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NikolaTeslaImaginationandtheManThatInventedthe20thCentury
Copyright©2013bySeanPatrick
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanelectronicormechanicalmeans,includinginformationstorageandretrievalsystems,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher,exceptbyareviewerwhomayquotebriefpassagesin
areview.
WrittenbySeanPatrick
FirstEdition
TheGreatMysteryofGenius
“Thousandsofgeniusesliveanddieundiscovered—eitherbythemselvesorbyothers.”
-MarkTwain
IfIcouldwriteonesentencethatwouldmagicallyincreaseyourIQbythirtypoints,wouldyoubeinterestedinreadingthatsentence?
Probably.Butwhy?Whatwouldbeinitforyou?Doyouthinkitwouldhelpyoumakemoremoney?Makeanameforyourself?Findlove,happiness,orfulfillment?
I’veaskedmanypeoplethesequestionsandtheiranswersareinvariable.“Ofcourseitwould.”Theculturalcorrelationisundeniable:we’vebeenindoctrinatedtobelievethatthehighertheIQ,themorelikelyoneistosucceedinlife.Hence,weassumethatthescientiststhatwinNobelPrizes,thebusinesspeoplethatgofromragstomillions,theauthorsthatwriterunawaybestsellers,registerinthehighestrangesofIQsimplybecausethey’reenjoyingsweetsuccesses.
Well,atremendousamountofresearchhasbeendoneintothescientificcorrelationbetweenIQandreal-lifesuccess,andaverydifferentpicturehasemerged.
IQandsuccessarerelated...toapoint.Sure,someonewithanIQof150(a“genius”byallnormalstandards)isgoingtodomuchbetterinlifethansomeonewithanIQof80(nearly“mentallydisabled”).Similarly,apersonwithanIQof130(“neargenius”)hasasignificantupperhandinlifewhencomparedtoapersonwithanIQof100(“average”).
Buthere’sthecatch:therelationbetweenIQandsuccessfollowsthelawofdiminishingreturns.Thatis,whenyoucomparetwopeopleofrelativelyhighIQs,youcannolongerpredictsuccessbyIQalone.AscientistwithanIQof130isjustaslikelytorisetothetopofhisdisciplineasonewithanIQof180.
Dr.LiamHudson,aBritishpsychologistthatheadedupCambridge’sResearchUnitofIntellectualDevelopmentinthesixties,comparedIQtobasketball.Ifyou’refivefootfive,yourprospectsofbecomingevenanNBAbenchwarmerareslim-to-none.Thefactisifyou’relessthansixfeettall,youcanprettymuchforgetaboutyourdreamstochallengeKingJamesinhiscourt.
Statisticaldatashowsusthatyouhavetobeatleastseventy-twoinchestalltobeallowedontheride,andeachinchyoupushoverthatisprobablybetterforyou.Therecomesapoint,however,whenheightjustdoesn’tmattermuchanymore.Justbecausesomeoneissevenfeettalldoesn’tmeanhe’sabetterplayerthansomeonewho’ssixfootsix(MichaelJordan’sheight).Thepointisyouonlyhavetobetallenoughtohaveashotatthepros.
Thesamepatternistrueofintelligenceandsuccessinlife.Youonlyhavetobesmartenoughtofulfilltheintellectualrequirementsforsuccess.History’sgreatestachievers—practical,savvypeoplethatdidbigthingsandchangedtheworld—areheraldedasthegreatestgeniusestoeverhavewalkedtheearth,butwhilemanyofthemhadremarkablyhighIQs,manyotherswerejustsmartenough.
Ifwecan’texplaintheirsuccessintermsofIQalone,whatelsedidtheypossessthatallowedthemtorisetosuchheights?
Mostpeoplewouldansweralongthelinesof“extraordinaryinherenttalent.”Andtheywouldbe
wrong.
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Callintheinspiredbard,Demodocus.
Godhasgiventhemanthegiftofsong.
That’soneofthemanygod-givengiftsofcharactersintheOdyssey.We’velearnedmuchsinceitwaswritten—we’vedecodedhumanDNAanddiscoveredourplaceintheuniverse—butwestillmarvelattheabilitiesofgeniusesinthesamewayastheancientGreeksdid.
WhetherwelistentoasonataofBeethoven’s,watchhighlightreelsofMichaelJordan,orlearnalawofNewton’s,weviewextraordinaryhumanskillsasgiftsgrantedbyunknownforcesforunknownreasons.Suchanexplanationisconvenient,butisitcorrect?
Forthelasttwocenturies,behavioralscientistshavestudiedthatquestionthroughfocusedresearchongreatperformersofalltypes:businessmanagers,chessplayers,swimmers,surgeons,jetpilots,violinists,salespeople,writers,andmanyothers.Theirfindings,numberinginthehundreds,haveledtoconclusionsthatflystraightintheteethofwhat“everybodyknows”aboutability.
Thestudiesconclusivelydisprovedthenotionthatgreatperformancestemsprimarilyfromanatural“gift”ortalent.Whilesomepeopledisplayinnatetalentsforcertainactivitiesearlyon,amazinglyaveragepeoplehavebecomechampionsinallmannerofendeavors.Manysuchtopperformersovercametheiraverage—orevenbelow-average—intellectsandnonexistentaptitudestodevelopoutstandingabilitiesindisciplinessuchaschess,music,business,andmedicine.
Examplesofsuchremarkabletransformationsaboundthroughouthistory.HenryFordfailedinbusinessseveraltimesandwasflatbrokefivetimesbeforehefoundedtheFordMotorCompany.Inhisyouth,ThomasEdison’steacherstoldhimhewas“toostupidtolearnanything.”Beethovenwassoawkwardontheviolinthathisteachersbelievedhimhopelessasacomposer.
Theworldofsportsrevealssimilarfindings.Manyathletesviewedassuperhumanintheirabilitieswerefoundtohavelittleornoinherentadvantageovertheirpeerswhentheyfirstbegantheirjourneystogreatness.MichaelJordandidn’tmakehissophomoreteambecausehewasdeemedtooshortandaveragetoplayatthatlevel.StanSmith,aworld-classtennisplayerandwinnerofWimbledon,theU.S.Open,andeightDaviscups,wasoncerejectedforthelowlypositionofaballboybecausetheeventorganizersfelthewastooclumsyanduncoordinated.
Howdoweexplainsuchunintuitivefindings?
Whilemanytheorieswereputforth,therewasonecommonfactorthatresearchersrecognizedinallgreatperformers:theypracticedsohardandintenselythatithurt.
TedWilliams,abaseballlegendconsideredthemost“gifted”hitterofhistime,wasbelievedtohavenaturalabilitiesfarbeyondordinarymen,includingeagle-likevision,extraordinaryhand-eyecoordination,anduncannyhittinginstincts.Williamslatersaidthatsuchstorieswereall“alotofbull.”Hehadamuchbetterexplanationforhissuperiorskills.
Williamsbeganhispathtogreatnessattheageofseven,whenhedecidedtodedicatehisentirelifetoonesingulartask:hittingabaseballasperfectlyaspossible.Startingatthatyoungage,Williamsspent
everyfreeminutehehadatSanDiego’soldNorthParkfieldhittingballs,everyday,yearafteryearafteryear.Hischildhoodfriendsrecallfindinghimonthatfieldsmashingballswiththeoutershellscompletelybeatenoff,withasplinteredbat,andwithblistered,bleedinghands.Hewouldspendhislunchmoneytohireotherkidstoshaghisballssohecouldhitasmanyaspossibleeveryday.Whenthecityturnedoffthefield’slights,hewouldgohomeandswingarolled-upnewspaperinthemirroruntilhewenttobed.
ThisobsessioncontinuedthroughoutWilliam’sentireprofessionalcareer,andit’snosurprisethatheexcelledbecauseofit.For“TheKid,”ashewasknown,greatnesswasalong,gruelingprocess—notagiftfromthebeyond(aclaimthathefoundinsulting).
Studiesofpeoplewithextraordinaryabilities,likeTedWilliams,havegivenrisetowhatSwedishpsychologistDr.KAndersEricssoncalledthe“10,000hour”rule.Therule’spremiseisthat,regardlessofwhetheronehasaninnateaptitudeforanactivityornot,masteryofittakesaroundtenthousandhoursoffocused,intentionalpractice.Analyzingthelivesofgeniusesinawiderangeofintellectual,artistic,andathleticpursuitsconfirmsthisconcept.FromMozarttoBobbyFischertoBillGatestotheBeatles,theirdiversejourneysfromnothingtowardexcellenceintheirrespectivefieldssharedacommondenominator:theaccumulationoftenthousandhoursofunwavering“exercise”oftheircrafts.
Toputthatnumberinperspective,ifyoupracticedanactivityfourhoursperday,sevendaysperweek,itwouldtakeyouaboutsevenyearstoreachtenthousandhours.Thatkindofdedicationcanonlycomefromtheheart—atrueloveandpassionfortheactivity.
So,whatdoesallthistellus?First,thattheseedofgreatnessexistsineveryhumanbeing.Whetheritsproutsornotisourchoice.Second,thattherearenosuchthingsasnatural-bornunder-oroverachievers—therearesimplypeoplethattapintotheirtruepotentialsandpeoplethatdon’t.Whatisgenerallyrecognizedas“greattalent”is,inalmostallcases,nothingmorethantheoutwardmanifestationsofanunwaveringdedicationtoaprocess.
Thus,theadviceof“worktowardyourtenthousandhours”soundscompletelyreasonable.Right?Butthere’saproblem.Therearemillionsofpeoplethatworkincrediblyhard,yethavelittlesuccesstoshowforit.Istenthousandhourstoosimpleofaprescriptionforgreatness?
Yes.Itoverlooksanotheraspectofgreatachievementthatcannotbeignored:opportunities—conditionsthatoftenappeartobeplainolddumbluck.
---
AsMalcolmGladwellexplainsinOutliers,inmanyways,theopportunitiespresentedtoonearejustasimportanttosuccessasone’sowninherenttalentsandwillingnesstoputinthousandsofhoursofwork.Forinstance,ifyourdreamistobecomeaprofessionalathlete,it’squitepossiblethatyouwon’tbeabletoworkhardenoughtoovercomeamostdeviousobstacle:yourbirthday.Howcouldthatpossiblybeahurdle?
Easy.Mostsportsenforceagecut-offs—thatis,theagesthatdeterminewhetheryoucanplayanotheryearinyourcurrentagebracketasa“senior,”orwhetheryouhavetomoveupandbea“freshman”inthenext.
InCanadianjuniorhockeyleagues,theagecutoffwasformallyJanuary1(it’snowDecember31).ThecloseryourbirthdaywastoJanuary2,thebetter.Why?Well,let’ssayyouwereplayingintheBantamcategory,whichisforchildrenaged13–14.IfyourbirthdaywasinDecember,youweregoingtogettwo
yearsofplayatthislevel.Youweregoingtoturnfifteenandhavetomoveimmediatelyintothenextcategory,Midget(whichisforkidsaged15–16).IfyourbirthdaywasJanuary2,however,you’dgetanentireadditionalyeartoplayinBantam(andeveryotheragegroup)becausewhentheageswerecheckedonJanuary1,youwerestillfourteenyearsold.
Anextrayearofplayagainstplayersyoungerthanyouisahugeadvantage.Yourbodybecomesbigger,stronger,andfastereveryday,givingyouanopportunitytotrulystandoutfromyourbirthday-handicappedpeers.Thisextradevelopmentaltimepredisposesyouforselectionontomoreeliteteams,whichinturnleadstomoreicetimeandbettercoaching,whichadvancesyourabilitiesevenfurther.
Sociologistscallthisphenomenonan“accumulativeadvantage.”FortheeliteCanadianjuniorhockeyleagues,theresultofthisadvantagewasthatformanyyears,thedistributionofbirthdatesforthetopperformingkidswasheavilyweightedtoward“first-quarter”babies—kidsbornbetweenJanuaryandMarch.
Whetherwe’retalkingbirthdaysinsports,orthefactthatBillGatesjusthappenedtogotoahighschoolthathousedoneofthemostadvancedcomputersofthetime—acomputerthatmostcollegesdidn’tevenhave—wecaneasilyseethatbeingintherightplace(physical,educational,societal,orotherwise)attherighttimecaninfluenceourdestiniesasmuchasanythingelse.
Now,thatdoesn’tmeanourfatesarewritteninthestars.Wecanwhollycontrolourdedicationtothousandsofhoursofstudy,trainingandwork.Andgraspingopportunitiesisequallycontrollable.Sure,wemaynotbebuiltfortheNFLorKentuckyDerby,butwe’resurroundedbyopportunitieseveryday,everywherewego.Thereisnoshortageofproblemstobesolved,needsanddesirestobefulfilled,andinnovativewaystohelpothers.
Butthere’sacatch.Mostopportunitiesneverannouncethemselveswithtrumpetsandconfetti.They’reeasilymissed,mistaken,orsquandered.Theycanbescary.Andtheynevercomewitha110%money-backguarantee.They’reoftennothingmorethanchancestoimproveonsomethingotherpeoplearealreadydoing.
Opportunitiesarewhispers,notfoghorns.
Ifwecan’theartheirsoftrhythms—ifwearetoobusyrushingabout,waitingforthunderclapsofrevelation,inspiration,andcertainty—orifwecanspotthembutcan’tnurturethemintorealadvantages,thenwemightaswellbeblindtothem.
Thisrealizationpointsustotherealheartandmysteryofgreatness.Justknowingthatgreatachieversworkveryhardandtakeadvantageofopportunitiesisn’tenough.Whydosomepeoplerecognize,appreciate,andpursueopportunitieswithpassionanddetermination,whereasothersdon’t?Whyaresomepeoplewillingtopushthroughhellandhighwatertowin,whereasothersquitearlyandeasily?Aretherepracticalanswerstothesequestions,oraretheyunsolvableenigmasofhumanpsychology?
Well,Ibelievethereareverypracticalanswerstowhatmakesageniustick.Ibelievethereareprinciplesthatwecanisolateandusetobetterourownlives.Ibelievethatgeniusisapaththatwecanalltakeandderivemuchbenefit,happiness,fulfillment,andsuccessfrom...notageneticwindfallordivinegift.Ultimately,thisisthepathtogreatness.
Notsureifyoubuyintothat?Well,Iwouldn’teitherifIdidn’tknowaboutDr.AlfredBarrios.
---
PsychologistDr.AlfredBarriosconductedresearchonthenatureofgeniusintheseventies.HesetouttoanswerthesamebasicquestionIposedjustapageago:whydosomepeoplerisetogreatnesswhereasothersdon’t?
Tolookforananswer,hedecidedtoanalyzethelivesofmanyofhistory’sgreatestgeniuses.Weretherepatternsofcircumstances,events,behaviors,attitudes,orideasthatcouldaccountfortheirsuccess?Didthechroniclesoftheirlivescollectivelyholdthesecretstotheirgreatness?Hewasgoingtofindout.
Hefirstnotedandcategorizedalonglistoffactorsoutsideofthegeniuses’control.Thingslikelineage,birthright,geography,genetics,education,familialties,upbringing,andunexpectedwindfalls.Themoredataheaccumulatedandanalyzedalongthisline,however,themoreitlookedlikeadeadend.Thebackgroundsofourspecies’greatestthinkersandachieversappearedinfinitelyvaried.Iftherewerepatternsamongthedata,hecouldn’tseethem.
Barrioswasundeterredandcontinuedtostudy.Eventually,adifferentkindofcommondenominatoremerged,onethathefoundwithineachofthepeoplehestudied.Barriosdiscoveredthathissubjectshadeachdevelopedandroutinelydisplayedacombinationofveryspecificcharacteristicsthroughouttheirlives,andnotjustmildlybutconspicuously.
Thischaracter-drivenideafascinatedBarrios.Itsuggestedthatgeniusismuchmorethanhighintelligence,innatetalent,extraordinaryworkethic,oruncannyluck,butratheracompositemanifestation;asynthesisofveryspecifictypesofworldviewsandbehaviors.Themorehelookedatdatathroughthislens,themorethingsstartedtomakesense.
Barriosthenwonderedifanyonecouldoperateatageniuslevel—andachievegenius-levelgreatness—simplybylearningandadoptingthesameeducatedviewsanddisciplinedbehaviorsthatsorepeatedlycharacterizedhistory’sgreatestachievers.
Bytheendofhisresearch,Barrioshadpiecedtogetherhis“geniuscode”—aprofoundinsightintowhatreallyspawnsgreatness.Healsoconcludedthatwecouldallindeedusehisgeniuscodeasaroadmaptowalkinthefootstepsofhistory’sbrightestandboldest,therebylearningtooperateatageniuslevel.
Anattractiveconcept,nodoubt,butisittrue?
Inthisbook,wewilldelveintoasinglecharacteristicofBarrios’code:imagination.Wewilllookathowitdefinedoneofhistory’sgreatestgeniuses,NikolaTesla,andhowwecanfurtherdevelopitinourselves.
MyproclamationisthatwhileBarrios’researchmaynotbetheend-allonthesubject,itcertainlyilluminatesthepathtogreatnessviaaunique,accessible,andpracticaldecodingofgenius.
Thisimmediatelyinvolvesusinabiggerpicturequestion,too—onethat’sdeeplypenetratingandpersonal:whydowedesiretoheightenourgeniusandpursuethepathofgreatness?
Weallfaceafundamentalchoiceinourlives.Dowetakethepathprescribedbyour“nowyou’resupposedto”society,ordowetakeourownpathtotowardthelifewefeelweoughttobeliving?Dowechooseourlife’sworkbasedontheU.S.DepartmentofLabor’slistofhighest-payingjobs,ordowefollowourbliss?Doweheedthecalltoconformity,orthecalltoadventure?
Everydayweseehowpeoplehaveansweredthesequestions,whetherconsciouslyorotherwise.We’reconstantlyconfrontedwiththelazy,theapathetic,theimmoral,theindifferent,theirresponsible,
andthedisconnected—thesignsofadecayingculture.
“Whatdoesitallmean?”manywonderwhilechasingpurposesthey’retoldareworthwhile,butwhichfeelempty.“Whatisthepurposeofthislife?”humanshavewonderedformillennia,contemplatinghowinsignificantweareinthegreatcosmicsymphony.
Well,asthepreeminentmythologistJosephCampbellsaid,deepdowninside,wedon’tseekthemeaningoflife,buttheexperienceofbeingalive.Andthat’swhatthenatureofgeniusisultimatelyabout.
It’sabouthowwecanempowerourselvestobringtruemeaningtoourlivesandthelivesofothersinwaysmostpeoplewouldconsiderimpossible.It’saboutrisingabovealifeof,asThoreausaid,“quietdesperation”thatendswithoursongsstillinourhearts,andexperiencetheraptureoftrulyliving.It’saboutsayingyestoouradventures.
Werelyongeniusestoentertainus,educateus,leadus,andshowusallwhatourspeciesiscapableof.Werelyongeniusestogiveussmartphones,electriccars,curesfordiseases,socialnetworkingsites,sublimeart,world-classfood,and,indeed,theveryfabricofourculture.
Ifyou’veeverdreamedofplayingahandinthedevelopmentofhumankind,orifyoujusthaveaburningdesiretoimproveonesmallaspectofit,thenyouhaveanadventurewaiting.
Willyoutakeit?
Thisbookisyourinvitation.
ImaginationandtheManWhoInventedthe20thCentury
“Factsandideasaredeadinthemselvesanditistheimaginationthatgiveslifetothem.”
-W.I.B.Beveridge
Manycallstoadventurearepuzzleswaitingtobesolved.Anyonecanapply,butthepriceofadmissionispaidinimagination.Asjourneysunfold,newchallengesariseandpressuresmount.Thesesuccessivetollsmusttoobepaidincreativityandingenuity,astheywerebyhistory’smostimaginativeminds.
TheonlywaythatJasoncanclaimhisrightfulplaceasrulerofIolcus,GreeceisbyretrievingthefabledGoldenFleecefromdistantlands.Theproblem?Everyoneconsidersthetaskimpossible,fraughtwithterrifyingperilscertaintokillanyman.Jasonisn’tsosure.Heassemblesamightyteamofwarriors—theArgonauts—andbuildsthelargestshipeverconstructed.HethenfiguresouthowtosuccessfullynavigatethelegendarymazeofcrushingrocksknownastheSymplegades,yokefire-breathing,bronze-hoofedoxen,trickamightyarmyguardingtheFleeceintoravagingitselftopieces,anddrugasleeplessdragonintoitsfirstslumber.Fourmonthsafterdeparting,JasonreturnswiththeFleecetotakehisthrone.
It’sthelate1800s.Anesthesiahasjustbeenintroduced.Surgeriesareontherise,butadisturbingnumberofpatientsaredyingduetoinfection.JosephListerisdeterminedtofigureoutwhyandwhatcanbedoneaboutit.Aftermuchresearchandthought,heconcludesthatPasteur’scontroversialgermtheoryholdsthekeytothemystery.Killinggermsinwoundswithheatisn’tanoption,however—acompletelynewmethodisrequired.Listersurmisesthattheremaybeachemicalsolution,andlaterthatyear,hereadsinanewspaperthatthetreatmentofsewagewithachemicalcalledcarbolicacidreducedtheincidenceofdiseaseamongthepeopleandcattleofanearbysmallEnglishtown.Listerfollowstheleadand,in1865,developsasuccessfulmethodofapplyingcarbolicacidtowoundstopreventinfection.Hecontinuestoworkalongthislineandestablishesantisepsisasabasicprincipleofsurgery.Thankstohisdiscoveriesandinnovations,amputationsbecomelessfrequent,deathsduetoinfectionplummet,andnewsurgeriespreviouslyconsideredimpossiblearebeingroutinelyplannedandexecuted.
AndrewCarnegieisthirteenyearsoldandchangingspoolsofthreadinacottonmilltwelvehoursperday,sixdaysperweek.Twoyearslater,hegetsajobasatelegraphmessengerfor$2.50perweek,andhe’sdeterminedtoadvancethroughthecompany’sranksdespitehisage.Hequicklylearnstodistinguishthedifferentsoundsofincomingtelegraphsignals,andthenlearnstotranslatethembyear.Withinayear,he’spromotedasanoperator.Bythetimehe’sinhismid-twenties,he’smadeasmallfortunethroughshrewdinvestmentsinrailroad-relatedindustries,andhe’sworkingtorepairandre-openrailandtelegraphlinesvitaltotheUnion’swareffortsagainsttheConfederacy.ThewarimpressesuponhimtheimportanceofmanufacturingtotheoverallsuccessoftheAmericaneconomy,whichinformshisshiftofcapitalandinteresttoironworking.Overthenextthirtyyears,Carnegie’sinnovationssetthestandardforcheap,efficient,andprofitablemassproductionofsteel,achievementsthatforgethemostextensiveironandsteeloperationseverownedbyanindividualintheUnitedStates.
ThephilosopherEdmundBurkesaid“thereisaboundarytomen’spassionswhentheyactfromfeelings;butnonewhentheyareundertheinfluenceofimagination.”Imaginationisthelifeforceofthegeniuscode.Thisforceamplifiesandcolorseveryotherpieceofthecode,andunlocksourpotentialforunderstandingandability.It’snocoincidencethatgeniusesnotonlydaretodreamoftheimpossiblefortheirwork,butdothesamefortheirlives.They’reaudaciousenoughtothinkthatthey’renotjustanordinaryplayer.
Fewstoriesbetterillustratethisbetterthanthelifeofthefatherofthemodernworld,amanoflegendaryimaginativepowerandwonder.
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NikolaTeslastrolledthroughtheVarosligetcityparkofBudapestwithafriend,recitingGoethe’sFaust,unawarethathewasabouttochangethecourseofhistory.
Theyearwas1882.Onlytwoyearsearlier,Edisonhadpatentedasystemforelectricitydistributionusingdirectcurrentgenerators,whichproducedaflowofelectricityinonedirection.Edison’sbreakthroughwasamodernmiracledespitehavingseriouslimitations.Namely,thegeneratorshadnoefficientwaytochangethevoltageofdirectcurrentcircuits,sogenerationplantscouldonlyservecustomerswithinatwo-mileradius.Thus,itwasunlikelythatthisformofelectricitywouldeverbeavailableinnon-metropolitanareas.
TelsawasadmiringtheprismaticraysoftheHungariansunsetwhenavisionstruckhim.Followingablindingflashoflight,hesawthecompleteworkingsofamotorthatusedarotatingmagneticfieldtoproduceanelectriccurrentthatalternateditsdirectionmanytimespersecond.Hegrabbedastickanddiagrammedthemotorinthesandwhilehisfriendwatched,unsureofwhattothink.Afterall,suchamachinewastheoreticallyimpossible.Infact,sevenyearsearlier,hisprofessoratacollegeinAustriaridiculedhimforsuggestingthatdirectcurrentgeneratorscouldbemodifiedtoproduceanefficientalternatingcurrent.Telsadroppedoutofcollegeayearlater,buthisimaginationneverquit.
ShortlyafterhisVarosligetparkrevelation,Teslatookthefirststeptomakeitareality:herelocatedtoParistoworkfortheContinentalEdisonCompanyinstallinglightingsystemsincommercialproperties.Hispassion,however,wasdesigningimprovementstotheequipmentbroughtoverseasfromEdison’sideas.Ifhecouldcatchtheattentionofhissuperiorswithhiswork,therewasachancehecouldpresenthisrevolutionarymotorandwinfundingandsupport.Tesla’saptitudeforelectricalengineeringwasquicklynoticed,andseveralideasofhiswereimplementedtoimproveEdison’sdirectcurrentdynamos.
Ayearlater,TeslawasinStraasbourg,Francetorepairarailwaylightingsystem.Hemadethenecessaryrepairs,butthatwasn’tallhedid.Hebuiltthefirstprototypeofhisvisionaryalternatingcurrentmotor,whichworkedexactlyashehadconceiveditinhismind.Hisownmiraclein-hand,Teslaimmediatelycourtedinvestorsforhisradicaldevice.Onebyone,wealthybusinessmenthatcouldn’tunderstandthedeviceanddidn’tseethecommercialvalueinitrejectedhim.Teslawasundaunted.Heconcludedthattheonlywayhecouldrealizehismotorwastomeettheworld’sgreatestelectricalengineer,ThomasEdison,directly.
There’salessonhere.Ineveryfieldofhumanendeavor,themorevisionarythework,thelesslikelyitistobequicklyunderstoodandembracedbylesserminds.Foronereasonoranother,manypeoplejust“don’tgetit.”Teslatookthisinstride.Ashesawit,hewasofferinganopportunitynotonlymakeanuntoldfortune,buttochangetheworldforever.Insteadofwastingtimetryingtoconvinceignorantnaysayerstoseetheforestforthetrees,Teslachosetotakehisworktoanotherextraordinarymindwhowould,heassumed,immediatelyrecognizeitforwhatitis.
Laterthatmonth,TeslaarrivedattheStraasbourgrailwaystationtotraveltotheharborandboardtheoceanlinerSaturnia,whichwouldtakehimtoNewYorkCity—toEdison.Hisuncleshadgivenhimsomemoney,andhisbosshadgivenhimaletterofrecommendationthatread,“Iknowtwogreatmenandyouareoneofthem;theotheristhisyoungman.”
Afteralmostmissinghistrain,losingallhismoneyalongwithhisticket,passport,andluggage,Teslastillmanagedtomakeitaboardthesteamship.Amutinybrokeoutduringthevoyage,andhegotcaughtinthemiddleofabattleroyalebetweencrewmates.Teslawasarrested,pleadedinnocence,andwasreleased,andfinallyarrivedtoNewYorkCityonJune6,1884.Hehadnothingbutafewcentsinhispocket,afewpoems,calculationsforaflyingmachinehedreamedofbuildingoneday,andtheletterofrecommendation.Hewentstraighttomeethishero,Edison,andwasstarstruck.HebrieflydescribedtheengineeringworkhehaddoneforEdison’scompany,andtalkedabouthisplansforanalternatingcurrentmotor.
DirectcurrentwasbarelyadecadeoldwhenTeslashookhandswithEdison.HisdistributionnetworkinManhattanwasnotonlyimmenselyprofitable,butitwastheonlyoptionifyouwantedelectricity.So,whenTeslaexplainedthatalternatingcurrentwouldbethefutureofelectricity,Edisondismisseditasfancifulandunnecessary.Directcurrentwasgettingthejobdone,peoplelikedit,anditwasmakingEdisonandhisfinancier,J.P.Morgan,exorbitantsumsofmoney.InEdison’seyes,anythingthatchallengeditwasseennotasapraiseworthyadvancementofscienceandindustry,butathreat.
Despitehismonopolisticperspective,EdisonlikedTeslaandhiredhimonthespottoworkwithhiselectricalengineers.Tesla’sworkbeganwithsimpletaskssuchasrepairinglightingsystems,butwithinseveralmonths,hewasoneofEdison’smostvaluableengineers,andwassolvingsomeofthecompany’smostdifficultproblems.Edisonreferredtohimasa“damngoodman.”
In1885,TeslainformedEdisonthathecouldgreatlyimprovehisdirectcurrentgeneratorsbyredesigningkeyelements.EdisonthoughtitimpossibleandpromisedTesla$50,000ifhecoulddeliveronhisclaims.Teslaworkedtirelesslyforthebetterpartofayeartoimprovethegenerators,installingpartsofhisowndesign.Oncecompleted,hisgeneratorswereavastimprovementoverEdison’s.Theywerefarmoreefficientanddurable,andthusfarmoreprofitable.Edisonwasthoroughlyimpressed,butwhenTeslaaskedtobepaid,Edisonlaughedandclaimedhewasonlyjokingaboutthereward.
“Tesla,youdon’tunderstandourAmericanhumor,”hesaid.Instead,EdisonofferedTeslaaraiseof$10moreperweek,tobeaddedtohiscurrentsalaryof$18perweek.Teslawasdisgustedandimmediatelyresigned.Thiswasthebeginningofalifelongfeudbetweenthesetwogreatinventors—onethatEdisonwouldlaterlamentashis“greatestmistake.”
Betrayedbymenhetrusted,Teslafoundhimselfunemployedandindesperateneedofworktosurvive.Ironically,hetookajobasaditchdiggerforanEdisoncompany,andwaspaid$2perday.Hedescribedthistimeasoneof“terribleheadachesandbittertears,”adarkperiodsogrimthathebegantoquestionthevalueofhiseducationandknowledge.Butdespitehisheartbreak,hecontinuedtoexpandonhisdesignsforanalternatingcurrentsystemofgenerators,motors,andtransformers,butlackedthemoneytobuildprototypesandapplyforpatents.
WordslowlyspreadamongManhattan’selitethatamanofincomparablegeniuswasdiggingditchestosurvive.Sensinganopportunity,abandofwealthyinvestorseventuallyapproachedTeslatodevelopanimprovedsystemofarclighting.Althoughitwasn’ttheidealopportunityforTelsa,itbeatshovelingdirt.Plus,thegroupwaswillingtofinancetheTeslaElectricCompany,soTeslaagreed.Astheproudownerofanewcompany,heimmersedhimselfintheventureanddevelopedauniquearclampofbeautifuldesignandefficiency.
Oncethecompanybecameprofitable,Teslarealizedthathehadbeenswindled.Thevastmajorityoftheearningsweregoingtotheinvestors,andwhenhetriedtointeresttheminfinancinghisalternatingcurrentmotor,theynotonlyrejectedhisideasbutalsoejectedhimfromthecompany.Teslawasagain
dejected,unemployed,andbroke.Buthisluckwasabouttochange.
TwomenapproachedTesla—AlfredBrown,directorofWesternUnion,andCharlesPeck,aNewYorkCityattorney—in1887tolearnmoreabouthisalternatingcurrenttheoriesanddesigns.Teslapassionatelydescribedhowtheentiresystemwouldwork,fromgenerationtotransmission.Themenwereimpressedandagreedtoinvestintheproject.TheysetupTelsawithasmalllaboratoryclosetoEdison’soffice,wherehequicklydevelopedallthenecessarycomponentsforthesystem.
“ThemotorsIbuiltthere,”Teslalatersaid,“wereexactlyasIimaginedthem.Imadenoattempttoimprovethedesign,butmerelyreproducedthepicturesastheyappearedtomyvisionandtheoperationwasalwaysasexpected.”
InNovember1887,TeslafiledforsevenU.S.Patentsforhisinventions,whichweresooriginalthattheywereissuedwithoutchallenge.Thesepatentscomprisedacompletesystemofgenerators,transformers,transmissionlines,motors,andlighting.Theywouldbecomethemostvaluablepatentssincethetelephone.Inaccordancewiththeiragreement,Teslasplittheownershipofthepatentsonafifty-fiftybasiswithhisinvestors.
Teslahadwonthebattletoproducehisrevolutionaryalternatingcurrentmotors,butthewarwasfarfromover.
Wordoftheextraordinarypatentsreachedtheacademicworld.TeslawassooninvitedtolecturebeforetheAmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers.Hispresentationswerelaudedasvisionary,breakthrough,andincrediblypractical.Engineersaroundtheworldwereabuzz,andthiscaughttheattentionofbusinessmagnateGeorgeWestinghouse,theinventorofrailroadairbrakes.HehadadreamofprovidingelectricitythroughouttheentireUnitedStates,andhebelievedthatalternatingcurrentwasthefutureofelectricalgenerationandlong-distancetransmission.
WestinghousevisitedTesla’slabandmadeanofferforhispatents:$25,000incash,$50,000instockinhiscompany,andaroyaltyof$2.50perhorsepowerofalternatingcurrentmotorssold.Thetermsweremorethanacceptable—ifhismotorsweregoingtobeassuccessfulasheandWestinghouseenvisioned,theroyaltiesalonewouldmakehimoneoftherichestmenintheworld.
Teslahappilyaccepted,spenthalfofhiscashpaymenttoconstructanewlab,andoversawthebuildingandinstallationofalternatingcurrentsystemsacrossthecountry.Healsoimmediatelybeganresearchintowhathetermed“radiantenergy.”HisstudiesledhimtodiscoverwhatwenowknowasX-rays,andhowtousethemtoproduceradiographs.Hedidn’tmakehisdiscoverieswidelyknown,however,whichiswhytheywouldlaterbeattributedtoGermanphysicistWillhelmRontgen.X-rayswerethefirstofseveralgroundbreakingdiscoveriesofTesla’sthatwouldwindupmisattributedtoothers.
Teslawasneveronetochaserecognition—hewasafterthepurethrillofdiscoveryandcreation.Hisimaginationwasafactorywithunlimitedresources,andtheworldanexcitingplaygroundwithunlimitedpossibilities.HewasexcitedtoseemenlikeRontgenpioneernewfieldsofunderstanding,andwashappythathisworkcontributedtotheriseofothergreatmen.
WithTesla’selectricalrevolutionpoisedtoredefinetheworldofindustrialdevelopment,EdisonandMorganlaunchedafull-scalepropagandaassaultagainstalternatingcurrent.Edisonknewthatdirectcurrentwouldhavetostampoutalternatingcurrenttosurvive.Morepersonally,hewasheavilyinvestedbothfinanciallyandemotionallyinhisdirectcurrentnetworkofgeneratorsanddistributionlines.
Edisondeclaredpubliclythatalternatingcurrentdeliveredtoahomewouldkillacustomerwithinsixmonths.Leafletsaboutthedangersofalternatingcurrentweredistributed.LobbyingeffortsweremadeinNewYorktolimitlevelsofelectricityto800volts“asamatterofpublicsafety,”whichwouldconvenientlymakelong-distancealternatingcurrenttransmissionimpossible.
Edison’seffortsthentookaturnforthegrisly.HebeganholdingweekenddemonstrationsofthehazardsofTesla’sworkbyelectrocutinganimalsfoundroamingthestreets.Hedirectedtwotechnicianstodothesame,includingtheexecutionofcattleandhorses.Themorbidcampaignclimaxedin1890withEdison’sinvolvementintheuseofaWestinghousegeneratortoexecuteaconvictedax-murderer.Thevoltagetokillhadbeenmisjudged,leavingthecriminalbadlyinjured,andtheprocesshadtoberepeated.Ajournalistdescribedtheeventasan“awfulspectacle,farworsethanhanging.”Thetorturousmethodofexecutionwasdubbed“Westinghousing,”andMorganandEdisontriedtopopularizetheterminthemedia.
DisgustedbyEdison’sshamelesscrueltyanddishonesty,Teslabeganperformingregularexhibitionsofhistechnologyinhislaboratoryinwhichhelightedlampsbyallowingalternatingcurrentelectricitytoflowthroughhisbody.Publicopinionswungtoandfro,unsureofwhomtobelieve.
Inthiswecanseethenecessityofbeingwillingtofightforyourcreations.MorganandEdisonweren’tsatisfiedwithtryingtoruinTeslathroughcapitalisticcompetition—theywereresortingtooutrightdepravityanddishonesty.ImaginethepressureTeslafaced:boththeworld’smostpowerfulfinancier—oneofthelastenemiesyou’dwant—andtheworld’sgreatestinventorweretryingtodrawabeadonhimandpullthetrigger.Mostmenwould’vequietlyresigned,orbeggedforscraps,butnotTesla.
Ultimately,noamountofoppositioncouldstifleTesla’screativepowers.EnthusedbyhisdiscoverieswithX-rays,hedevotedhisenergiestotherealmofhigh-frequencyelectricity.Twodecadesearlier,JamesClerkMaxwellhadprovenmathematicallythatlightwaselectromagneticradiation—electricitythatwasvibratingatanextremelyhighfrequency.In1888,HeinrichHertzhadconfirmedthatanelectricsparkemitselectromagneticwaves.Teslaknewthatthisunexploredterritorywouldyieldastoundinginventions—lightscouldglowbrighter,energycouldbetransmittedmoreefficientlyandevenpassthroughthebodyharmlessly.
ThefirstmilestoneinthisnewresearchwasTesla’sinventionofwhatbecameknownasthe“Teslacoil.”Itwasadevicethattooknormalsixty-cycle-per-secondalternatingcurrentelectricityandsteppedituptoanultra-highfrequencyofhundreds-of-thousandsofcyclespersecond,andextremelyhighvoltages.Teslausedhiscoiltoinventthefirsthigh-efficiency,high-frequencyfluorescentlamp.Thisdiscoverypalesincomparisontowhatheuncoverednext,however.
In1891,inhisNewYorkCitylab,Teslaprovedthatenergycouldbetransmittedthroughtheairbywirelesslylightinglamps.ThisdiscoveryfascinatedTesla,sparkinghislifelongobsessionwithwirelessenergy.Heimmediatelyenvisionedanetworkoftransmissionstationsthatwouldprovidefree,wirelessenergytonotonlytheUnitedStates,buttheworld.
Hiscoilshelpedhimdiscoveryetanotherphenomenonthatwouldchangetheworld:radiowaves.WhenTeslatunedtwocoilstoresonateatthesamefrequency,hefoundthathecouldsendandreceivesignals.Hehadaccidentallybuiltthefirstradiotransmitterandmadethefirsttransmissions,methodshewouldpatentwithintwoyears.
Tesla’scontinuedresearchinthefieldofultra-high-frequencyenergyledhimtoconcludethatitwasonlyamatteroftimeuntilsciencewoulddiscoveraveritablesourceofinexhaustible,freeenergy—a
waytoattachmachineryto“theverywheelworkofnature.”
WhileTeslahadbegunenvisioningthedawnofanelectricaleraofunimaginablesophistication,heandWestinghousestillhadtoprovethatalternatingcurrentwasaworthyheirtodirectcurrent’sthrone.The“WaroftheCurrents”wasatafeverpitch.Edison’sgruesomestuntsandvigorouspropagandacampaignweredrivingwaveafterwaveofnegativepress,butalternatingcurrentwonanopportunitytoonceandforallproveitsvalue.
TheWestinghouseCorporationwonabidforilluminatingthe1893ChicagoWorld’sFair,whichwastobethefirstall-electricfairinhistory.Thefairwasalsotobeacelebrationofthe400-yearanniversaryofColumbus’discoveryofAmerica.BecauseoftheefficiencyofTesla’sinventions,Westinghouse’sproposalwashalfofwhatEdison’snewlyformedGeneralElectriccompanyrequiredforthejob.Edisonwasfuriousthathelostthebid,andforbidtheuseofhislightbulbsinthefair.WestinghousewoulduseTesla’sfluorescentbulbsinstead,andTeslaevenhadtheideatobendtheglasstubesandthusspellthenamesoffamousscientists.Thus,theworld’sfirstneonsigns.
OntheeveningofMay1,1893,over27millionpeopleanxiouslyawaitedtoseethefutureofelectricity.WhenPresidentGroverClevelandpushedabutton,over100,000lamps,wiredto12newthousand-horsepoweralternatingcurrentgenerators,turnednighttoday.Attendeeslookedoninawe,dubbingthewonderthe“CityofLight.”
Duringthefair,Teslaamazedthemillionsoffairgoersbyallowingelectricitytoflowthroughhisbodytoilluminatelightbulbs.Healsousedhiscoilstoshootlarge,harmlesslightningboltsintothecrowd,frighteninganddelightingtheaudience.Heevendemonstratedwirelessenergybylightinglampsthathadnowires.
Withinaweek,theentirenationwasravingaboutalternatingcurrentasthefutureofelectricity.ThefairwasadebilitatingblowtoEdison’sdirectcurrent,andforeshadowedthecoupdegraceintheWaroftheCurrents.
Westinghousewascontactedlatein1893bytheNiagaraFallsCommission,whichhadbeenchargedwithdevelopingapowerplantthatwouldharnesstheforceofthefalls.Thecommissionhadsolicitedandrejectedproposalsfromaroundtheworld,reviewingschemesthatrangedfromusingpneumaticpressuretoconstructingbizarredevicesofropes,springs,andpulleys.LordKelvin,thefamousBritishphysicist,headedthecommissionand,afterinspectingTesla’swork,wascertainthatthefallsneededtoproducealternatingcurrentelectricity.
ItwasadreamprojectforTesla,andWestinghousewasawardedthecontract.Constructionbeganimmediately,andTeslawouldoverseeit.Progresswasslow.Theprojectwasperilousandfraughtwithsetbacks,doubts,andfinancialcrises,despitehavingthebackingofopulentfinancierslikeJ.P.Morgan,LordRothschild,JohnJacobAstor,andW.K.Vanderbilt.Afterfiveyears,theventureapproachedcompletion,buttheinvestorswerelessthanoptimisticthattheunprovenandexpensivemachineswouldwork.Tesla,however,assuredthemthattheywouldworkjustastheydidinhismind.
Ayearlater,theNiagarapowerplantwasreadyforoperation.Whentheswitchwasthrown,allworriesandanxietiesmelted.ThefirstpowerreachedBuffaloatmidnightNovember16,1896,nearly22milesaway.PlanswereimmediatelysetinmotiontopowerallofNewYorkCitywiththestation.Teslawaspraisedworldwideasahero,andwasreferredtoasthe“WizardoftheWest.”
Morgan,whocontrolledEdison’sdirectcurrentpatents,wasnowfullyconvincedthatalternating
currenthaddefeatedEdison’swork.HeapproachedWestinghousetostrikeadeal.Morgandidn’tcarewhatkindofelectricitywasusedintheworld,aslongashecontrolledit.
OneofMorgan’smanagers,CharlesCoffin,gloatedtoWestinghouseabouthoweasilyMorganhadestablishedEdison’smonopolybybribinglocalpoliticiansandinstallingsystemsthataretooexpensivetochange.ThesamecouldbedoneforWestinghouseandalternatingcurrent,Coffinclaimed.WestinghouserebuffedMorgan’soffersandmadeitclearthattheirstylesofbusinessweren’tcompatible.
Morganretaliatedwithastrategythatwouldbecomeoneofhishallmarks.HespreadrumorstoWallStreetthatWestinghouse’scompanywasfinanciallyunstable,whichdissuadedinvestorsfromgivingWestinghousethecapitalthatheneededtoexpandtheproductionandinstallationofhisalternatingcurrentgenerators.Morganthenbegananattackthroughstockmanipulation,andmovedtogaincontrolofTheWestinghouseCorporation,andthusTesla’spatents.
Bytheendof1897,Westinghousewasnearlybankrupt,anditlookedasthoughMorganwouldusurpeverythingthatTeslaandWestinghousehadbuilttogether.WestinghouseowedTeslaover$1millioninroyalties,anamountthatgrewdaily.WhenWestinghousedescribedtoTeslathedesperatesituation,Teslarepliedwiththefollowing:
“Mr.Westinghouse,youhavebeenmyfriend,youbelievedinmewhenothershadnofaith;youwerebraveenoughtogoaheadwhenotherslackedcourage;yousupportedmewhenevenyourownengineerslackedvision....Hereisyourcontract,andhereismycontract.Iwilltearthembothtopieces,andyouwillnolongerhaveanytroublesfrommyroyalties.”
Intime,theseroyaltieswould’vemadeTeslatheworld’sfirstbillionaire.Instead,theyenabledWestinghousetosavehiscompany.Tesla’sselflessnesswasatestamentnotonlytohisgenerosityandgoodwill,buthisbeliefinhisabilitytocontinuetocreatehisfuture.Hewascertainthathisbestworkstilllayaheadofhim,andthathewouldsooninventmachinesthatwoulddwarfeverythingthathehadaccomplishedthusfar.
Thisisthebeautyofimagination.Anunexpecteddeadendinonejourneyismerelyanopportunitytosetanewcourseforanother.Losingwhatwehavecanonlydousrealharmwhenwefeelwecan’tcreateit,orsomethingequallyvaluableorcompelling,again,andthatabilityresidessquarelyinourimagination.
“Thereissomethingwithinmethatmightbeillusionasitisoftencasewithyoungdelightedpeople,butifIwouldbefortunatetoachievesomeofmyideals,itwouldbeonthebehalfofthewholeofhumanity,”Teslawrote.
Tesla’simaginationinspiredhimtofocusalargeportionofhiseffortsonradio,high-frequencyelectricity,andradiation.Heformulatedprinciplesthatledtothediscoveryofcosmicrays,andinventedan“electricigniter,”orsparkplug,forinternalcombustionengines.
In1898,Teslaannouncedhislatestinvention:awaytoremotelycontrolmachineswithradiotechnology.SkepticismwaswidelyexpressedandquicklydiffusedthankstohisMadisonSquareGardendemonstrationofremotelydrivingasmallmetalboatthroughanindoorpond.Manyspectatorsbelievedthathewassomehowcontrollingtheboatwithhismind.
Thebrandnewuseofradiotechnologycouldbeusedformanythings,Teslasaid.Heenvisionedoneorseveraloperatorsdirectingscoresofvesselsormachinesthroughradiotransmittersandreceiverstunedtodifferentfrequencies.WhenaNewYorkTimeswritersuggestedthatTesla’sdiscoverycouldbe
usedinwartocreatearemote-controlledtorpedo,Teslaquicklyrefutedhim,“Youdonotseethereawirelesstorpedo,youseetherethefirstofaraceofrobots,mechanicalmenwhichwilldothelaboriousworkofthehumanrace.”
InhisnewManhattanlab,fundedmeagerlybyfriends,Tesla’swondrousimaginationledhimtoresearchtheresonantfrequenciesoftheearth.Hemistakenlycausedanearthquakethatengulfedthesurroundingcityblocks,breakingwindowsandshakingtheplasteroffofthewalls.Heannouncedthathehaddiscoveredhowtoturntheearthintoagianttuningfork,andthat,intheory,theprinciplescouldshattertheEmpireStateBuildingorevenpossiblycausetheearthto“splitopenlikeanapple.”
Teslathensuspectedthattheupperatmosphereoftheplanetcouldbeusedtotransmitelectricalpowergreatdistancesduetothinner,moreconductiveair.Hedecidedthattofullyexplorethesepossibilities,hewouldneedtoestablishalabinrelativeseclusionsoastonotendangerneighboringbuildingsandpeople.
Withmoneyfromhisfriendandpatentlawyer,LeonardCurtis,andmagnateJohnJacobAstor,TeslaandseveralassistantsmovedtoColoradoSpringsandbeganbuildinganewexperimentalresearchstation.HetoldlocalreportersthatheintendedtosendaradiosignaltoParis,butprovidednodetails.
Whilehislabwasunderconstruction,Teslastudiedthephenomenonoflightning,andmadewhatheconsideredhismostimportantdiscoverytodate.Hefoundthattheearthwas“literallyalivewithelectricalvibrations,”andthattheentireplanetcanbe“thrownintovibrationlikeatuningfork.”Teslawasabsolutelycertainthatthisphenomenoncouldbeusedtotransmitunlimitedelectricalpowerandtelecommunicationsignalsanywhereintheworldwithvirtuallynosignallossordegradation.
“Whenthegreattruthaccidentallyrevealedandexperimentallyconfirmedisfullyrecognized,thatthisplanet,withallitsappallingimmensity,istoelectriccurrentsvirtuallynomorethanasmallmetalballandthatbythisfactmanypossibilities,eachbafflingimaginationandofincalculableconsequence,arerenderedabsolutelysureofaccomplishment,”hewrote.
Oncecompleted,hisnewlab’smostprominentfeaturewasawoodentowerthatstoodover80feettallandsupporteda142-footmetalmastthatwascappedbyalargecopperball.Insidethetowerwastheworld’slargestTeslaCoil,whichwastobeusedtosendpowerfulelectricalsurgesintotheearth.
Tofurthertesthistheoryoftheconductivityoftheearth,Teslaneededtocreateelectricaleffectsonthescaleoflightning.Theresultwasthecreationoftheworld’slargestman-madelightningbolts,whichshotoutfromhistowerover100feetintotheair,andwhichblewoutthegeneratorofthelocalpowercompany.TheexperimentwasaresoundingsuccessforTesla;hislightning“flashedacurrentaroundtheglobe,”provingthathecouldindeeddeliverpowertoanypointonthesurfaceoftheplanet.
Forthenextninemonths,TeslaconductedawidevarietyofexperimentsatColoradoSprings.Hewirelesslylitover200lampsfromadistanceofover25miles,provingthatelectricitycouldbetransmittedgreatdistancesthroughtheair.Throughthetransmissionofultra-low-frequencysignalsthroughthespacebetweenthesurfaceoftheearthandtheionosphere,hecalculatedthattheresonantfrequencyofthisareawasapproximatelyeighthertz—adiscoverythatwasdismissedinhistimebutconfirmednearly50yearslater.Hisresearchindicatedthatifhecouldsendachargedbeamofelectricityabout50milesintothesky—intotheionosphere—thatitcouldbecarriedaroundtheworldanddrawnuponforpower.
Whileworkinglateonenight,Teslanoticedthathispowerfulradioreceiverwaspickingupastrange,
rhythmicsignalforwhichhehadnoexplanation.Onethingwascertain:thepulseswerenotofnaturalorigin.Heconcludedthattheymustbecommunicationsfromthestars.Whenherevealedthisincident,hewaswidelyridiculedforsuggestingsuch“nonsense.”
AfterTeslaleftColoradoSpringsinJanuary1900toreturntoNewYorkCity,hewroteasensationalarticleforCenturyMagazineinwhichheeagerlydescribedhisplansforafuturewherewecouldtapthesun’senergy,controltheweatherwithelectricity,endwarwithmachinesthatwouldmakeitanimpossibility,wirelesslytransmitpowerandradiosignalsaroundtheentireglobe,engageininterplanetarycommunications,andevenconstructrobotic“automatons”thatwouldconductthemselvesindependentofoperators.Tomanyreaders,thisvisionwasalmostincomprehensible,butTeslawasfullyconvincedthatitall—andmore—couldbeaccomplished,andthatheknewhow.
ThearticlecaughttheattentionofJ.P.Morgan,whocalledonTesla.TeslametwithMorganandexplainedthathecouldbuilda“worldsystem”ofwirelesscommunicationstorelaytelephonesignals,news,privatemessages,securemilitarycommunications,andevenpicturestoanypointintheworld.“Whenwirelessisfullyappliedtheearthwillbeconvertedintoahugebrain,capableofresponseineveryoneofitsparts,”Teslapromised.
MorganofferedtofundtheconstructionofthepowerplantandtransmissiontowernecessarytopursueTesla’sfantasticalclaims.OnewouldthinkthatTeslawouldbalkatanyofferingsofMorgan’sasheclearlycouldn’tbetrusted—hewasoneofthedrivingforcesbehindthepropagandausedagainstTeslaintheWaroftheCurrents.Andjustthreeyearsearlier,MorganmaneuveredtostealWestinghouse’scompany,costingTeslahislucrativeroyaltyagreement.Nevertheless,TeslachosetopartnerwithMorgan,adecisionthatwouldprovetobethebiggestmistakeofhislife.
Teslacalculatedthathewouldneedabout$1milliontoconstructthepowerstationandtransmissionequipment.Morganoffered$150,000insteadand,inexchange,wanted51%ownershipinallofTesla’sexistingandfuturepatentsandinventionsrelatingtobothelectriclightingandwirelesstelegraphyortelephony.TeslaacceptedMorgan’shard-fistedtermsandwenttoworkimmediately.
Teslaacquired200acresonthecliffsofLongIslandSoundand,inDecember1901,beganconstructionontheproject.Themostprominentfeatureoftheinstallationwouldbea187-foottowercappedbya55-tonsteelspherehousingamassiveTeslaCoil.Beneaththetowerwastobeashaftthatwouldplunge120feetintotheground.Sixteenironrodswouldbedrivenover300feetdeeperforsendingelectricalcurrentsdeepintotheearth.“Itisnecessaryforthemachinetogetagripoftheearth,otherwiseitcannotshaketheearth,”Teslasaid.“Ithastohaveagrip...sothatthewholeofthisglobecanquiver.”
ConstructionoftheWardenclyffeTower,asitbecameknown,wasslowandexpensive.DelaysinreceivingequipmentplaguedTesladuetothecomplicatedandunusualnatureofhisdesigns.In1903,thetowerstructurewasnearlycomplete,andthetransmitterwasoperational.Astestingbegan,residentsintheareareportedseeing“allsortsoflightning”flashingfromthetower’spoles,fillingtheairwith“blindingstreaksofelectricitywhichseemedtoshootoffintothedarknessonsomemysteriouserrand.”
“Assoonasitiscompleted,itwillbepossibleforabusinessmaninNewYorktodictateinstructions,andhavetheminstantlyappearintypeathisofficeinLondonorelsewhere,”Teslaexplainedinaninterview.“Hewillbeabletocallup,fromhisdesk,andtalktoanytelephonesubscriberontheglobe,withoutanychangewhateverintheexistingequipment.Aninexpensiveinstrument,notbiggerthanawatch,willenableitsbearertohearanywhere,onseaorland,musicorsong,thespeechofapoliticalleader,theaddressofaneminentmanofscience,orthesermonofaneloquentclergyman,deliveredin
someotherplace,howeverdistant.Inthesamemanneranypicture,character,drawing,orprintcanbetransferredfromonetoanotherplace.Millionsofsuchinstrumentscanbeoperatedfrombutoneplantofthiskind.Moreimportantthanallofthis,however,willbethetransmissionofpower,withoutwires,whichwillbeshownonascalelargeenoughtocarryconviction.”
Last-minutedesignchangeswererequired,however,necessitatingmoremoney.TeslahadalreadyobtainedasecondloanfromMorgan,andwhenthosefundsranout,heagainapproachedthefinancierforadditionalcapital.InanattempttoconvincethepowerfulMorgantoinvestanotherlargesum,Teslaexplainedthatthetowercouldbeusedformorethantransmittingradiosignals—itcouldbeusedtosaturatetheentireglobewithelectricityharmlesstolivingthingssothateveryonecouldobtainusablepowerbysimplystickingwiresinthesoil.
MorganconsideredTesla’swordscarefullyandcoldlyreplied,“Ifanyonecandrawonthepower,wheredoweputthemeter?”HerefusedTesla’spleadingsformoremoney,forcingTeslatousehisownfunds,whichheknewtobeinsufficienttocompletetheproject.Undaunted,Teslaapproachedotherpotentialinvestors,includingJohnJacobAstor,butnobodywasinterestedinpickingupaprojectabandoned,andnowcondemned,bythemostpowerfulmaninAmerica.Despitehiscontinuedefforts,TeslawatchedinhorrorashisWardenclyffedreambegantofade.
Onlymonthslater,in1904,theU.S.PatentOfficestrippedTeslaofhisradiopatentsandawardedthemtotheItalianinventorGuglielmoMarconi,instead.MarconihadusedradiotechnologypioneeredbyTesla11yearsearliertotransmittheletter“s”inmorsecodeover2,000miles,whichgavehimnoclaimtothepatents,ofcourse.Whatdidgivehimclaim,though?HehadthefinancialbackingofMorgan,Edison,andsteelbaronAndrewCarnegie,allofwhomheldswayineverylevelofgovernment.
By1905,TeslaranoutofmoneyandwasforcedtolayofftheWardenclyffeworkersandshutdownthefacility.Newspapersdecrieditashis“milliondollarfolly,”towhichTeslaresponded,“Itisasimplefeatofscientificelectricalengineering,onlyexpensive...blind,faint-hearteddoubtingworld.”
Hismalaisecouldn’tsnuffhisimaginationandloveofhiswork,however.Herefocusedhiseffortsoncommerciallyviablemachineryand—in1906,onhis50thbirthday—presenteda200-horsepowerbladelessturbineenginetotheworld.HewasalsocontractedbytheWalthamWatchCompanytobuildtheworld’sfirstandonlyair-frictionspeedometer,whichhepatented.
MarconiwasawardedaNobelPrizein1911forhis“achievements”inradio,andwashailedasthe“fatherofradio.”Teslawasinfuriatedand,in1915,suedMarconiforinfringementonhispatents.Hedidn’thavethemoneytotakeontheflushMarconi,however,andthesuitwasdismissed.Inthesameyear,itwasannouncedthatTeslaandEdisonwerepotentiallaureatestosharetheNobelPrizeof1915.Bothmenrefusedtoaccepttheawardtogether,orseparatelyiftheotherweretoreceiveitfirst.
Ayearlater,Teslawasforcedtodeclarebankruptcyduetobacktaxesowed,incitingthemediatodisparagehimasapennilesswizard.Humiliatedanddefeated,TeslabegantospendmoretimevisitingtheNewYorkCityparks,rescuinginjuredpigeonsandnursingthembacktohealthinhishotelroomattheHotelNewYorker,wherehelived.Thisfueledrumorsthathehadlosthismind,andthatnothingmorewouldcomefromhisextraordinarygenius.Theywerewrong.
TheNewYorkHeraldTribuneranastoryonOctober15,1911called“Tesla’sNewMonarchofMachines.”Init,Teslaproclaimedthathewasworkingonaflyingmachinethat“willhaveneitherwingsorpropellers”oranyon-boardsourceoffuel,andthatwouldresembleagasstoveinshape.UsingthegyroscopicactionofanenginethatTeslahadbuilt,andassistedbydevicesthathewas“notpreparedto
talkabout,”themachinewouldbeableto“movethroughtheairinanydirectionwithperfectsafety,higherspeedsthanhaveyetbeenreached,regardlessofweatherandobliviousof‘holes’intheair.”Further,itwouldbeableto“remainabsolutelystationaryintheair,eveninawind,forgreatlengthoftime.”
AllisChalmers,anAmericanmanufacturingcompany,andtherailwayandlightingdivisionoftheWestinghouseCompanycontractedTeslatobuildhisflyingmachine,buttheprojectneverbeganforunknownreasons.
AftertheoutbreakofWorldWarI,in1917,theU.S.governmentwaslookingforawaytodetectGermanU-boatsandputEdisoninchargeoffindingaworkablemethod.ItwasTesla,however,thatproposedtheuseofradiowavestodetecttheships—thefirstdescriptionofradar.Edisonrejectedtheideaasludicrous,andtheworldhadtowaitnearlytwodecadesbeforeEmileGirardeauwoulddevelopanobstacle-locatingradiodevice“conceivedaccordingtotheprinciplesstatedbyTesla,”asheputit.
Teslaspentthe1920sworkingasanengineeringconsultant,regularlyfindinghimselfatoddswithhisemployersduetothe“impracticalnature”ofhisplansanddesigns.In1928,attheageof72,hereceivedhislastpatent,“ApparatusForAerialTransportation.”Thiswasaningeniouslydesignedflyingmachinethatwasahybridofahelicopterandairplane.Thevehiclewouldweigh800pounds,ascendvertically,andthenrotateitsenginestoflylikeanairplane.Thiswasthepredecessorofwhatwenowknowasthetiltrotor,orVSTOL(VerticalShortTakeoffandLanding)plane.Unfortunately,Teslalackedthefundstobuildaprototype.
TIMEMagazinefeaturedTeslaonitscoverforhis75thbirthday,in1931,andEinsteinpraisedhimas“aneminentpioneerintherealmofhighfrequencycurrents.”Laterthatyear,Teslaannouncedthathewasonthevergeofdiscoveringanentirelynewsourceofenergy,andwhenthepressaskedhimtodescribeit,hisreplywas,“Theideafirstcameuponmeasatremendousshock...Icanonlysayatthistimethatitwillcomefromanentirelynewandunsuspectedsource.”
Thefollowingyear,thePierce-ArrowautomobilemanufacturerandGeorgeWestinghousecommissionedTeslatodevelopanelectricmotortopoweracar.Themotorhebuiltmeasuredamere40incheslongand30inchesacross,andproducedabout80horsepower.Underthehoodwastheengine:asmall,12-voltstoragebatteryandtwothickwiresthatwentfromthemotortothedashboard.
Teslaconnectedthewirestoasmallblackbox,whichhehadbuilttheweekbeforewithcomponentsheboughtfromalocalradioshop.“Wenowhavepower,”hesaid.Thismysteriousdevicewasusedtorigorouslytestthecarforeightdays,reachingspeedsof90mph.Heletnobodyinspectthebox,andcrypticallysaidthatittapsintoa“mysteriousradiationwhichcomesoutoftheaether,”andthattheenergyisavailablein“limitlessquantities.”Thepublicrespondedsuperstitiouslywithchargesof“blackmagic”andallianceswithsinisterforcesoftheuniverse.Affronted,hetookhisblackboxbackwithhimtoNewYorkCityandspokenothingfurtherofit.
Meanwhile,Europewasagainmarchingtowardwar.Teslahadlongdreamedofawaytomakewartechnologicallyimpossible.OnJuly,111934,theNewYorkTimesranafront-pageheadlinethatread,“TESLA,AT78,BARESNEW‘DEATHBEAM,’”anddescribedanew“teleforce”inventionthatwouldsend“concentratedbeamsofparticlesthroughthefreeair,ofsuchtremendousenergythattheywillbringdownafleetof10,000enemyairplanesatadistanceof250miles...”Teslasaidthatwarwouldbeunfeasiblewheneverycountryhadhis“invisibleChinesewall.”
Theannouncementgeneratedconsiderablecontroversy,andTeslawaswidelycriticizedasa“mad
scientist”whosesanitywasslipping.Undaunted,heapproachedJ.P.MorganJr.insearchoffundingforaprototype,butunsurprisingly,MorganJr.wasn’tinterested.RumorsspreadthatTeslahadinterestedthePrimeMinisterofGreatBritain,NevilleChamberlain,butthisprospectevaporatedwhenChamberlainresignedfromhisposition.
Frustratedbythelackofinterestinhis“superweapontoendallwar,”TeslasentdetailedschematicstoanumberofAlliednations,includingtheUnitedStates,Canada,England,France,andtheSovietUnion.Nonewerewillingtomaketheinvestmentrequiredtobuildthedevice,buttwoyearslater,onestageoftheplanwastestedbytheUSSR.TheysentTeslaacheckfor$25,000,gavelittledetailsoftheirexperiment,andcommunicatednothingfurther.
Teslacontinuedtoworkdiligently,andin1937,statedtothepressthathehadcompleteda“dynamictheoryofgravity,”andthathewouldhopetosoongiveittotheworld.Itwouldneverbepublished.HealsocriticizedEinstein’stheoryofrelativity,callingita“magnificentmathematicalgarbwhichfascinates,dazzles,andmakespeopleblindtotheunderlyingerrors.”
OnJanuary5,1943,Teslaplacedasmall“donotdisturb”signonhisdoorintheNewYorkerHotel.Twodayslater,thesignremained.Themaidenteredtofindhimdeadinhisbed.Hewas86yearsold.Despitereceivingover800patentsinhislifetime,andquiteliterallyinventingthetwentiethcentury,hediedpennilessandalone.Amedicalexaminationdeterminedabloodclotinhisheartwasresponsibleforthedeath,andthattherewerenosuspiciouscircumstances.
Whenhiscousin,SavaKosanovic,arrivedathisroomthenextmorning,Tesla’sbodywasalreadygoneaswerehiseffects.Papersandnotebooksweremissing,includingatreasuredblacknotebookthatcontainedhundredsofpagesoftechnicalresearchnotes.Twodayslater,theU.S.OfficeofAlienPropertyseizedallofTesla’spossessions,andhispapersweredeclaredtopsecretbytheWarDepartmentduetothenatureoftheinventionsandpatents.
Oneyearlater,nearlythreedecadesafterTeslabeganthefight,theU.S.SupremeCourtconfirmedthatMarconi’sradiopatentsindeedinfringedonTesla’sandthereforedeclaredTeslaasthetrue“fatherofradio.”
---
Einsteinsaidthat“imaginationismoreimportantthanknowledge,”because“knowledgeislimitedtoallwenowknowandunderstand,whileimaginationembracestheentireworld,andallthereeverwillbetoknowandunderstand.”
Allgreatgeniusesareincrediblycreativeintheirownways.They’reabletotakewhatisknown,dreamofnewpossibilities,andbringthemintotheworld.Everymathematicalenigmasolved,everymasterfulsymphonycomposed,everyrevolutionarymachineinvented,everybrilliantphilosophypenned,everygreatcorporationbuilt...theyallsprangfromapersonwithanextraordinaryimagination.
MarcusAureliusoncesaidthataperson’slifeis“dyedwiththecolorofhisimagination.”Yourjourneytogreatnesscertainlywillbetoo.Stopandthinkforasecondthefrontiersthatlieaheadforourspecies.TheEarthhasbeenthoroughlyconquered.Theonceradicalphilosophiesofequality,tolerance,andindividualismareembracedbymuchofthecivilizedworld.Thesecretsoftheatomhavegivenustheabilitytoextinguisheverylivingthingontheplanet.Whatisnext?Welooktotheimaginationofgeniusesfortheanswers.
Whatisimagination,though?Michelangelosaidhesawangelsinthemarbleandcarveduntilhesetthemfree.Mostofusregardcreativityinthesamewayweregardthatstatement—asamysteriousgiftthatcan’tbeexplainedorcultivated.Butwe’rewrong.Likegeniusitself,creativityisaprocess,notaprovidence.
TheSecrettoCreativity
Dylan’sLikeaRollingStone.Shakespeare’sHamlet.Bell’stelephone.Pythagoras’theorem.
Howdidtheycomeupwithsuchunique,profoundideas?Well,there’sananswer,andit’sprobablynotwhatyouthink.
SteveJobssaidcreativityis“justconnectingthings.”
SalvadorDalisaid“thosewhodonotwanttoimitateanything,producenothing.”
Picassosaid“goodartistscopybutgreatartistssteal.”
MarkTwainsaid“allideasaresecond-hand,consciouslyandunconsciouslydrawnfromamillionoutsidesources.”
Nomagnificentproductoftheimagination—whetheramachine,painting,orphilosophy—wascreatedinacompletevacuum.Theinventionofthetelegraphtooktheeffortsofathousand,butthelastman,whoaddedthatfinalinspiredtouch,gotthecredit.
Whenyoustartviewingcreativityasaprocessofcombination,andimaginationastheabilitytoconnect,stretch,andmergethingsinnewways,creativebrilliancebecomeslessmystifying.Acreativegeniusisjustbetteratconnectingthedotsthanothersare.
That’swhythecoffeehouseintheAgeofEnlightenmentandtheParisiansalonsofmodernismweresuchenginesofcreativity;theywerespaceswheremanypeoplefrommanydifferentbackgroundsandareasofexpertisecametoswap,join,andborrowmanydifferentideas.
Don’tconfusecreativityandimaginationwith“thinking”either.RayBradburysaidthatthinkingistheenemyofcreativitybecauseit’sself-conscious.Whenyouthinkyousitcalmlyandtrytoreasonthroughsomethinginastructured,logicalway.Creativitydancestoadifferenttune.Onceyouflipthatswitch,thingsgetabitchaotic.Ideasstartbuzzing.Imagesstartpoppingintoyourhead.Fragmentsofallkindsofdatafindtheirwayintoorbit.We’repulledinonedirection,thensuddenlyourinstinctssendusflyinginanother.Materialcollidesandfuses,disappearsandreappears.Thischaosisessentialtothecreativeprocess.Abreakthroughoccurswhenpieceshappentocometogetherinuniqueandharmonicways.
“Ourfirstendeavorsarepurelyinstinctivepromptingofanimaginationvividandundisciplined,”Teslawrote.“Aswegrowolderreasonassertsitselfandwebecomemoreandmoresystematicanddesigning.Butthoseearlyimpulses,thoughnotimmediatelyproductive,areofthegreatestmomentandmayshapeourverydestinies.”
There’sacatchto“combinatorialcreativity,”though.Beforeyoucanconnectdots,youneedtohavedotstoconnect.Themorematerialyou’reexposedtointheworld,themoregristyou’llhaveforyourimaginationmill.Teslafullyimmersedhimselfintheworldofelectricity.Hereadhundredsofbooks.Heconductedthousandsofexperimentsandtookcopiousnotes.Themorevariedyourknowledgeand
experiencesare,themorelikelyyouaretobeabletocreatenewassociationsandfreshideas.
Yourmindhasanincredibleabilitytocross-pollinate—thatis,toconnectdisparatethingstosolveproblemsinuniquewaysorenvisionnewcreations.Einsteinattributedmanyofhisphysicsbreakthroughstohisviolinbreaks,whichhebelievedhelpedhimconnectideasinverydifferentways.
Thisbringsusbacktothebeginningofthegeniuscode:curiosity.It’sanessentialpartofbecomingmorecreative.Expandyourinterestsinlife.Seekoutnew,interestingexperiences,nomatterhowmundaneorinconsequentialtheymightseemtoothers.Readbooks,watchdocumentaries,anddiscussyourideaswithothers.Nosubject,nomatterhowspecializedoresoteric,isofflimits.Youneverknowwhereyourimaginationwillfindpiecesforitspuzzles.
“Theairisfullofideas,”HenryFordsaid.“Theyareknockingyouintheheadallthetime.Youonlyhavetoknowwhatyouwant,thenforgetit,andgoaboutyourbusiness.Suddenly,theideawillcomethrough.Itwasthereallthetime.”
Byexposingyourselftoanabundantvarietyofideas,facts,art,andstories,andbypullingfromyourvastcollectioninmanydifferentways—byentertaininganyideanomatterhowseeminglyabsurd—youcanbringyourimaginationtolife.Andwhenyoudo,there’snotellingwhatnewthingsyoucanbringintotheworldandhowitwillchange.Or,asTeslaputit,“Asinglerayoflightfromadistantstarfallingupontheeyeofatyrantinbygonetimesmayhavealteredthecourseofhislife,mayhavechangedthedestinyofnations,mayhavetransformedthesurfaceoftheglobe;sointricate,soinconceivablycomplexaretheprocessesinNature.”
Ittakescuriositytofindyourcalltoadventure,ittakescouragetoventureintotheunknown,andittakesimaginationtocreateyourpath.Andto,likeTesladid,createitexactlyasyouenvisionit,nomatterhowmuchworkittakes,orhowmanypeopletrytostopyou.
Whatendswillyouworktowardonyourjourney,andwhy?Wherewillyoudivergefromthetrailslaidbypeoplebeforeyou,andwherewillyougoinstead?Howwillyoutackleproblemsfacedbyyourpredecessors,andwhatwillyoudothattheydidn’t?Whenwillyoureurekamomentsstrike?
Ageniusanswersthosequestionsaudaciouslyandlavishly.Shedarestoimagineeverythingandanythingaspossible,andcarriesourculturetoworldsthatneverwere.Youcandothesame.
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