigh skid resistance. No special informa-tion about the performance of thin layersduring winter conditions has been found.DWW and DRI have also conducted a jointstudy tour to France in order to collectinformation. The main findings on trafficsafety issues in France were:1. Thin layer pavements have an excellent

skid resistance. 2. Skid resistance is better for thin pave-

ments than for ordinary dense asphaltconcrete. This is due to the pavementtexture.

3. It is found that the skid resistanceincreases with decreasing maximum

aggregate size. An explanation could bethat the size of contact point betweenthe pavement and the tyre is increasedwith the smaller texture sizes. Hence,the results show that pavements with 6mm aggregate show a better skid resis-tance than pavements with 10 mmaggregate.

4. The polished stone value of the pave-ments is good, because the aggregate isof high quality.

5. The skid resistance can be improved onthe newly laid thin layers by applyingsand during compaction.

6. The skid resistance performance is verygood.

7. It was considered that the reduction ofsplash and spray by using 10 mm aggre-gate is better than by using 6 mm aggre-gate.

Hans Bendtsen, Danish Road Directorate,Danish Road Institute, [email protected].

PHOTO HANS BENDTSEN

Further details on this work can befound on http://www.vejdirektoratet.dk/publikationer/VInot052/index.htm.


NORDIC NO. 3 2007 | 35www.vti.se/nordic34 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007

ANNOTATED REPORTS

Optimized Thin Layers forHighways

Title: Optimized thin layers for highways

Author: Hans Bendtsen, Bent Andersen, Sigurd

Thomsen

Series: Report 153

Language: English

Available at: www.nordicroads.com/reports,

name: Thin Layers for Highways

There is a great need for durable noisereducing pavements for highways. Theconcept for noise reduction is to create apavement texture, with big cavities at thepavement surface in order to reduce thenoise generated from air pumping, andensuring a smooth surface so noise genera-ted by vibration of the tyres will not beincreased. Open textured pavements areopen only at the upper part and are notexpected to need special winter mainte-nance. European experiences with thin lay-ers have been further developed. Four dif-ferent pavement concepts are used: Opengraded asphalt concrete (DAC-open),Stone Mastics Asphalt (SMA), a thin layerconstructed as an UTLAC (Ultra ThinLayer Asphalt Concrete), and semi porouspavement (PAC). In 2006, ten optimizedthin layers were laid on a Danish highwaynear Herning. Maximum aggregate sizeswere in the range of 6 to 8 mm. DenseAsphalt Concrete with 11 mm maximumaggregate size is a reference pavement.

Traffic Management and Noise

Title: Traffic management and noise

Author: Lars Ellebjerg, Hans Bendtsen

Series: Report 155

Language: English


name: Traffic Management and Noise

As part of the EU research project SILEN-CE, an extensive literature study of thenoise and annoyance effects of variousroad traffic flow measures has been carriedout. For traffic calming as a whole, noisereduction potentials of up to 4 dB LAeq and

Research Directions for FutureTransport Service Assessments

Title: Research directions for future transport ser-

vice assessments

Author: Anu Tuominen, Toni Ahlqvist, Pirkko Rämä,

Marja Rosenberg & Jukka Räsänen

Series: VTT Research Notes 2390

Language: Finnish with English abstract


name: Future Transport

Ex ante and ex post assessments have longbeen standard procedure for public bodiesinvolved in developing the transport sys-tem. The range of assessment methods iswide, including e.g. theoretical appraisals,simulations, empirical measurements, etc.However, in all cases the question is, “Howwell does this scheme or strategy meet theset objectives?”.

Currently, new technology brought intothe transport system is changing the natureof schemes, strategies or measures and therole of stakeholders within the system. Inthe ubiquitous society of the future, it isargued that the functioning of the trans-port system will be based on mobile, flex-ible and personalized Information andCommunication Technology, ICT, services.This development will have some impacton how people move and work. The fieldof transport policy and management isexpanding from the macro-scale infrastruc-tural level towards the micro-scale end-userlevel. In this context, a concept called“technology service” will become a crucial-ly important tool for understanding thedynamics between the transport systemand end-users. Technology service is a flex-ible and tailored combination of technolo-gies and services that takes into accountthe travelling or transportation preferen-ces, needs and expectations of end-users ofthe transport system. The emergence of tai-lored technology services brings new chal-lenges to decision makers, businesses, andother societal actors. Consequently, theroles of public and private parties in the

transport system will intermingle in diffe-rent ways, giving rise to new businessmodels and operational practices.

A Finnish study “Research directions forfuture transport service assessments” pre-sents a view of transport system technologyservices in the future and, even moreimportantly, the assessment knowledgeneeded for their development and monito-ring. The results are presented in the formof four road maps: networking technolo-gies, real time information-based interacti-ve systems, and service packaging. Thefourth, the meta-roadmap, serves as a rese-arch umbrella under which the more detai-led thematic roadmaps are presented. Theroad maps provide three complementaryperspectives of the development of trans-port system technology services: Net-working technologies will create settingsfor the service development; real-timeinformation-based interactive systems willoffer the information produced by newtechnologies in a format custom-built forend users; and service packaging will helpimplement necessary, user-friendly techno-logy services.

The study revealed a need to produceassessment knowledge simultaneously,from various key perspectives and through-out the transport service innovation pro-cesses. Important continuous assessment

themes include at least societal impactassessments (policy analyses), user-centreddesign and various assessments regardingservice demand and market foresight aswell as business models.

Experimental AutomaticSlipperiness Information SystemFound Promising in Finland

Title: Trial for slipperiness risk forecast service.

Follow-up research

Author: Mikko Malmivuo

Series: Finnra Reports 41/2007



name: Slipperiness Risk

Between 1 February and 20 April 2007 theFinnish Road Administration’s Internetpages included a new experimental forecastservice called “Kelipilotti” (Road WeatherPilot). The service automatically generatedevery hour slipperiness forecasts for the roadbetween Turku and Pori, which had beendivided into 11 stretches, each of averagelength of 12 km. The service included threeindividual forecasts for each road stretch,the first one relating to the first 2 hours, thesecond to hours 2–4, and the third to hours4–6. The system also gave the causes of slip-periness, which could be freezing during

rain, slipperiness caused by snow, wet roadsurface freezing and frost development.

The experimental period was comparedwith the traditional 6-hour road weatherforecast, which is given by road weatherofficers and where typical road stretchesare about 50 km. During the experimentalperiod 21 difficult road weather situationswere identified; both systems forecast themwith roughly the same success rate.

Kelipilotti generated a number of slippe-riness warnings that only applied to one par-ticular stretch of road, which can be inter-preted as the program utilising the divisionof road stretches quite efficiently. In particu-lar, towards the end of the winter, Kelipilottigenerated more warnings than the traditio-nal 6-hour road weather forecast, probablybecause the pilot did not have access toinformation about winter maintenance.

Based on interviews and Internet feed-back, it seemed that road weather profes-sionals (road weather officers, ploughingpersonnel etc.) where more scepticaltowards the new system, whereas averageroad users found it very helpful.

The conclusions state that Kelipilottiworked relatively well in relation to theobjectives set for the system, and the studyrecommends that Kelipilotti developmentis continued along the current lines.

7 dB LAmax have been found. The effect onnoise as well as on annoyance is highlydependent on traffic composition andspeed, road layout and the use of individu-al measures such as road humps, chicanes,gateways, and miniroundabouts. Othermeasures included in the study are rumbledevices, junction layout, speed reductionsusing static and variable speed signs, auto-matic traffic control, congestion charging,parking information systems, city logisticsand nighttime ban on trucks. Most of themeasures need further studies if firmconclusions are to be drawn regarding thenoise and annoyance effects; only humpsand speed cushions have been studiedextensively regarding noise and annoyance.P

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NORDIC NO. 3 2007 | 35www.vti.se/nordic34 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007

ANNOTATED REPORTS

Optimized Thin Layers forHighways

Title: Optimized thin layers for highways

Author: Hans Bendtsen, Bent Andersen, Sigurd

Thomsen

Series: Report 153

Language: English


name: Thin Layers for Highways

There is a great need for durable noisereducing pavements for highways. Theconcept for noise reduction is to create apavement texture, with big cavities at thepavement surface in order to reduce thenoise generated from air pumping, andensuring a smooth surface so noise genera-ted by vibration of the tyres will not beincreased. Open textured pavements areopen only at the upper part and are notexpected to need special winter mainte-nance. European experiences with thin lay-ers have been further developed. Four dif-ferent pavement concepts are used: Opengraded asphalt concrete (DAC-open),Stone Mastics Asphalt (SMA), a thin layerconstructed as an UTLAC (Ultra ThinLayer Asphalt Concrete), and semi porouspavement (PAC). In 2006, ten optimizedthin layers were laid on a Danish highwaynear Herning. Maximum aggregate sizeswere in the range of 6 to 8 mm. DenseAsphalt Concrete with 11 mm maximumaggregate size is a reference pavement.

Traffic Management and Noise

Title: Traffic management and noise

Author: Lars Ellebjerg, Hans Bendtsen

Series: Report 155

Language: English


name: Traffic Management and Noise

As part of the EU research project SILEN-CE, an extensive literature study of thenoise and annoyance effects of variousroad traffic flow measures has been carriedout. For traffic calming as a whole, noisereduction potentials of up to 4 dB LAeq and

Research Directions for FutureTransport Service Assessments

Title: Research directions for future transport ser-

vice assessments

Author: Anu Tuominen, Toni Ahlqvist, Pirkko Rämä,

Marja Rosenberg & Jukka Räsänen

Series: VTT Research Notes 2390



name: Future Transport

Ex ante and ex post assessments have longbeen standard procedure for public bodiesinvolved in developing the transport sys-tem. The range of assessment methods iswide, including e.g. theoretical appraisals,simulations, empirical measurements, etc.However, in all cases the question is, “Howwell does this scheme or strategy meet theset objectives?”.

Currently, new technology brought intothe transport system is changing the natureof schemes, strategies or measures and therole of stakeholders within the system. Inthe ubiquitous society of the future, it isargued that the functioning of the trans-port system will be based on mobile, flex-ible and personalized Information andCommunication Technology, ICT, services.This development will have some impacton how people move and work. The fieldof transport policy and management isexpanding from the macro-scale infrastruc-tural level towards the micro-scale end-userlevel. In this context, a concept called“technology service” will become a crucial-ly important tool for understanding thedynamics between the transport systemand end-users. Technology service is a flex-ible and tailored combination of technolo-gies and services that takes into accountthe travelling or transportation preferen-ces, needs and expectations of end-users ofthe transport system. The emergence of tai-lored technology services brings new chal-lenges to decision makers, businesses, andother societal actors. Consequently, theroles of public and private parties in the

transport system will intermingle in diffe-rent ways, giving rise to new businessmodels and operational practices.

A Finnish study “Research directions forfuture transport service assessments” pre-sents a view of transport system technologyservices in the future and, even moreimportantly, the assessment knowledgeneeded for their development and monito-ring. The results are presented in the formof four road maps: networking technolo-gies, real time information-based interacti-ve systems, and service packaging. Thefourth, the meta-roadmap, serves as a rese-arch umbrella under which the more detai-led thematic roadmaps are presented. Theroad maps provide three complementaryperspectives of the development of trans-port system technology services: Net-working technologies will create settingsfor the service development; real-timeinformation-based interactive systems willoffer the information produced by newtechnologies in a format custom-built forend users; and service packaging will helpimplement necessary, user-friendly techno-logy services.

The study revealed a need to produceassessment knowledge simultaneously,from various key perspectives and through-out the transport service innovation pro-cesses. Important continuous assessment

themes include at least societal impactassessments (policy analyses), user-centreddesign and various assessments regardingservice demand and market foresight aswell as business models.

Experimental AutomaticSlipperiness Information SystemFound Promising in Finland

Title: Trial for slipperiness risk forecast service.

Follow-up research

Author: Mikko Malmivuo

Series: Finnra Reports 41/2007



name: Slipperiness Risk

Between 1 February and 20 April 2007 theFinnish Road Administration’s Internetpages included a new experimental forecastservice called “Kelipilotti” (Road WeatherPilot). The service automatically generatedevery hour slipperiness forecasts for the roadbetween Turku and Pori, which had beendivided into 11 stretches, each of averagelength of 12 km. The service included threeindividual forecasts for each road stretch,the first one relating to the first 2 hours, thesecond to hours 2–4, and the third to hours4–6. The system also gave the causes of slip-periness, which could be freezing during

rain, slipperiness caused by snow, wet roadsurface freezing and frost development.

The experimental period was comparedwith the traditional 6-hour road weatherforecast, which is given by road weatherofficers and where typical road stretchesare about 50 km. During the experimentalperiod 21 difficult road weather situationswere identified; both systems forecast themwith roughly the same success rate.

Kelipilotti generated a number of slippe-riness warnings that only applied to one par-ticular stretch of road, which can be inter-preted as the program utilising the divisionof road stretches quite efficiently. In particu-lar, towards the end of the winter, Kelipilottigenerated more warnings than the traditio-nal 6-hour road weather forecast, probablybecause the pilot did not have access toinformation about winter maintenance.

Based on interviews and Internet feed-back, it seemed that road weather profes-sionals (road weather officers, ploughingpersonnel etc.) where more scepticaltowards the new system, whereas averageroad users found it very helpful.

The conclusions state that Kelipilottiworked relatively well in relation to theobjectives set for the system, and the studyrecommends that Kelipilotti developmentis continued along the current lines.

7 dB LAmax have been found. The effect onnoise as well as on annoyance is highlydependent on traffic composition andspeed, road layout and the use of individu-al measures such as road humps, chicanes,gateways, and miniroundabouts. Othermeasures included in the study are rumbledevices, junction layout, speed reductionsusing static and variable speed signs, auto-matic traffic control, congestion charging,parking information systems, city logisticsand nighttime ban on trucks. Most of themeasures need further studies if firmconclusions are to be drawn regarding thenoise and annoyance effects; only humpsand speed cushions have been studiedextensively regarding noise and annoyance.P

HO

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PH

OTO

S.C

OM

PH

OTO

: PH

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ANNOTATED REPORTSANNOTATED REPORTS

Evaluation of Swedish TrialProgramme with Alcohol IgnitionInterlock

Title: Evaluation of the trial with an alcohol igni-

tion interlock programme in Sweden

Author: Susanne Nordbakke, Terje Assum, Knut S.

Eriksen and Tonje Grunnan

Series: TØI report no: 905/2007

Language: Norwegien with english summery


Name: Alcohol Ignition Interlock

The trial with an alcohol ignition interlockprogramme commenced in 1999 in threeSwedish counties. In 2003 the trial wasextended to the whole country. The purpo-se of the project has been an independentevaluation of the trial.

Only 11 per cent of the drink driversparticipated in the programme, and onlyhalf of these completed the two-year pro-gramme. The trial is successful in terms oflasting effects on the rate of DWI (drivingwhile impaired) offences and on the rateof traffic accidents among participants whohave regained their licence. Furthermore,a cost-benefit analysis shows that the pro-gramme is cost-effective. The conclusion isthat the program should be made perma-nent. A permanent programme should besimpler and more flexible to increase theparticipation and completion rates.

Effects of StrengtheningEmployees’ Rights in CompetitiveTendering

Title: Economical and administrative effects of

strengthening employees’ rights in public transport

Author: Susanne Oddgeir Osland and Merethe

Dotterud Leiren




name: Employees’ rights

In this project we study the effects of intro-ducing employees’ rights in the event oftransfer of undertakings (TU) in competi-tive tendering of public transport services.

excessive employees, and increased costs ofeducation because of, i.e. new material.The Public Transport Authority will experi-ence increased administrative costs due tocollection of information. This will, however,amount to a marginal part of the administra-tive costs. More important are increasedcosts due to bidders’ potentially rising costs.

The Mobilization ofCommunication

Title: The Mobilization of communication

Author: Mattias Gripsrud




name: Mobilization of Communication

This report examines the interplay betweenmobility, transport and the use ofInformation and Communication Tech-nology (ICT). The report identifies threeimportant strands of research – withintransportation, ICT and urban geography– that have examined this interplay, andhighlights relevant literature within thesetraditions. The diffusion of mobile ICTand possibilities of ubiquitous communica-

tion has partly rendered the original substi-tution thesis obsolete. ICT and transportare primarily used as complementarymodes of communication. The reportconcludes by addressing some furtherfields of research.

Evaluation of PPP in theNorwegian Road Sector

Title: Evaluation of PPP in the Norwegian road

sector

Author: Knut Sandberg Eriksen, Harald Minken,

Glenn Steenberg, Thorleif Sunde and Karl-Erik

Hagen




name: PPP – Public Private Partnership

Health Effects and the Acceptanceof Road-pricing

Title: Health impact, does it influence the accep-

tance for road pricing?

Author: Lena Nerhagen

Series: VTI report 582

Language: Swedish with English abstract


name: Health Impact

Negative health effects of traffic emissionsare not likely to influence the generalpublic’s acceptance for road pricing. Butthis is not because the health effects areconsidered to be of little importance. It ismore likely that this is due to a lack ofknowledge among the general publicabout the short and long term effects onhuman health that traffic causes.

Road traffic is one of the most impor-tant sources to concentrations of particula-te matter and other airborne pollutants inour towns. Human health is affected nega-tively by these pollutants, especially parti-culate matter, which results in large costs tosociety due to work absence and medicalcare. There is therefore much to gain fromregulating and reducing traffic both withinand outside of towns. One way of doing thisis to use economic policy instruments, forexample through road pricing schemessuch as the congestion charges inStockholm. VTI has investigated if theimprovements in health that such a sche-

me results in influence people's acceptancefor this type of policy instrument.

Road pricing has for a long time beendiscussed as an efficient policy instrumentamong transport economists but this hashad little influence on transport policy inpractice. There are few places where roadpricing has been introduced which is pro-bably due to a great resistance among thegeneral public. And this is in spite of thehealth improvements that would resultfrom reduced road traffic. But the resistan-ce is probably not because people considerthe health impacts to be unimportant. It israther that people are unaware of the nega-tive effects that particulate emissions andother airborne pollutants have on humanhealth, and hence, of the positive effectsthat would be the result of reduced traffic.This in turn is because the relationship bet-ween air pollution and health is complexand the health effects of a more long termnature for example are not given muchattention in the public debate.

Since the public at large has little know-ledge of the health effects that are relatedto traffic emissions, improved informationwould probably increase the acceptancefor road pricing. Without accurate infor-mation it can also be questioned if collecti-ve decision making, such as a referendum,is a good way to decide whether or not touse this type of policy instrument.

We find that the effects depend on thelabour market, tariff regulations, educa-tion requirements, competitive relationssuch as entry barriers, and different procu-rements and contracts established prior tothe transfer of service to the winner of acompetitive round. These conditions varyamong the sectors; public transport atland, sea, and railway. We argue that for theemployees, TU strengthens individualemployment relations and employees’negotiating position. For operators, TUimplies a restricted employment policy,increased costs of lay-off in situations of

Initiated by the Norwegian Ministry ofTransport and Communications, public-private partnership (PPP) is tried in threetest projects in the road sector in theperiod 2001–2009. The preliminary evalua-tion shows several benefits, among theseshorter construction periods and animproved distribution of risk between pri-vate and public stakeholders. We alsoobserve innovative solutions concerningorganisation, contract strategy and finan-cing models. Several of these benefits maybe obtained within a public financingmodel as well as with private financing.P

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ANNOTATED REPORTSANNOTATED REPORTS

Evaluation of Swedish TrialProgramme with Alcohol IgnitionInterlock

Title: Evaluation of the trial with an alcohol igni-

tion interlock programme in Sweden

Author: Susanne Nordbakke, Terje Assum, Knut S.

Eriksen and Tonje Grunnan




Name: Alcohol Ignition Interlock

The trial with an alcohol ignition interlockprogramme commenced in 1999 in threeSwedish counties. In 2003 the trial wasextended to the whole country. The purpo-se of the project has been an independentevaluation of the trial.

Only 11 per cent of the drink driversparticipated in the programme, and onlyhalf of these completed the two-year pro-gramme. The trial is successful in terms oflasting effects on the rate of DWI (drivingwhile impaired) offences and on the rateof traffic accidents among participants whohave regained their licence. Furthermore,a cost-benefit analysis shows that the pro-gramme is cost-effective. The conclusion isthat the program should be made perma-nent. A permanent programme should besimpler and more flexible to increase theparticipation and completion rates.

Effects of StrengtheningEmployees’ Rights in CompetitiveTendering

Title: Economical and administrative effects of

strengthening employees’ rights in public transport

Author: Susanne Oddgeir Osland and Merethe

Dotterud Leiren




name: Employees’ rights

In this project we study the effects of intro-ducing employees’ rights in the event oftransfer of undertakings (TU) in competi-tive tendering of public transport services.

excessive employees, and increased costs ofeducation because of, i.e. new material.The Public Transport Authority will experi-ence increased administrative costs due tocollection of information. This will, however,amount to a marginal part of the administra-tive costs. More important are increasedcosts due to bidders’ potentially rising costs.

The Mobilization ofCommunication

Title: The Mobilization of communication

Author: Mattias Gripsrud




name: Mobilization of Communication

This report examines the interplay betweenmobility, transport and the use ofInformation and Communication Tech-nology (ICT). The report identifies threeimportant strands of research – withintransportation, ICT and urban geography– that have examined this interplay, andhighlights relevant literature within thesetraditions. The diffusion of mobile ICTand possibilities of ubiquitous communica-

tion has partly rendered the original substi-tution thesis obsolete. ICT and transportare primarily used as complementarymodes of communication. The reportconcludes by addressing some furtherfields of research.

Evaluation of PPP in theNorwegian Road Sector

Title: Evaluation of PPP in the Norwegian road

sector

Author: Knut Sandberg Eriksen, Harald Minken,

Glenn Steenberg, Thorleif Sunde and Karl-Erik

Hagen




name: PPP – Public Private Partnership

Health Effects and the Acceptanceof Road-pricing

Title: Health impact, does it influence the accep-

tance for road pricing?

Author: Lena Nerhagen




name: Health Impact

Negative health effects of traffic emissionsare not likely to influence the generalpublic’s acceptance for road pricing. Butthis is not because the health effects areconsidered to be of little importance. It ismore likely that this is due to a lack ofknowledge among the general publicabout the short and long term effects onhuman health that traffic causes.

Road traffic is one of the most impor-tant sources to concentrations of particula-te matter and other airborne pollutants inour towns. Human health is affected nega-tively by these pollutants, especially parti-culate matter, which results in large costs tosociety due to work absence and medicalcare. There is therefore much to gain fromregulating and reducing traffic both withinand outside of towns. One way of doing thisis to use economic policy instruments, forexample through road pricing schemessuch as the congestion charges inStockholm. VTI has investigated if theimprovements in health that such a sche-

me results in influence people's acceptancefor this type of policy instrument.

Road pricing has for a long time beendiscussed as an efficient policy instrumentamong transport economists but this hashad little influence on transport policy inpractice. There are few places where roadpricing has been introduced which is pro-bably due to a great resistance among thegeneral public. And this is in spite of thehealth improvements that would resultfrom reduced road traffic. But the resistan-ce is probably not because people considerthe health impacts to be unimportant. It israther that people are unaware of the nega-tive effects that particulate emissions andother airborne pollutants have on humanhealth, and hence, of the positive effectsthat would be the result of reduced traffic.This in turn is because the relationship bet-ween air pollution and health is complexand the health effects of a more long termnature for example are not given muchattention in the public debate.

Since the public at large has little know-ledge of the health effects that are relatedto traffic emissions, improved informationwould probably increase the acceptancefor road pricing. Without accurate infor-mation it can also be questioned if collecti-ve decision making, such as a referendum,is a good way to decide whether or not touse this type of policy instrument.

We find that the effects depend on thelabour market, tariff regulations, educa-tion requirements, competitive relationssuch as entry barriers, and different procu-rements and contracts established prior tothe transfer of service to the winner of acompetitive round. These conditions varyamong the sectors; public transport atland, sea, and railway. We argue that for theemployees, TU strengthens individualemployment relations and employees’negotiating position. For operators, TUimplies a restricted employment policy,increased costs of lay-off in situations of

Initiated by the Norwegian Ministry ofTransport and Communications, public-private partnership (PPP) is tried in threetest projects in the road sector in theperiod 2001–2009. The preliminary evalua-tion shows several benefits, among theseshorter construction periods and animproved distribution of risk between pri-vate and public stakeholders. We alsoobserve innovative solutions concerningorganisation, contract strategy and finan-cing models. Several of these benefits maybe obtained within a public financingmodel as well as with private financing.P

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NORDIC | 3938 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 www.vti.se/nordic

ANNOTATED REPORTS ANNOTATED REPORTS

Road Safety Effects of ActiveSafety Systems

Title: Methods for the evaluation of traffic safety

effects of Antilock Braking System (ABS) and

Electronic Stability Control (ESC) – a literature

review.

Author: Astrid Linder and others

Series: VTI report 580A

Language: English


name: Active Safety Systems

Most new vehicles are today equipped withvarious types of active safety systems. Theobvious purpose of these systems is to redu-ce the risk of accidents. But how are theroad safety effects of these safety systemsassessed and evaluated?

VTI has decided to study the road safetyeffects of two active safety systems. It is thesystems ABS (antilock brakes) and ESC(active brakes) which have been examined.Statistical methods, mechanical testing anddriver behaviour have been studied in theliterature. VTI has also decided to investi-gate what studies are needed in the future,and the way these should be formulated.

As regards statistical methods, it is main-ly methods based on odds ratios that havebeen used in evaluating the road safetyeffects. Odds ratios are often used in study-ing the relationship between risks – forexample, the risk of having a certain typeof accident when travelling in a car with

ESC in relation to the risk of having thesame type of accident in a car without ESC.For the future, VTI is proposing that seve-ral evaluation methods should be used onthe same data to find if there are any diffe-rences in the results regarding the roadsafety effect.

Mechanical testing can be carried out inseveral ways. One proposed test has recent-ly been presented by NHTSA (NationalHighway Traffic Safety Administration) inthe US. VTI considers that this test methodshould be evaluated not only with respectto its repeatability and robustness but alsoits relevance to the accidents that the sys-tems aim to prevent.

Estimates of driver behaviour have oftenbeen made using questionnaires sent tothe owners of vehicles which have, or havenot, been equipped with the safety systemconcerned. There are also studies wheredriver simulators have been used or fieldstudies have been made. In many EU pro-jects, the methods used have the aim ofestimating the effect of driver behaviour. Inbehavioural science, protocols have alsobeen formulated to ensure that the systemintroduced has no negative effects. To eva-luate driver behaviour, it is proposed that acheck list should be drawn up for the assess-ment of active safety systems by experts.User tests or simulated scenarios are alsobeing considered for future studies.

Measures to Enhance RoadSafety

Title: Compilation of 34 traffic safety measures

Author: Anna Vadeby, Fridtjof Thomas




name: Traffic Safety Measures

Road safety is a result of the interplay bet-ween humans, vehicles and the infrastruc-ture. In Sweden, a large number of roadsafety measures have been taken over theyears by identifying specific problems andtaking countermeasures. Road safety inSweden, which has a high standard in aninternational comparison, is the result ofthis purposeful work on different measures.

In 1997, the Riksdag passed the resolu-tion that work on road safety in Swedenmust have the aim to achieve a Vision Zero.What this means is that nobody is to be kil-led or severely injured in accidents withinthe road transport system. The Governmenthas now given the Swedish Road Admini-stration the task of proposing a new inte-rim target for road safety development. Aspart of this work, VTI has compiled a num-ber of road safety measures taken since theVision Zero was introduced.

Road safety measures must have a bene-ficial effect on the interplay betweenhumans, vehicles and the infrastructure. Byidentifying specific problems, specific mea-sures can be taken to improve the situa-tion. One example is that if there is an un-usually high number of accidents at anintersection, the design of the intersectionis examined and a specific measure is taken.

"Measures" can also be developed withrespect to people's transport needs.Certain municipalities intend, for examp-le, to ensure that children's journeys toschool are safe by scrutinising the variousphases of the entire journey: from the doorof the home, into the classroom and backhome again.

– Such approaches are of interest sincethey necessitate a broader approach con-cerning road safety which, in a natural way,includes modal choice and journey time,says Anna Vadeby, researcher at VTI.

In this report, VTI has compiled know-ledge concerning 34 different road safetymeasures and their implementation inorder to facilitate the Swedish RoadAdministration's work on the new target.According to the Swedish Road Admini-stration's wish, special attention is focusedon measures concerning speed, alcohol intraffic and seat belt use. Measures that rela-te to changes in the physical environment,road user groups and modifications tovehicles are also included. The various taskshave been determined in consultation bet-ween VTI and the Swedish RoadAdministration. Examples of measures areincreased fines for exceeding the speedlimit, alcohol lock programmes, belts for buspassengers, rumble strips and the obligationto give way to pedestrians at crossings.

The Riksdag has drawn up an 11-pointprogramme based on cooperation among

several sectors of society in order to promo-te work on road safety. Many of the roadsafety measures VTI has described in thereport are based on the first three points inthe programme, namely concentration onthe most dangerous roads, safer traffic inlocal authority areas, and the responsibilityof road users.

Measures that affect the physical envi-ronment, such as separation of carriage-ways by a central barrier to prevent head-on collisions, measures to improve roadsi-de areas in the countryside, and separatepedestrian and cycle networks in towns,must be seen as the most effective measu-res. They are however expensive in compa-rison with measures in the socio-economicenvironment, such as legislation and moni-toring of traffic rules. The measures descri-bed should therefore be evaluated on thebasis of in-depth studies regarding the costeffectiveness of the measures. Such analy-ses are still to be made for many of themeasures, but this does not come withinthe ambit of this task.

Improved Public Transport in LowDensity Regions

Title: Improved public transport in low density

regions. Advice on service design

Authors: Gustav Nielsen and Truls Lange

Series: TØI report no. 887/2007

Language: Norwegien


name: Improved Public Transport

The report is a good practice guide onpublic transport service design in rural andsmall town regions. It is based on experien-ces from real-world projects in Norway andabroad, and describes the main elementsof a concept that makes public transporteasy for everybody to use. The service con-cept combines a simple, integrated schedu-led service focused on the regional centrewith demand responsive services in areaswith insufficient demand to support regu-lar public transport. A travel dispatch cen-tre should coordinate all demand responsi-ve services and transport tasks of publicresponsibility, and provide customer infor-mation to users of the complete travel net-work in a region.

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NORDIC | 3938 | NORDIC NO. 3 2007 www.vti.se/nordic

ANNOTATED REPORTS ANNOTATED REPORTS

Road Safety Effects of ActiveSafety Systems

Title: Methods for the evaluation of traffic safety

effects of Antilock Braking System (ABS) and

Electronic Stability Control (ESC) – a literature

review.

Author: Astrid Linder and others

Series: VTI report 580A

Language: English


name: Active Safety Systems

Most new vehicles are today equipped withvarious types of active safety systems. Theobvious purpose of these systems is to redu-ce the risk of accidents. But how are theroad safety effects of these safety systemsassessed and evaluated?

VTI has decided to study the road safetyeffects of two active safety systems. It is thesystems ABS (antilock brakes) and ESC(active brakes) which have been examined.Statistical methods, mechanical testing anddriver behaviour have been studied in theliterature. VTI has also decided to investi-gate what studies are needed in the future,and the way these should be formulated.

As regards statistical methods, it is main-ly methods based on odds ratios that havebeen used in evaluating the road safetyeffects. Odds ratios are often used in study-ing the relationship between risks – forexample, the risk of having a certain typeof accident when travelling in a car with

ESC in relation to the risk of having thesame type of accident in a car without ESC.For the future, VTI is proposing that seve-ral evaluation methods should be used onthe same data to find if there are any diffe-rences in the results regarding the roadsafety effect.

Mechanical testing can be carried out inseveral ways. One proposed test has recent-ly been presented by NHTSA (NationalHighway Traffic Safety Administration) inthe US. VTI considers that this test methodshould be evaluated not only with respectto its repeatability and robustness but alsoits relevance to the accidents that the sys-tems aim to prevent.

Estimates of driver behaviour have oftenbeen made using questionnaires sent tothe owners of vehicles which have, or havenot, been equipped with the safety systemconcerned. There are also studies wheredriver simulators have been used or fieldstudies have been made. In many EU pro-jects, the methods used have the aim ofestimating the effect of driver behaviour. Inbehavioural science, protocols have alsobeen formulated to ensure that the systemintroduced has no negative effects. To eva-luate driver behaviour, it is proposed that acheck list should be drawn up for the assess-ment of active safety systems by experts.User tests or simulated scenarios are alsobeing considered for future studies.

Measures to Enhance RoadSafety

Title: Compilation of 34 traffic safety measures

Author: Anna Vadeby, Fridtjof Thomas




name: Traffic Safety Measures

Road safety is a result of the interplay bet-ween humans, vehicles and the infrastruc-ture. In Sweden, a large number of roadsafety measures have been taken over theyears by identifying specific problems andtaking countermeasures. Road safety inSweden, which has a high standard in aninternational comparison, is the result ofthis purposeful work on different measures.

In 1997, the Riksdag passed the resolu-tion that work on road safety in Swedenmust have the aim to achieve a Vision Zero.What this means is that nobody is to be kil-led or severely injured in accidents withinthe road transport system. The Governmenthas now given the Swedish Road Admini-stration the task of proposing a new inte-rim target for road safety development. Aspart of this work, VTI has compiled a num-ber of road safety measures taken since theVision Zero was introduced.

Road safety measures must have a bene-ficial effect on the interplay betweenhumans, vehicles and the infrastructure. Byidentifying specific problems, specific mea-sures can be taken to improve the situa-tion. One example is that if there is an un-usually high number of accidents at anintersection, the design of the intersectionis examined and a specific measure is taken.

"Measures" can also be developed withrespect to people's transport needs.Certain municipalities intend, for examp-le, to ensure that children's journeys toschool are safe by scrutinising the variousphases of the entire journey: from the doorof the home, into the classroom and backhome again.

– Such approaches are of interest sincethey necessitate a broader approach con-cerning road safety which, in a natural way,includes modal choice and journey time,says Anna Vadeby, researcher at VTI.

In this report, VTI has compiled know-ledge concerning 34 different road safetymeasures and their implementation inorder to facilitate the Swedish RoadAdministration's work on the new target.According to the Swedish Road Admini-stration's wish, special attention is focusedon measures concerning speed, alcohol intraffic and seat belt use. Measures that rela-te to changes in the physical environment,road user groups and modifications tovehicles are also included. The various taskshave been determined in consultation bet-ween VTI and the Swedish RoadAdministration. Examples of measures areincreased fines for exceeding the speedlimit, alcohol lock programmes, belts for buspassengers, rumble strips and the obligationto give way to pedestrians at crossings.

The Riksdag has drawn up an 11-pointprogramme based on cooperation among

several sectors of society in order to promo-te work on road safety. Many of the roadsafety measures VTI has described in thereport are based on the first three points inthe programme, namely concentration onthe most dangerous roads, safer traffic inlocal authority areas, and the responsibilityof road users.

Measures that affect the physical envi-ronment, such as separation of carriage-ways by a central barrier to prevent head-on collisions, measures to improve roadsi-de areas in the countryside, and separatepedestrian and cycle networks in towns,must be seen as the most effective measu-res. They are however expensive in compa-rison with measures in the socio-economicenvironment, such as legislation and moni-toring of traffic rules. The measures descri-bed should therefore be evaluated on thebasis of in-depth studies regarding the costeffectiveness of the measures. Such analy-ses are still to be made for many of themeasures, but this does not come withinthe ambit of this task.

Improved Public Transport in LowDensity Regions

Title: Improved public transport in low density

regions. Advice on service design

Authors: Gustav Nielsen and Truls Lange

Series: TØI report no. 887/2007

Language: Norwegien


name: Improved Public Transport

The report is a good practice guide onpublic transport service design in rural andsmall town regions. It is based on experien-ces from real-world projects in Norway andabroad, and describes the main elementsof a concept that makes public transporteasy for everybody to use. The service con-cept combines a simple, integrated schedu-led service focused on the regional centrewith demand responsive services in areaswith insufficient demand to support regu-lar public transport. A travel dispatch cen-tre should coordinate all demand responsi-ve services and transport tasks of publicresponsibility, and provide customer infor-mation to users of the complete travel net-work in a region.

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Danish Road Institute Helen Hasz-SinghGuldalderen 12DK-2640 HedehusenePhone +45 72 44 70 00Fax +45 72 44 71 05Email [email protected] www.roaddirectorate.dk

NORDICDENMARK

VTT Technical Research Centreof FinlandKari MäkeläP.O.Box 1000FI-02044 VTTPhone +358 20 722 4586Fax +358 20 722 7056Email [email protected] www.vtt.fi

FINLAND

Icelandic Road AdministrationG. Pétur MatthiassonBorgartún 7IS-105 ReykjavikPhone +354 522 1000Fax +354 522 1009Email [email protected] www.vegagerdin.is

ICELANDInstitute of Transport EconomicsHarald AasGaustadalléen 21NO-0349 OsloPhone +47 22 57 38 00Fax +47 22 60 92 00Email [email protected] www.toi.no

NORWAYNorwegian Public RoadsAdministrationThorbjørn Chr. RisanP.O. Box 8142 DepNO-0033 OsloPhone +47 22 07 35 00Fax +47 22 07 37 68Email [email protected] www.vegvesen.no

NORWAY

VTIMagdalena GreenSE-581 95 LinköpingPhone +46 13 20 42 26Fax +46 13 14 14 36Orderphone +46 13 20 42 69Email [email protected] www.vti.se

SWEDEN

Questions concerning the content ofthe articles, or orders forthe publications referred to,should be directed to thepublishing institution, seeaddressed above.

Requests for back issues, and notifi-cation of address changes.Readers outside the Nordiccountries: see Swedishaddress. Readers in theNordic countries: seeadresses above.

Web www.nordicroads.com

Subscribewww.nordicroads.com/[email protected]

Documents

Nordic Road and Transport Research 3-2007