Page 1

NATIONALISM IN EUROPE Q. 1. Write notes on:

Ans. (a) Giuseppe Mazzini: This great Italian revolutionary was born in Genoa in 1807. During the 1830s,

Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. At a young age of 24,

he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He, subsequently, founded two underground

societies, first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young

men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states. Mazzini believed’ that God had intended nations to be the natural

units of mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a

single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.

Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Mazzini’s relentless

opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as

‘the most dangerous enemy of existing social order’.

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour: The man ascribed to the glory of unification of Italy, Count Cavour was born in

Sardinia but started living at Piedmont at young age. After serving as army engineer for a brief period, he actively got

involved in agitation against autocratic ruler in Italy. In 1848, he became member of Legislative Assembly of Piedmont

for the first time. However, the Assembly did not last long and within one and half-years, three elections were held.

Cavour emerged successful in all these elections. In 1850, he became a member of the Cabinet of Ministers. In 1852, he

was appointed the Prime Minister by King Victor Emmanuel.

Role of Cavour: (1) Cavour tried to end all the privileges of the clergy and introduced various reforms for the

promotion of trade and commerce. These reforms include agriculture and infrastructural facilities, i.e. roads and railways.

(2) He supported the adventures and plans of Mazzini and Garibaldi.

(3) By virtue of his tactful diplomatic alliance with France, he could defeat the Austrian forces in 1859. He drove

away the Spanish rulers from two Sicilies in South Italy.

(c) The Greek War of Independence: It was an event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite

across Europe. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century and war of independence amongst

the Greeks began in 1821. Poets and artists including West European masses joined that war of independence with their

skills and expertise and thus, they could overthrow the Ottoman Empire. Contribution of poets like Lord Byron was

praiseworthy. Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 made the Greece an independent nation.

(d) Frankfurt Parliament: To unite Germany and to frame a constitution for the united Germany, a constituent

assembly met in Frankfurt on 18 May, 1848. The Frankfurt Assembly proposed the unification of Germany as a

constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia who would become emperor of Germany but he did not wish to accept

the crown from the elected representatives of the people. He resorted to repressive measures and even the rights that

people had won in the initial stages of the revolution were taken away. Thousands of German revolutionaries had to flee

the country and live in exile.

With the failure of the revolution of 1848 to unify Germany, one phase in the struggle for unification came to an

end. Now Germany was to be unified not into a democratic country but into a militaristic empire. The leader of this

policy was Bismarck who belonged to a Prussian aristocratic family.

(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles: In those parts of Europe such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the

Austro-Hungarian Empire—men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutional

monarchy with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the

creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.

The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large

numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded

newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage rights during

the election of the Assembly. This fact was evident from Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul where

women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.

Q. 2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French

people?

Ans. From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could

create a sense of collective Identity amongst the French people. We can sum-up them as under:

(i) Propagation of ideas like patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoye (the citizen).

(ii) A new French flag (Le. Tricolour flag) was adopted.

(iii) The Estates General was renamed as National Assembly.

(iv) New hymn composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated in the name of nation.

(v) French was made a common language of the nation. All slogans and hymns were composed in very language.

Page 2

Q. 3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the Importance of the way in which they were

portrayed?

Ans. These were allegory of nation the same way as Bharat Mata, a female figure is Imagined in India. Marianne

was an allegory of France while Germania was an allegory of Germany. It was a mode of visualizing the nation so as to

generate extreme sense of respect and reverence in the hearts of the people living in those countries.

Attributes of liberty were red cap or broken chain and justice was a blind folded woman carrying a pair of weighing

scales, characteristics of Marianne were drawn from the red cap, the tricolour and the cockade. Statues were made and

picture of Marianne printed on postage stamps.

Germania wears a crown of oak leaves because that tree stands for heroism. She holds a sword in her hand.

Q. 4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Ans. The Unification of Germany: The different processes that led to the unification of Germany are given below:

1. In Frankfurt parliament, the middle class Germans tried to establish a constitutional monarchy in 1848 but that

move was crushed by the forces of the monarchy and the military supported by Junkers (big landlords) of Prussia.

2. Ottovon Bismarck took the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.

3. Three wars over seven years were fought against Austria, Denmark and France in which Prussia won.

4. Thus, the process of unification of Germany was carried out and completed.

5. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William-I was proclaimed German emperor in ceremony held at Versailles.

Q. 5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the

territories ruled by him?

Ans. (i) Napoleon framed the Civil Code of 1804 or the Napoleonic Code that removed privileges based on birth,

established equality before the law and secured the right to property.

(ii) He simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and

manorial dues. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication system were Improved.

(iii) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale

producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common

national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Discuss:

Q. 1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals? What were the political, social and

economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Ans. Liberals were actually the people wishing freedom for their living because the term liberalism derive from the

Latin root ‘liber’ meaning free. The revolution by middle classes in Germany, Italy, Poland against Austro-Hungarian

Empire i.e. monarchy was called 1848th

revolution of liberals. They wanted to establish constitutional and parliamentary

government and national unification. They advocated freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. These

revolutionists were consisted of professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans.

Ideas supported by the Liberals:

(i) It is necessary to create a nation state on parliamentary principles.

(ii) A national assembly akin to constituted in France is to be formed.

(iii) A constitution is to be drafted.

(iv) Freedom of Press and freedom of association is necessary:

(v) Only people owning property are to be given universal suffrage (i.e., right to vote).

(vi) Conservatism is to be removed.

Q. 2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Aug. Contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe:

1st Example: Romanticism developed a particular form of nationalist sentiment. It included constitution of

poetry/poems/hymns and paintings stimulating natural love and affection for the nation. German philosopher Johann

Gottfied Herder claimed that the German culture was to be discovered among the common people through folk songs,

folk poetry and folk dances. For example Grirnms’ Fairy Tales.

IInd Example: The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics—A print prepared by Frederic Sorrieu

in 1448 that exhibits the people of Europe and America (men and women) of all age and social classes—marching in a

long train and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty.

IIIrd Example: The caricature titled as The Club of Thinkers creates public awareness that in monarchical pattern

of government, people cannot enjoy freedom of press and expression.

Q. 3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Ans. Development of nation-states in Italy and Germany:

(i) Ideology of liberalism purported to freedom for the individual and equally of all before the law helped in

development of nation state. It was supported and advocated by new middle class.

Page 3

Secret society namely, Young Italy was formed by Giuseppe Mazzini comparing middle class, people there.

Similarly, a large number of political associations from middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous

artisans as members were formed in Germany.

(ii) Hunger, hardship and popular revolt emerged in these countries. Italy was divided into seven states. These were

being ruled by dynasties like Habsburgs, Pope and Bourbon dynasty. Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian

princely house. Owing to the autocratic rule, people were suffering. Same was the condition of the people in Germany

also. There were conservative forces like that of Junkers (big landlords) who did not want to accept the concept of nation-

state.

(iii) Romantic imagination and national feelings also became a major factor for formation of nation-state. Johann

Gottfried Herder of German told that true spirit of nation can be inculcated through folk songs, poetry and dances,

Caricature of Garibaldi of Italy etc. helped in stimulating nationalistic feelings among masses.

(iv) Wars with diplomatic tricks had developed nation-states. In Germany three wars against Austria, Denmark and

France were fought for seven years. Similarly, Cavour established a tactful diplomatic alliance with Framce and won two

Sicilies and Papal states as well.

Q. 4. How was the history if nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Or

How was the formation of the nation-state the result of a long drawn out process in Britain? Explain.

Ans. The history of the development of nationalism in Britain:

(i) In Britain the formation of the nation- state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result

of a long- drawn-out process. There was no British nation, prior to the eighteenth century.

(ii) The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones such as English, Welsh,

Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily

grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the islands.

(iii) The English Parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict,

was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came to be forged.

(iv) The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom

of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was

henceforth dominated by its English members.

(v) The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to

assert their independence.

(vi) The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large

numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.

(vii) Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English

helped the Protestants of Ireland to impose their dominance over a large Catholic country.

(viii) Catholic revolts against British dominance were brutally suppressed. After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone

and his United Irishmen (1798). Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

(ix) A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture. The symbols of the

New Britain-the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language—were

actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

Q. 5. Why did nationalist tension emerge in the Balkans?

Or

How did the Balkan region become a source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 C.E? Explain four

points.

Ans. Reasons for emergence of nationalist tension in the Balksn:

(i) It was a region consisting of multi-nationalities like modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece,

Macedonia, Crotia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. Its habitants were called Slays and its larger

part was under control of Ottoman Empire.

(ii) As Christianity was the major religion of these people, the Muslim rulers inflicted atrocities upon them. They

therefore, became upset and aggrieved.

(iii) Gradually, during the internal conflicts, the Ottoman Empire was met to disintegration. It was, therefore, a good

opportunity for these nationalities and their people to raise their voice of protest to gain their own republics.

(iv) The Romantic literature, i.e. folk songs, tales etc. propagated there from England (UK) and people understood

that they were once independent states but subsequently, the foreign powers (i.e. Muslims) had subjugated them. This

arose tension in their minds and they started making their own organisations to launch freedom movement.

(v) The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each-other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the

other.

Page 4

(vi) Other big powers of the world i.e. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary, etc. were keen on controlling

the, hold of other powers over the Balkans and each among them was keen to extend its own control over.

PROJECT WORK:

Q. 1. Find out more about nationalist symbols in countries outside Europe. For one or two countries, collect

examples of pictures, posters or music that the symbols of nationalism. How are these different from European

examples?

Ans. India: As per requirement of the project work, we are giving nationalist symbols of India, i.e. Lion Pillar

situated at Sarnath near Varanasi and Flag of India and some pictures of national leaders who contributed for rising of

national feelings and nationalism for the freedom of India.

After the Second World War, a large number of Asian countries became independent. One of the first to win her

independence was India. India had, however, been partitioned and along with India, another independent state, Pakistan,

also came into being. The independence of India was of great Importance in the history of freedom movements in Asia

and Africa. The policies pursued by the government of independent India under the leadership of her first Prime Minister,

Jawaharlal. Nehru, helped in strengthening the freedom movements in other countries and in hastening the achievement

of independence by them.

Indonesia: The second country outside of Europe like India is Indonesia.

The beginning of the nationalist movement in Indonesia after the defeat of Japan in Second World War (August,

1945), Sukarno, one of the pioneers of the freedom movement of Indonesia, proclaimed the independence of Indonesia.

However, soon after the British troops landed there in order to help the Dutch to restore their rule the government of

independent Indonesia which had re-establish colonial rule. There were demands in many countries of the world to put an

end to the war which had been started in Indonesia to restore the Dutch rule. In Asian countries, the recreation was

particularly intense. The leaders of the Indian freedom movement demanded that the Indian soldiers who had been sent to

Indonesia as a part of the British army should be withdrawn. After India became free, she convened a conference of

Asian nations in support of Indonesia’s independence. The conference met in New Delhi in January, 1949 and called for

the complete independence of Indonesia. The resistance of the Indonesian people and the mounting pressure of world

opinion and Asian countries compelled Holland to set the leaders of Indonesian people free. On 2nd

November, 1949,

Holland recognized the independence of Indonesia

These countries are different from European examples given in the textbook. These two countries described here are

Asian countries. They were exploited by imperialist powers for several years. The leaders of these countries and social

workers promoted nationalism, patriotism and feeling against colonialism and imperialism. They got freedom and

became free countries after a long struggle.

SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. Define nation:

Ans: A ‘Nation’ has thus been defined as “a body of people who feel themselves to be actually linked together by

certain affinities which are so strong and real from them that they can live happily together, are dissatisfied when

disunited and cannot tolerate subjection of peoples who do not share these ideas.”

Q. 2. What do you mean by nationalism?

Ans. The words ‘nation’ and ‘nationality’ are derived from the Latin words ‘Natus’ which means a ‘race’. Devotion,

love, and patriotic feelings for one’s own nation is called ‘Nationalism’. It is a feeling of political consciousness and unity

among the people of a state.

Q. 3. What is the main contribution of the French Revolution to the world?

Ans. The French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of citizens. It

proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

Q. 4. What factors led to the rise of Nationalism in Europe?

Ans.. Nationalism provided one of the greatest forces in Europe in the 19th

century. The following were responsible

for the rise of nationalism in Europe:

(1) Decline of Feudalism: Feudal lords were a great tumbling bloc in the way of the rise of the national feelings

among the people. But many causes led to their fall. Many of them died in mutual warfare. The crusades also

impoverished the barons. Without the destruction of nobility the cause of nationalism might have been greatly suffered.

(2) Weakness of Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages the Church enjoyed and exalted

position and commanded a great power. But the Renaissance and Reformation movements led to awakening among the

people and weakened the authority of the Pope. Consequently, national churches and national states were established in

many countries.

(3) Wars. Sometimes the wars also infused the spirit of nationalism. The Hundred Years War between England and

France gave rise to national feeling both in France and England. It roused nationalism among the people of both the

countries in the face of a common foe.

Page 5

(4) Foreign Rule. In certain countries foreign rule played an important part in the growth of nationalism. The

foreign rulers suppressed the people under them cruelly and mercilessly. But all this led to reaction and united the people

against the foreign rule and infused the spirit of nationalism in them to free themselves from the foreign yoke.

(5) Geographical Factor. Geographical factor also helped a lot in the rise of nationalism. National boundaries of a

country surely create the feeling of political consciousness and oneness among the people. For example, England is

bounded by sea on all the sides. It facilitated the rise of the feelings of unity and nationalism among the English.

(6) Reaction against Injustice. Reaction against injustice also leads to nationalism. The Vienna Settlement after the

Napoleonic Wars tried to suppress the force of revolution and nationalism in Europe. But soon there started a reaction

against the arbitrary rule and the people of the subjected countries started national movements for their independence.

(7) Contribution of Great Writers. Many writers, poets, statesmen, politicians and philosophers, etc. also made

valuable contribution to the growth of nationalism. Machiavelli had bben rightly called the father of modern nationalism.

The writings of J. S. Mill, Fitech, Mazzini, Garibaldi etc. went a long way in rousig political consciousness and national

spirit among the people.

Q. 5. Mention the obstacles in the way of the Italian unification.

Ans. There were many obstacles in the way of the unification of Italy in the 19th

century. Some of the most

important are the following:

(1) Division of Italy into so many States. Italy, which was once the leader of Renaissance, became a very weak and

powerless country in the 16th

century. So Italy lost its unity and was parceled out into so many states. These states always

used to quarrel among themselves and thus they rendered themselves quite weak.

(2) Foreign Rule. Foreign invaders took advantage of Italy’s weakness and invaded it over and over again.

Especially France and Austria established their rule over a great part of Italy. Napoleon, the French Emperor, had

conquered the whole of Italy. Thus the foreign rule was great hurdle in the way of the Italian unification.

(3) Congress of Vienna. After the downfall of Napolean, the Congress of Vienna once again divided Italy into

small states. Lombardy and Venetia were handed over to Austria while Parma, Tuscany and Modena were handed over to

France. Similarly, many old rulers, who were against the spirit of unity, were restored to their respective thrones. Thus

the Congress played a great havoc with the task of Italian unification.

(4) The Pope of Rome. The Pope of Rome was keeping Rome and its adjoining territories under his dominance. He

was acting as the head of all the Christian countries of the world as such he was also proving a great hurdle in the way of

the Italian unification. He had kept the foreign forces to throw out any attempt of the patriots to snatch Rome from him.

(5) Reactionary Rulers. Even those states which were under the dominance of Italian rulers were not at all

cooperative with the nationalists. They were reactionaries and were ever ready in curbing the nationalist feelings. These

rulers were, thus, also proving a great hurdle in the way of Italian unification.

Q. 6. Who was Frederic Sorrieu?

Ans. Frederic Sorrieu: He was a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a world

made up of democratic and social republics. He did this work in revolution period of France in 1848.

Q. 7. Who was Ernest Renan? Give his brief introduction.

Ans. Ernest Renan: He was a great French philosopher who delivered a lecture at the University of Sorbonne in

1882. The lecture was subsequently published as a famous essay entitled ‘Quest-ce queen nation?’ (What is a Nation ?‘).

Q. 8. How did economists play role in awakening the feeling of nationalism?

Ans. Economists began to think in terms of the national economy. They talked of how the nation could develop and

what economic measures could help forge this nation together. Friedrich List, Professor of Economics at the University of

Tubingen in Germany wrote that a free economic system is the only means to engender national feelings.

Q. 9. How did the French Revolution inspire liberals? What was the major issue taken by them in favour of

democracy?

Ans. The liberals understood that they can also establish a nation state like that established in France.

They raised an issue that monarchy should be run as per constitution duly drafted on democratic principles. They

were eager to eradicate conservatism prevalent in Europe.

Q. 10. In very short form, write the significance and meaning of the following symbols, generally, use for

attribute by the scholars.

Ans. Significance:

(i) Being freed from subjugation like Negro of Africa.

(ii) Symbol of the German empire-strength.

(iii) Heroism.

(iv) Readiness to fight.

(v) Willingness to make peace.

(vi) Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the Dukes of the German states.

(vii) Beginning of a new era in history of a country or the world.

Page 6

Q. 11. Who was Lorenz Clasen? Write his one artistic work.

Ans. He was a German artist who had painted the image of Germania, an allegory of Germany as nation capable to

protect the German Rhine.

Q. 12. Mention in short the meaning of nationalism and two main features of nationalism in Europe after the

1830s.

Ans. I. Meaning: The sense of unity that they belong to one country, sharing a common history, language and

culture.

II. Features: (1) It was developed in extreme nationalism through romantic imagination and national feeling.

(2) It was neither exclusive nor chauvinistic.

Q. 13. Write a short note on ‘Young Italy’.

Ans. The Young Italy: Giuseppe Mazzini founded in 1832 “Young Italy” in the city of Marseilles in France. It was

a new party to take revolutionary works in Italy. The branches of this party were set up all over Italy with 50,000

members dedicated to cause of unification of Italy. Its motto was “God, Peo1e and Italy”.

Q. 14. Discuss the main achievement and functions of Garibaldi.

Ans. Garibaldi: He organised a force named “Red-Shirts”. His forces defeated the powerful Austrian forces and

liberated Naples and Sicily. After achieving his mission of Italy’s liberation and unification, this selfless patriot took to

the peaceful life of a peasant.

Q. 15. Who was Cavour? Why is he popular in history?

Ans. He was the Prime Minister of the King of Italy. He was a great administrator and able reformer. He made

commercial treaties with other countries, promoted trade agriculture and industry.

Cavour is popular in history for his praiseworthy work of the unification of Italy. In policy formation he is known as

“Bismarck (a great diplomat and maker of Germany) of Italy”.

Q. 16. What is a nation? How did the feelings of nationalism emerged in 19th

century Europe? What is the

importance of existence of a nation?

Or

How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe? Explain with four

examples.

Ans. I. Nation: According to well-known French philosopher Ernest Renan, ‘A nation is the culmination of a long

past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past, great men, glory, is the social capital upon which one bases a

national idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present, to have performed great deeds

together, to wish to perform still more, these are the essential conditions of being a people. A nation is, therefore, a large-

scale solidarity.’

II. Emergence of feelings of nationalism:

During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the

political and mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation states in place of

the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe. The concept and practice of a modern state, in which a centralised power

exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory, had been developing over a long period of time in Europe.

But a nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of

common identity and shared history or descent. This commonness did not exist from time immemorial; it was forged

through struggles, through the actions of leaders and the common people.

III. Importance of a nation: A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its

will. The existence of nations is a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence is a guarantee of liberty, which would be

lost if the world had only one law and only one master.

Examples: (i) Frederic Sorrieu’s print that reveals his dream of worldwide’ democratic and social republics

(France).

(ii) An Anthology of Fairy Tales by Grimm Brothers and their subsequent participation in liberal politics

(Germany).

(iii) Confederation of English, Welsh, Scot Irish culture into Great Britain (U.K.).

(iv) Lord Byron’s poetry encouraged Greeks to face and fight boldly against the Turks who had established Ottoman

Empire and exiled them to Italy. Thus, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

Q. 17. Discuss in about 250 words the growth and development of nationalism in Europe after the third

decade of 19th

century.

Or

Explain Liberalism in politics and economic fields prevailing in Europe in the Nineteenth Century?

Ans. Growth and Development of Nationalism in Europe:

Page 7

(i) Introduction: Nationalism is the sense of unity felt by people who share a common history, language and

culture. The feeling of nationalism became more powerful in the beginning of the nineteenth century in Europe. The

period after 1815 (Congress of Vienna, 1815 C.E.) saw the emergence of revolutionary activity in every country in

Europe.

(ii) In some countries, the aim of the revolutionaries was the overthrow of autocratic rulers and the abolition of

serfdom. In some countries, it was the overthrow of foreign rule (Poland. Germany, Italy and Greece) and in some others

it was social, political and economic reforms (Russia, France, etc.).

(iii) The quarter century from 1848 to 1875 saw momentous political changes in Europe. These political changes

were based on triple watchwords of “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity” which meant individual and political liberty,

economic equality and fraternity on the basis of national unity.

(iv) The revolutionaries were in fact inspired by the aim of fighting against despotism everywhere. They were united

into a kind of international brotherhood of peoples against all despots.

(v) Mazzini and Garibaldi of Italy with their Young Poland, Young Germany and Young Italy organisations arid

poets like Lord Byron with their poems fought for bringing nation-states in Italy, Greece, Poland etc. countries in Europe.

(vi) In 1815, the rulers of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia formed an alliance. One of the major declared aims of

this alliance was to suppress any attempt by the people to overthrow a ruler whom these countries considered the

legitimate ruler of the country.

(vii) The new ruler of France also soon joined this alliance, i.e. alliance of the rulers of Britain, Austria, Russia and

Prussia. Thus, they formed another alliance and called it the “Holy Alliance”.

(viii) In 1821, for example, Austria sent her armies into Naples and Piedmont in Italy to suppress the uprisings that

had taken place there. In many countries of Europe, the freedom of the press was abolished and a large number of spies

were recruited to keep watch in the activities of revolutionaries.

(ix) In 1830, revolutions broke out in a number of countries. The French monarch fled away to England and was

succeeded by Louis Philippe who promised to rule according to the wishes of the people.

(x) Revolutionaries from France also reached in Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and several parts of Itay and

conducted revolution there through Jacobin clubs.

(xi) Insurrections broke out in various states of Italy, Germany and Poland. Although most of these revolts were

suppressed, the independence of two new nations, i.e. Greece in 1830 and of Belgium in 1839 was recognised.

Q. 18. Discuss the general characteristics of the nationalist movement in Poland.

Ans. The General Characteristics of the Movement in Poland: (a) Poland in the 17th

century was a fairly big

state. Her neighbours Russia, Austria and Prussia were very hostile and fought long and bloody wars with her.

Consequently, Poland was divided thrice and by 1795, she ceased to be an independent state.

(b) Poland had the institution of elective monarchy and a parliament. All laws had to be passed unanimously. The

result (of its partition and some wrong political systems) was that the country remained backward and conservative.

Feudalism was the order of the day in Poland. Austria, Russia and Prussia took advantage of her problems and interfered

in her internal matters.

(c) According to the Vienna Congress, 1815. Poland was a looser country. According to the principle of rewards and

punishments (after the downfall of Napoleon) Poland was divided into three parts each being given to Russia, Prussia

(later on Germany) and Austria.

(d) Thus, Poland disappeared as an independent country. The idea of Po1ih position was not new (it had already

taken place thrice 1772, 1793 and 1795).

(e) Czar Nicholas I, who was a terrible autocrat, mercilessly suppressed the patriotic Polish.This iron rule ran twenty

five years unabated

(f) Alexander-I granted a constitution to Poland but the monarch gave up his liberalism arid became an arch

reactionary when he came under the reactionary influence of Metternich (of Austria). He died in 1825.

(g) The revolutionary of Poland (within Russia) started their movement but Nicholas-I mercilessly crushed the

Polish when they revolted in 1830. About 45,000 Polish were banished from their home country.

(h) In spite of so partitioned, Polish kept alive their national feelings through music and languages. For example,

Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music. He transformed folk dances like the

polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against

Russian dominance.

Q. 19. Discuss the characteristics of the nationalist movement in Greece.

Ans. Characteristics of Movement in Greece: (a) The people of Greece (Greek) started their war of independence

in 1820, against Turkey or Ottoman Empire. The much-awaited opportunity came in 1821 when All Pasha, the Turkish

Page 8

Governor of Janina, quarrelled with the Sultan and went to war with him. Prince Hypsilanti was defeated in the battle at

Moldavia by the Turks and the movement fizzled out for a short time.

(b) But in the Mona and in the islands of the Egean, the rising assumed formidable proportions. The Greeks began

the war with gruesome massacre of the Turks. The evil example thus, set was followed by the Turks by the massacre of

Greeks.

(c) The war thus, developed into one of mutual extermination, and was conducted on both sides with the utmost

ferocity and bloodcurdling atrocities. For the first six years (1821-28) the powers did not intervene and Greeks were left

to their own efforts. Metternich was against giving help to revolutionaries and had to fight alone.

(d) Metternich, with his dread of insurrection against legitimate authority, looked upon the Greeks as rebels who

must be left to their fate. He wanted to let this revolt “burn itself out beyond the pale of civilisation.”

(e) To prevent independent action on the part of Russia, he induced France and Czar Nicholas I to combine with

England in forcing an armistice on the Sultan, and compelling him to accept the joint mediation of the allied powers.

(f) Conference was held in London in July, 1827 and a joint note was accordingly despatched to Turkey to grant

autonomy but the Sultan refused to accede to the proposals of armistice and granting autonomy to Greece. Thereupon the

allied fleets of France and England completely destroyed the Turkish Fleet at Navasino after a fierce encounter on 20th

October, 1827.

(g) This victory encouraged the Greeks and encouraged them to secure their liberation. But apart from this, all the

advantages of joint intervention were reaped by Russia alone. Lord Canning was dead and his policy was reversed by

Duke of Wellington who now became the British Prime Minister. England was still officially at peace with Turkey.

(h) On her own responsibility, Russia declared war against Turkey in 1828 and forced her to come to terms. By the

Treaty of Constantinople on 14th

September. 1832, Turkey recognised the independence of Greece and granted practical

autonomy to the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. To Russia she granted an expansion of territory in Asia, as

well as increased commercial and political rights.

(i) By the Convention of London in 1832 the new kingdom of Greece was placed under the joint guarantee of the

powers and Prince Otto of Baveria was selected as its king.

(j) The Treaty of Constantinople was thus, a signal victory of Russian policy.

(k) The Greek afforded the first example of the victory of nationalism against the reactionary policy of the Congress

of Vienna and as such it struck a blow to Metternich’s system. Secondly, it demonstrated the common interest of the

European powers and the practical possibility of a resusmcitation of the Christian states.

(l) The help which Turkey had to seek from Mehemet Ali, as well as her defeat at the hands of Russia, exposed her

weakness to the world and Turkey began to be called Sickman of Europe.

(m) Policy of Russia to annex Balkan States by dismembering Turkey and British policy to preserve, gave rise to

certain controversies that resulted subsequently in Balkan wars.

Q. 20. Discuss the ideas of Giuseppe Mazzini of Italy and other patriots in about 200 words.

Ans. Great Revolutionaries and Patriots of Italy: (1) During the days of the first half of 19th

century, Italy, like

Germany, was also divided into a number of states. The struggle for Italian independence (from Austrian occupation) and

unification was organized by the two famous revolutionaries—Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi. The movement

led by them is known as the Young Italy’ movement. It aimed at the independence and unification of Italy and the

establishment of a republic there.

(2) In 1848, as in other parts of Europe revolutionary uprising had broken out in Italy and the rulers were forced to

grant certain democratic reforms to the people.

(3) After 1848, the King of Sardinia had introduced many reforms (political) and his Prime Minister, Count Cavour

took initiatives to unify Italy under the leadership of Sardinia. Cavour’s policy in some ways was similar to that followed

by Bismarck in Germany. Hoping to gain the support of Britain and France, he entered the Crimean War in 1853-56

against Russia even though Sardinia had no dispute with Russia. However, nothing came out of this war.

(4) In 1859, Cavour entered into an alliance with Louis Bonaparte and went to war with Austria. Although France

soon withdrew from the war, Austria was ousted from Lombardy, which was taken over by Sardinia. Tuscany, Modena,

Parma and the Papal States of the north also joined Sardinia.

(5) Venetia, however, was still under Austrian occupation. The other states that remained to be united with Sardinia

were the kingdoms of the two Sicilies and Rome which was under the rule of the Pope.

(6) Meanwhile an uprising had broken out in the Kingdom of the two Sicilies. Garibaldi marched into the island of

Sicily with the revolutionary fighters and liberated it from the rule of the King within three months. Then he marched

Naples in support of the revolt that had already broken out there. By the end of November, 1860, the entire Kingdom of

the two Sicilies had been liberated.

Page 9

(7) The Italian patriots and revolutionaries were not perhaps strong enough to push the victory of the people of the

Sicilies further with a view to establish a united republic of Italy. They surrendered the former kingdom to the King of

Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, who then took the tile of the King of Italy in 1861.

(8) Garibaldi, the revolutionary who had played such a vital role in the liberation and unification of Italy, now

retired to lead a life of obscurity.

Multiple Choice Questions:

(i) Who was the King of France at the time of the French Revolution of 1789?

(a) Louis XIV (c) Louis XVI

(b) Louis XV (d) Louis XVIII

(ii) Matternich was the Chancellor of

(a) France (c) Denmark

(b) Hungary (d) Austria

(iii) Napoleon introduced his Civil Code in the year

(a) 1801 (c) 1803

(b) 1802 (d) 1804

(iv) Napoleon was finally defeated in the year

(a) 1811 (c) 1814

(b) 1812 (d) 1815

(v) With which country are the organizations Young Italy and Carbonari associated?

(a) Germany (c) France

(b) Italy (d) Austria-Hungary

(vi) Which Italian patriot organized a group of soldiers known as ‘Red Shirts’?

(a) Garibaldi (c) Mazzini

(b) Cavour (d) Victor Emmanuel II

(vii) To whom does the credit of unifying Germany go?

(a) Louis Philippe (c) Count Cavour

(b) Mazzini (d) Bismarck

(viii) Who was proclaimed the emperor of Germany after its unification in 1871?

(a) Victor Emmanuel I (c) Otto Von Bismarck

(b) King William I (d) Prince Matternich

Ans. (i) c; (ii) ; (iii) c; (iv) d; (v) a; (vi) a; (vii) d; (viii) b.

Fill in the Blanks:

(a) Frederick Sorrieu was a French artist who prepared a series of ________ paintings.

(b) When __________ sneezes whole of Europe catches cold.

(c) Matternich was the Chancellor of __________.

(d) Napoleon Bonaparte met his downfall in 1815 in the battle of _________.

(e) The area called Balkans is commonly known as the ___________ empire.

Ans. (a) Four; (b) France; (c) Austria; (d) Waterloo; (e) Ottoman.

NATIONALISM IN INDIA LESSON NO. 2

Write in brief:

Q. 1. Explain:

(a) Why growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement?

Ans. It is so because people in these countries could only understand the importance of nationalistic feelings when

imperial powers had turned them into colonies and started inflicting a number of atrocities upon them. Till then, they

were snoring in their individual cocoons as insects do.

(b) How did the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India?

Ans. Increase in taxation, inflation, crop failure and spread of influenza epidemic jointly knocked the conscious of

people in India to understand that they have enslaved by imperial powers and nobody would listen to them unless they

restore their freedom.

(c) Why were Indians outraged by the Rowlatt Act?

Ans. Rowlatt Act (1919) had given the government enormous powers to repress political activities and detain

political leaders without trial for two years.

Page 10

(d) Why did Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-cooperation Movement?

Ans. The sole objective of movement was to defy laws in a peaceful manner but Chauri-Chaura event had violated

the same. It was therefore, withdrawn by Gandhiji.

Q. 2. What is meant by the idea of Satyagraha?

Ans. It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was not

necessary to fight the oppressor because a rigid disobedience itself was more impressive than use of weapons.

Q. 3. Write the Newspaper Reports on:

(a) The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

(b) The Simon Commission.

Axis. (a) The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre:- Amritsar, 14 April, 1919

Yesterday, the innocent people of Punjab, who had gathered at Jallianwalla Bagh had to face the bullets of General

Dyer. There were thousands of men, women and children. Most of the people were from outside Amritsar and had come

on account of ‘Baisakhi’. As it is stated, General Dyer had issued a declaration prohibiting public meetings and

imposition of martial law. Dyer entered the area and blocked all the exit points and without warning the unarmed crowd,

ordered his troops to open fire. The firing went on till the ammunition was exhausted. After the massacre, the wounded

were left without medical help. The number of casualties is still not known but estimated to be in hundreds.

(b) The Simon Commission:- New Delhi, 15 January, 1928

The Tory Government in Britain has appointed a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon in response to the

nationalist movement in India. The commission will look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and

suggest changes. It is really strange that though object of the commission is to look into an Indian problem but no Indian

has been appointed as its member. This is gross injustice and must be resisted by the Indians.

Q. 4. Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania in Chapter 1.

Ans. The image of Bharat Mata as painted by Abanindranath Tagore shows her as bestowing learning, food and

clothing. She bears aesthetic quality as denoted by the mala held by her. This is similar to the image of Germania as

painted by Philip Veit, where she holds a sword, but looks more feminine. The other painting of Bharat Mata is more

manly in its representation. In it, she is shown as bearing power and authority as denoted by the lion and elephant beside

her. The latter image is more akin to the image of Germania by Lorenz Clasen, where she wields a sword and shield, and

looks ready to fight.

Discuss:

Q. 1. List all the different social groups which joined the Non-cooperation Movement of 1921. Then choose

any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they joined the movement.

Ans, List of social groups:

(i) The workers and members of Congress Party.

(ii) The members of Khilafat Committee and supporters. of Khilafat cause (or the Ottoman Turkey empire).

(iii) Middle class of the cities.

(iv) Students and teachers from schools and colleges.

(v) Merchants and traders.

(vi) The weavers.

(vii) The lawyers.

(viii) The peasants and the tribals.

(ix) Plantation workers.

Three social groups, their hopes and struggles:

(i) Middle Classes in the Cities: These mainly comprised students, teachers and lawyers. They responded

enthusiastically to the call for non-cooperation and boycott. They saw the movement as a tageway to freedom from

foreign domination.

However, the initial enthusiasm gradually slowed down. This is because there were not many alternatives for them

to fall back upon. For example, khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people

could not afford to buy it. Likewise, students and teachers had no but to go back to government schools. Likewise ,

lawyers had no choice but to go back to courts.

(ii) Peasants and Tribals: At many places, peasants joined the Non-cooperation Movement. The movement was

primarily against talukdars and landlords. By swaraj they understood that they would not be required to pay any taxes and

that lands would be redistributed.

The peasant movement often turned violent and the peasants had to face bullets and police brutality.

Page 11

(iii) Plantation Workers: Plantation workers too joined the movement led by Gandhiji. They had their own

understanding of the notion of swaraj. For them, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space

in which they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come.

Q. 2. Discuss the Salt March to make why it was an effective symbol of stance against colonialism.

Axis. Salt being a commodity of every individual’s consumption, and further, being its undepleting stock in the seas

and ocean; it was a gross atrocity on part of the British Government to impose tax on it and take it under public sector. It

was, therefore, a good opportunity to disclose mala-fide intention of the foreign government before masses of India. We

see that Mahatma Gandhi had launched that Dandi March on 13th

March 1930 C.E. abiding by democratic means as

under:-

(i) He had sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands.

(ii) These demands were wide ranging some were general and some specific. These were concerning interests of all

sections of Indian society.

(iii) Demand of removal of tax on salt was one among those demands.

(iv) It was specifically mentioned that in case, Government appears unwilling to negotiate on demands by 11 March,

Congress would launch a civil disobedience campaign.

As the British government gave no response to these demands, Gandhi was all right in launching Dandi March—a

375 km. long march from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal town of Gujarat (Dandi).

On these counts, Dandi March was an effective symbol of resistance against colonialism as it could gather

nationwide support of Indian masses. It was an open challenge to the British laws,

Q. 3. Imagine you are a woman participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Explain what the

experience meant to your life.

Ans. Following experience from participation in movement, I would have gained:-

(i) Women alike men can also raise their voice against the system disrupted either at individual or institutional level.

(ii) Experiment with truth and nonviolence is varied and varidical as per topics/ issues. Law and order is truly

followed in this mode of action

(iii) Participation in likewise moves and movements inculcates a sense of tolerance, labour, patience, valour and

dedication.

(iv) Along with picketing foreign clothes and liquor shops, I would have systematically remove the foreign or alien

demands that dwell in my heart in the form of anger, jealousy, vanity, ostentation etc. in company of so great guide, i.e.

Father of the Nation.

Q. 4. Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?

Ans. Barring Mahatma Gandhi, almost all leaders were willing their separate electorates. It was mainly because they

were giving priority to sectarian politics over national interests. It was the mentality that had divided India in more than

565 princely states besides British India (viz. regions of India under direct control of the British Government). An impact

of submission and domination, egoism and ostentative temperament and shrewd characteristics bringing nothing good but

self-destruction, was present even when all of them were equally treated by the British as Niggers or salves. Sectarianism

and partition prevailed throughout the course of freedom struggle. Pacts like Poona pact and Lucknow pact including

frequent split in Congress reveal that leader of each community was willing much for him and not in a wider interest of

the nation. It was magic wand of Gandhiji’s self-sacrifice that could do patchwork successfully till India anyhow, won

freedom.

SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. Mention the names of four Congress leaders participated in an Important meeting in 1931.

Ans. Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose.

Q. 2. List the movements led by Mahatma Gandhi before Non-cooperation Movement in 1921 C.E.

Ans. (i) Champaran (1917), (ii) Kheda (1917) and (iii) Ahmedabad (1918).

Q. 3. Mention the names of any two tribal movements along with their respective dates.

Ans. (i) Sanyasi Revolt (1770 C.E.) (ii) Ramossi Revolt (1822, 1825 and 1828).

Q. 4. Mention some important facts the following tribal movements:

(a) Movement related with Ahom regions

(b) Santhal Movement.

Ans. (a) It began in 1828 C.E. under leadership of Gomdhar Kunwar of Ahom, a district In Assam, by people

aggrieved of the British mile.

(b) It was against corrupt British official in departments like police, revenue. their coalition and connivance with

zamindars an money-lenders. Likewise movements are categorised as peasant movement and labourers movement.

Q. 5. Define the term dyarchy that was introduced by the Government of India Act, 1919.

Page 12

Ans. It was actually double-dealing adopted in administration viz. Administration in hands of Indian kings/princes

but Diwani or revenue collection rights in the hands of East India Company. Same was done in power sharing between

the Centre and Provinces.

Q. 6. What were the consequences of dyarchy?

Ans. East India Company had snatched exchequer by means of revenue collection right taking whole as the kings

over had to run the administration like a slave to the British. It was economic slavery imposed very tactfully.

Q. 7. Explain the circumstances in which Non-Cooperation Movement gradually showed down in cities.

Ans. (i) Some leaders within Congress were reluctant to participate in Non-Cooperation Movement as they feared in

might lead to popular violence. However, Nagpur session of Congress in December, 1920 made them all agree to join the

same.

(ii) Khadi cloth was more expensive than mill cloth so the poor section of society again started buying the mill cloth.

(iii) As the Congress could not open teaching institutions proportionate to the need for all students, the students and

teachers began trickling back to government schools.

(iv) Professionals like lawyers, traders in foreign cloth, the poor daily wagers in docks, plantations etc. could not

keep themselves away any more from courts etc. institutions and establishments.

Q. 8. Name two Muslim nationalists who rejected communal politics.

Axis. These were: — (i) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, founder of the newspaper, Al-Hilal.

(ii) Maulana Muhammad Ali, founder of the newspapers Comrade (English) and Hamdard (Urdu).

Q. 9. How was the Rowlatt Act linked to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

Ans. Our revered leaders and activists were gathered in Jallianwala Bagh to form consensus for action-plan against

Rowlatt Act passed by the British Government.

Q. 10. Mention two major decisions taken in the Lahore Session of Indian National Congress in 1929?

Ans. (i) Complete freedom in place of dominion status and

(ii) To celebrate 26th

January, 1929 as independence day all over India.

Q. 11. Name two communal organisations founded before 1947. Which movements did they start, that

resulted in tension and riots?

Ans. The Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha were the two organisations. Movements lunched by them were

Tabligh and Suddhi movements respectively.

Q. 12. Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement launched in 1920? Why did Gandhiji call off the movement

in 1922?

Ans. I. Causes of launching the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) : Breach of trust committed by the

British Government after World War I, enforcement of Rowlatt Act, unruly killing of peaceful demonstrators busy with

making their action-plan at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar (Punjab) and so-called biased reforms effected in Montague-

Chelrnsford Reforms.

(ii) Dyarchy introduction in the. Bengal

Q. 13. Discuss the role of the Muslims the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Ans. The. Role of the Muslims in the n-Cooperation Movement:

(i) As Congress agreed to run Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements together, the Muslims, therefore; joined

Congress through their Khilafat Committee.

(ii) They did not cast their votes in the elections held to the legislature and started caching institutions like Jamia

Millia, Aligarh Muslims High School etc.

(iii) Hakim Ajmal Khan was voted as chairman to Congress and the great Urdu poet Maulana Hasrat Mohani

proposed that swaraj should be defined as complete independence.

(iv) When Turkish revolutionaries led by Mustafa Kamal Pasha abolished Khilafat, Indian Muslims also withdrew

their support from Congress as their purpose was achieved.

Q. 14. Discuss the impact of the Non-cooperation Movement.

Ans. 1. The Non-Cooperation Movement galvanised the whole nation and for a moment, the British Government

was dumb-bounded to see the massive all-India support of the upsurge. For the first time, several thousand young men

and women courted imprisonment and an unique scene of the Hindu-Muslim unity was witnessed.

3. The most significant aspect of the Non cooperation Movement was the willingness of people to face hardships

and imprisonments inflicted by the authorities.

4. The Non-Cooperation Movement also established two other equally significations. First, the Congress for the first

time, became a really mass movement. Attempts of national awakening not just penetrated to the people but also made

them “active participants” in the freedom struggle. Secondly, the Indian National Congress turned into a genuine

revolutionary organisation’. It was no longer a deliberative assembly but an organised fighting force, pledged to a

Page 13

revolution. Its weapons were different but its aims, objects and temperament closely resembled those of a militant

nationalism.

Q. 15. Discuss the people’s participation in Salt Satyagrah.

Ans.: (i) People, including women and teenagers peasants and workers, the business community and the rich and the

poor, all joined the movement. The participation of the tribals of the Central Provinces-Maharashtra Bihar and Assam and

of the hill people of Kangra in Punjab was equally significant. Largely attended protest, demonstrations and complete

hartals became order of the day.

(ii) The Muslim League leaders and their followers did not take part in the movement.

(iii) The people did not pay taxes and and revenue to the government. There were several cases of public bonfire of

foreign do and other goods.

(iv) Thousands of women took part picketing shops selling foreign cloth an liquor. Many of them, also sold salt. The

role played by such women organizations as Des Sevika Sangh and Nan Satyagraha Samiti Urmila Devi (Calcutta) was

very remarkable.

(v) People in different parts of India also clashed with the police. Some of these place were Calcutta, Madras and

Karachi.

(vi) The Pathari Muslims of North Wes Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, a disciple of Gandhi also took an active part in

Salt Satyagraha.

(vii) Bengal revolutionaries under Surya Sen and the industrial workers in Sholapur made the things very difficult

for the British (vtii) The role played by the Manipuri people in this regard was very significant Nagaland also produced a

great heroine Ra Gaidilieu. She was just thirteen years of age when she joined the freedom struggle. The government

arrested her in 1932 and sentenced her to life imprisonment. The people in South India including Tamil Nadu, Kerala,

Karnataka and Andhra participated in the movement in a big way.

Q. 16. Why were the Round Table Conferences convened? State the Congress attitude to these conferences.

Ans: Causes of Convening of the Round Table Conferences and the Congress party’s) Attitude:

1. (a) First Round Table Conference was heId in London from November, 1930 to January, 1931 in order to discuss

the objectionable issues given place In the Simon Commission’s report relating to constitutional settlement.

(b) Congress did not participate in the first Round Table Conference. But, delegates from the Indian States, the

Muslim League, the depressed classes, the Sikhs and other groups attended the Conference and discussed some issues

pertaining to their self-interests in the absence of Congress. These leaders were Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, ‘..R. Jayaar,

Srinivas Shastri, C.Y. Chintamani, Sir Mohammad Shafi, M.A. Jinnah and Maulana Mohammed .The Issues discussed

were reservation of seats for the supressed classes and provisions of adequate safeguards for the Muslims.

2. (a) As Civil Disobedience Movement could be withdrawn only by the Congress, the British Viceroy Irwin,

therefore, inspired Gandhiji for settlement of issues creating dead-lock in the way of Round Table Conference. It was

called Gandhi-Irwin Pact , 5th March, 1931. Settlement was arrived at conditions that Civil Disobedience Movement

would be discontinued, issues of the First Conference should be brought again for discussion and Congress would have to

participate in Second Round Conference.

(b) The Congress in its Karachi Session, held shortly afterwards, accepted the Gandhl-Irwin Pact. More importantly,

the session also adopted a resolution on people’s undamental Rights and the country’s economic Policy. These

represented the party’s social, political and economic programme in future.

3. (a) As communal questions were raised by people from minority groups and leaders of depressed class in Second

Round Table Conference in September, 1931, Gandhiji on behalf of Congress declined to extend his sanction and

signature to that Conference. He returned India empty handed and revived the Civil Disobedience Movement. Other

participants excluding Gandhiji in that Second Round Table conference were B.R. Ambedkar, Sarojini Naidu, Mahadev

Desai, G.D. Birla, Pyarelal Nayyar and Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya.

(b) Repression on part of the British lashed brutally. Congress was declared an illegal organisation and many of its

leaders were arrested. Over one lakh people were languished in jails.

Q. 16. How did Gandhiji bring the masses into the National Movement?

Ans. 1. His simple saintly life and his style of convincing the masses in local languages made him extremely popular

as a leader.

2. HIs undisputed leadership and magnetic personality helped to co-ordinate and unite the movement.

3. HIs policy of non-violent Satyagraha brought millions into the struggle. For example, the Champaran Satyagraha

brought the peasants into the struggle.

4. He launched three powerful mass movements—Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience and Quit India.

They influenced millions of Indians belonging to all sections of the society to show bravery, self- confidence and to take

up revolutionary passive resistance against the British rule.

Page 14

5. His new method of agitation like hartals, boycott, civil disobedience, nonpayment of taxes, etc appealed to the

masses,

6. Under his guidance, Indians withstood brutal repression and willingly accepted imprisonment, lathi charges and

bullets for the sake of freedom.

7. Through his programmes of social reform, charkha, cottage Industries and his fight against untouchability: the

Hanjans and depressed classes joined the freedom struggle and these efforts provided millions with employment.

8. His deep commitment to Hindu-Muslim unity and his secular ideals persuaded every community to unite for the

noble cause of freedom.

9. His support to the Ahmedabad mill workers’ strike in 1918 and his Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act kept him

in close touch with the masses. He became Father of the Nation.

Q. 1. What did the slogan of Swaraj mean? How was the slogan of complete independence different from it?

When and where was the slogan of complete independence adopted?

Ans. The slogan of Swaraj meant self-government or the system of government that was prevailing in the

self-governed British colonies. The slogan of Swaraj, however, did not mean complete independence from all foreign

control. Thus, Swaraj and complete independence differed much from each other. Swaraj was self-government but not

free from foreign control while complete independence meant freedom from all internal and external control.

Q. 2. What is the importance of 26th

January 1930?

Ans. 26 January, 1930. In 1929 at the Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress, under the presidentship of

Jawahar Lal Nehru, the Congress declared the attainment of complete independence as its chief goal. It was also decided

to celebrate 26 January as the Independence Day all over the country. As such on 26th

January, 1930, the Independence

Day was celebrated all over the country and the Congress flag was hoisted at many places.

Q. 3. Name the factors that made the national movement a mass movement at the end of the First World

War.

Ans. The following were main factors that made the national movement a mass movement at the end of the First-

World War:

(1) The arrival of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on the political field of India gave an impetus to the national

movement and converted it into a mass movement. His method of non-violent resistance, introduction of the spinning

wheel and the gospel of the Hindu-Muslim unity drew millions of people into the National Movement.

(2) The war expenditure imposed on India had impoverished the masses so much that they turned against the British

Government in large members.

(3) The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) fell short of the aspirations of the Indians. They further angered the

Indian masses.

(4) The defeat and dismemberment of Turkey by the Allies had turned the Muslim masses against the British

Government.

(5) The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy had aroused a wave of popular indignation throughout the

country.

Q. 4. When was the Muslim League formed? Describe briefly the policies of the Muslim League from 1906 to

1940. When was the formation of a separate state of Pakistan adopted as the main aim of the Muslim League?

Ans. The Muslimi League was formed on 30th

December, 1906. Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca and

Mohammad Ali Jinnah were some of its prominent leaders.

1) to ask for more and more reforms for the Muslims.

2) to protect and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India.

3) to promote amongst the Muslims of India, the feelings of loyalty to the British Government for getting more and

more benefits for the Muslims.

4) to keep the Muslim masses away from the Congress.

5) to make a demand for the separate electorate and then for a separate state for the Muslims.

6) It was with these objectives in mind that the Muslim League at its Lahore Session in 1940 A.D. for the first time

asked for the formation of a separate state of Pakistan.

Q. 5. Why was the Simon Commission boycotted by the Indians? Give two reasons.

Ans. Simon Commission. In November 1927, the British Government appointed the Simon Commission to look

into the working of the Act of 1919 or Montague-Chelmsford Reforms and to suggest changes, if necessary. This

commission was headed by a London Barrister named Sir John Simon so it is generally known as the Simon

Commission. This Commission comprising of seven members arrived in India in 1928 A.D. but everywhere it was

boycotted by the Indian people.

Page 15

Why was it boycotted by the Indian People? Now a question arises as to why the Simon Commission was

boycotted by the Indian people. The reasons for this are not too far to seek:

1) Firstly, this Commission did not include any Indian member in it.

2) Secondly, the clauses of this Commission did not contain any hope of ‘Swaraj’ for the Indians.

Q. 6. What were the reasons for launching Civil Disobedience Movement by the Congress?

Ans. In the Lahore Session (Dec. 1929) of the Congress, it was decided to launch the Civil Disobedience

Movement. There were many reasons for launching this movement.

1) The British Government has deprived the Indian people of their freedom so it was a crime to submit such a rule.

2) The Congress has declared Complete Independence as its aim in the Lahore Session of 1929 so the most effective

way of gaining such a freedom was through non-violence by starting the civil disobedience movement including

nonpayment to taxes.

3) The British Government has economically exploited the people. Not only economically it has exploited the

masses politically, culturally and spiritually.

Multiple Choice Questions:

(i) Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on

(a) 13 April 1919 (c) 17 April 1919

(b) 19 April 1919 (d) 21 April 1919

(ii) Civil Disobedience Movement o f1930 is also known as:

(a) Salt Satyagraha (c) Asahyog Aandolan

(b) Bharat Chhoro Aandolan (d) Bahishkar Aandolan

(iii) How many Round Table Conferences were held?

(a) One (c) Three

(b) Two (d) Four

(iv) In which year was the Civil disobedience Movement finally withdrawn?

(a) 1931 (c) 1933

(b) 1932 (d) 1934

(v) Who were hanged as a result of Kakori Looting?

(a) Ram Prasad Bismin & Batukeshwar Dutt

(b) Masan Lal Dhingra & Khudi Ram Bose

(c) Ashfaqullah Kahan & Ram Prasad Bismil

(d) Bhagat Singh & Chandrashkhar Azad

(vi) Who formed the Ghadar Party?

(a) Sardar Bhagat Singh (c) Madam Bhikaji Cama

(b) Batukeshwar Dutt (d) Lala Hardayal

(vii) Mahatma Gandhi’s first experiment in Satyagraha was

(a) Kheda Satyagraha

(b) Champaran Satyagraha

(c) Non-cooperation Movement

(d) Dandi-March

Ans. (i) a; (ii) a; (iii) b; (iv) (d) (v) c; (vi) d; (vii) b.

Fill in the Blanks:

(1) The Chauri Chaura incident took place in February ____________.

(2) Gandhiji started his famous Dandi March on _________ 1930.

(3) Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan is known as ______ and he formed a society known as ___________.

(4) Gandhiji participated in the __________ Round Table Conference.

Ans. (1) 1922; (2) 12th

March; (3) Frontier Gandhi, Khudai Khidmatgars; (4) 2nd

THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

Write in Brief

Q. 1. Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth

century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.

Ans. Examples of the different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century:

1) Textiles, spices and Chinese pottery were exchanged by China, India and Southeast Asia in return for gold and

silver from Europe.

Page 16

2) Gold and foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, tomatoes and chillies were first exported from the Americas

to Europe.

Q. 2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the

Americas. Ans. The global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas because the

native American Indians were not immune to the diseases that the settlers and colonisers brought with them. The

Europeans were more or less immune to small pox, but the native Americans, having been cut off from the rest of the

world for millions of years, had no defence against it. These germs killed and wiped out whole communities, paving the

way for foreign domination. Weapons and soldiers could be destroyed or captured, but diseases could not be fought

against.

Q. 3. Write a note to explain the effects of the following:

(a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws.

(b) The coming of Rinderpest to Africa.

(c) The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the World War.

(d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy.

(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.

Ans. (a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws resulted in losses for the agricultural sector,

but progress in the industrial sector. Food began to be imported more cheaply into Britain, and thousands of workers

involved in cultivation became unemployed. However, consumption increased and the industrial sector grew, with more

workers being available in cities than in rural areas.

(b) The coming of Rinderpest to Africa caused a loss of livelihood for countless Africans. Using this situation to

their advantage, colonising nations conquered and subdued Africa by monopolising scarce cattle resources to force

Africans into the labour market.

(c) The death of men of working age in Europe because of the World War reduced the able-bodied workforce in

Europe, leading to a steady decline in household incomes and a consequent struggle to meet the living expenditure by

families whose men were handicapped or killed.

(d) The Great Depression had a major impact on the Indian economy. Between 1928 and 1934, it reduced Indian

imports and exports by nearly half. Wheat prices too fell by 50% during this time. More than the urban areas, the

agricultural sector (which dominated livelihoods in rural lands) was badly hit by the Great Depression.

(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries led to a stimulation of world trade and capital

flows. This relocation was on account of low-cost structure and lower wages in Asian countries. It also benefitted the

Asian nations because employment increased, and this resulted in quick economic transformation as well.

Q. 4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability. Ans. The impact of technology on food availability was manifold in the late nineteenth century. Faster railways,

lighter wagons and larger ships helped transport food more cheaply and quickly from production units to even faraway

markets. Also, refrigerated ships helped transport perishable foods such as meat, butter and eggs over long distances.

Q. 5. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement? Ans. The Bretton Woods Agreement was finalised in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA. It

established the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to preserve global economic stability and full

employment in the industrial world. These institutions also dealt with external surpluses and deficits of member nations,

and financed post-war reconstructions.

Discuss:

Q. 6. Imagine that you are an indentured Indian labourer in the Caribbean. Drawing from the details in this

chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings.

Ans. Indentured Indian labourers in the Carribbean—facts—signed a contract stating that they would return to

India after working for five years at a plantation; belonged to eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry

districts of Tamil Nadu; migrants took up the overseas jobs hoping to escape poverty and oppression in their home

villages; migrants were not even informed about the long sea voyages, and some unwilling ones were abducted as well;

also known as “the new system of slavery”; harsh living and working conditions; few legal rights; many escaped into the

wilds; some developed new art forms for expression; some returned home after the contract period, while others stayed

on

Respected mother / father.

Convey my love to elders including my wife and bless to both my son and daughter. I am very happy. I am working

in a technologically advanced industrial area of Caribbean. I am getting thick and heavy packet as remuneration five

years with cost on conveyance borne with, by company. One of the company has hired me for all the time calculated.

It is developed country. Its industrial areas are neat and clean and roads are goods. There are sufficient parks,

gardens and good means of transport and communications. Here are several thousand of Indians from Uttar Pradesh,

Bihar and Central India. Even some are from Tamil Nadu and Kerala. I am having friendly relation with my Indian

brothers and people from other Asian countries.

This all, I say, that I am getting here but at the cost of separation from all of you. Sometimes, I become very sad and

I remember my those friends who during my living in India, were very dear to me. Pay my love to my friend Ashok and

Rahim. Write me something specific and receive a gift from an indentured labour, you desired from this country. I

assured you of forft night receipt in your hand.

Page 17

Once again respect to all elders, love to all known of my age and great love to all children of our families.

With regards,

Your son,

xYz

Q. 7. Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic exchange. Find one

example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.

Ans. The three types of movements or flows within the international economic exchange are trade flows, human

capital flows and capital flows or investments. These can be explained as—the trade in agricultural products, migration of

labour, and financial loans to and from other nations.

India was a hub of trade in the pre-modern world, and it exported textiles and spices in return for gold and silver

from Europe. Many different foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies and sweet potatoes came

to India from the Americas after Columbus discovered it.

In the field of labour, indentured labour was provided for mines, plantations and factories abroad, in huge numbers,

in the nineteenth century. This was an instrument of colonial domination by the British.

Lastly, Britain took generous loans from USA to finance the World War. Since India was an English colony, the

impact of these loan debts was felt in India too. The British government increased taxes, interest rates, and lowered the

prices of products it bought from the colony. Indirectly, but strongly, this affected the Indian economy and people.

Q. 8. Explain the causes of the Great Depression.

Ans. The Great Depression was a result of many different factors. The post-war global economy was weak. Also,

agricultural over-production proved to be a nuisance, which was made worse by falling food grain prices. To counter this,

farmers began to increase production and bring even more produce to the markets to maintain their annual incomes. This

led to such a glut of food grains that prices plummeted further and farm produce was left to rot. Most countries took loans

from the US, but American overseas lenders were wary about the same. When they decreased the amount of loans, the

countries economically dependent on US loans faced an acute crisis. In Europe, this led to the failure of major banks and

currencies such as the British pound sterling. In a bid to protect the American economy, USA doubled import duties. This

worsened the world trade scenario. All these factors contributed to the Great Depression. It affected USA the worst on

account of its being a global loan provider and the biggest industrial nation.

Q. 9. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the

activities of the Bretton Woods twins?

Ans. G-77 countries is an abbreviation for the group of 77 countries that demanded a new international economic

order (NIEO); a system that would give them real control over their natural resources, without being victims of neo-

colonialism, that is, a new form of colonialism in trade practised by the former colonial powers.

The G-77 can be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins (the International Monetary Fund

and the World Bank) because these two institutions were designed to meet the financial needs of industrial and developed

countries, and did nothing for the economic growth of former colonies and developing nations.

Project Work:

Find out more about gold and diamond mining in South Africa in the nineteenth century. Who controlled the

gold and diamond companies? Who were the miners and what were their lives like? Ans. Centre for gold and diamond making was an African colony of the Britishers presently known as Northern

Rhodesia arid Southern Rhodesia. These two countries at present, were that time under control of the British Government

as colony during 1870 C.E, Civil Rhodes was the sole representative of the British, hence, by taking benefit of economy

he named the territory after his name, Rhodesia.

Thus, It is clear from above that Gold and Diamond region presently existed iii the form of two countries i.e. North

Rhodesia and South Rhodesia—a colony of Great Britain. Swaziland and Basutoland were also British colonies like

Rhodesia.

These African colonies were occupied by the British when their conspiracy to overthrow Boer Government of

Transvaal met to success. They also defeated Boers in a battle that took place subsequently and popularly known as Boer

War that ran continuously for three years (1899— 1902).

Managers were the British companies while labourers were people from India, South Asia and Africa, They played

several tricks to compel people in Africa for working as labourers in mines. Inheritance or succession laws were changed

and peasants were displaced or evicted from their own lands. So, erstwhile peasants were subsequently made mine

workers and labourers by several changes brought n legislations.

SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. What is Rinderpest? Ans. It was a fast spreading disease of cattle plague which had a terrifying impact on people’s livelihood and the

local economy of many countries and especially Africa in the 1890s.

Q. 2. What was called Hosay? Ans. The Trinidad, a south American country, the riotous Muharram procession or carnival began to be called

‘Hosay’.

Q. 3. Name some Indian Entrepreneurs who ventured abroad?

Ans. (i) Shikaripuri Shroffs and Natthukottan Chetiarrs who financed export agriculture in Central and South East

Asia.

(ii) Hyderabadi, Sindhi traders who set up their establishments at busy parts world wide.

Q. 4. Which countries were known as ‘Allies’ in the first World War (1914-1918)?

Page 18

Ans. Britain, France, Russia and U.S. were known as Allies.

Q. 5. How much was the human loss in the First World War? Ans. About nine million people dead and 20 million injured

Q. 6. Who was Henry Ford? Ans. He was well-known pioneer of mass production in the field of car manufacturing.

Q. 7. What were the Axis Powers in the Second World War?

Ans. Mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy.

Q. 8. What was the human loss in the Second World War?

Ans. At least 60 million people are believed to have been killed in this war, directly or indirectly or indirectly, and

millions more were injured.

Q. 9. What is the international monetary system? Ans. It is the system which links national currency with the monetary system. This system was fixed on fixed

exchange rates.

Q. 10. What do you mean by G-77?

Ans. It was a Group of 77 developing countries which did not benefit from the fast growth which the Western

economies experienced in 1950s.

Q. 11. What is Globalisation? Ans. Globalisation means integrating our economy with the world economy. As a result, producers of other

countries can sell their goods and services in India and likewise India can also sell its goods and services in other

countries. As a result of globalization, the different countries of the world become economically inter-dependant on each

other.

Q. 12. What led to globalization?

Ans. (i) Trade

(ii) Migration of the people in search of work.

(iii) The movement of capital

Q. 13. Why the indentured did hired on Contract workers from India become ready to migrate to other

countries? Ans. (i) Cottage industries declined and they got deep in depth.

(ii) Land rents rose and they failed to pay them.

(iii) Their lands were forcibly cleared for mines and plantations.

Q. 14. When and why was the indentured labour migration abolished? Ans. It was abolished in 1921 because India’s nationalist leaders opposed this system as abusive and cruel.

Q. 15. What were the major items of exports from India between 1812 and 1870? Ans. (i) Raw cotton whose export rose from 5% to 35% between 1812 to 1871.

(ii) Opium shipment to China which enabled the British to finance its tea and other export from China.

Q. 16. What is meant by the Assembly line? Ans. When different parts of a machine like cars and manufactured at different places but are assembled at one

single place, such a system is called an assembly line.

Q. 17. What was the main aim of post-war international economic system? Ans. (i) To preserve economic stability

(ii) Full employment in the industrial world.

Q. 18. Why were the Multi-National Companies (MNCs) attracted towards the developing countries?

Ans. (i) Because wages were relatively low in such countries.

(ii) It was thought better to invest in these countries for more and more of profits.

Q. 19. Write short note on – The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.

Ans. MNCs are multinational companies which invest money in different countries. From the late 1970s, they began

to shift production operations to low wage Asian countries. Such a thing or decision had a far reaching impact.

(i) Such a decision increased the job opportunities in the Asian countries and to a great extent they helped in solving

the unemployment problem.

(ii) These MNCs helped the Asian countries to come out of the former colonial powers which still held the main

controls of economic power in many new independent countries, but which were once under their control.

(iii) The coming of MNCs in Asian countries enabled the people to enjoy new varieties of things which they began

to manufacture in bulk in these Asian countries.

(iv) These multinational companies by their relocation of industry to low-wage countries of Asia stimulated world

trade and capital flow.

(v) They proved a great help to the true beginning of globalisation.

Q. 20. What do you mean by the Silk Route. What was their importance? Ans. Of all the routes connecting the ancient world, the most important routes were the silk routes. They are known

to have existed even before the Christian era and thrived almost till the fifteenth century. These routes proved a good

example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between different parts of the world.

These ancient routes were called the silk routes because along these routes were mainly carried the silk cargoes from

China to different regions of Asia, Europe and Northern Africa. But by the same routes were carried the Chinese pottery,

the Indian spices and textiles. In turn, through these silk routes were carried precious metals – gold and silver, from

Europe to Asia.

Page 19

Among these routes, the Buddhist preachers, Christian missionaries and later on the Muslim preachers travelled far

and wide. Thus these silk routes proved a great source of trade and cultural exchanges.

Q. 21. What causes led to the decline of the Indian textiles?

Ans. Upto the 18th

century, the Indian textiles had a wider market all over the world but in the 19th

century, it saw a

rapid decline from 30% around 1800 to 15% by 1815. By the 1870s, this proportion had dropped to below 3%. What a

tragedy ! The chief causes for this rapid decline were the following:

(i) The first was the Industrial Revolution in England as a result of which England stopped all imports of textiles

from India.

(ii) Instead it flooded the Indian market with machine-made cloth which was cheaper and more attractive.

(iii) While heavy taxes were imposed on the export of Indian textiles, the British textiles and their imports in to India

were left duty free.

(iv) The East Indian Company bought almost all the cotton from the Indian bazaars and sent to England to feed the

cotton factories there. Almost no or very little cotton as a raw material was left for the Indian textile industries.

(v) Heavy taxes were imposed on the Indian manufacturing units engaged in textiles so they were made to die a

natural death.

(vi) Even the railways were used to export cotton from India and carry British cloth to the Indian market.

(vii) Thus the British Government choked the Indian textile industry by their unjust and indiscriminate economic

policies.

Q. 22. Explain the causes of Great Depression.

Ans. There was a world-wide economic crisis in 1929 which in many countries continued upto 1934. It started in the

U.S.A. but soon it engulfed many countries of the world except Russian. Some of its causes were the following.

(i) The First World War (1914-1918) had given a great boost to the American industry. But after the war when its

industries continued producing different articles at the breakneck speed, there was a glut in the market. The exports had

fallen and the home market could not absorb all those products. As a result the unsold stock of goods began to pile up in

the 1930s. the lack of buyers ruined both the industrialists and the farming community. Thus USA was caught in a severe

economic crisis.

(ii) As a result the American capitalist stopped all loans to the European countries thus halting all production there.

(iii) The sudden stoppage of American capital caused an unprecedented economic crisis there.

(iv) The defeat of Germany in the First World War had already ruined her and her industry. So she became and easy

victim of the economic crisis.

(v) Last but not the least, the labour saving machines and the abundances of agricultural products was also

responsible for the economic depression in Europe.

Q. 23. What were the results of the Economic Crisis of 1929-1934? Ans. The Economic Crisis of 1929-1934 had far reaching effects on U.S.A., Europe and other part of the world.

(i) The economic depression led to the deterioration of the economic conditions of the capitalist countries of Europe

and the U.S.A.

(ii) There was a great fall in the industrial production as the demand fro goods of all types also fell, men were laid

off and factories closed. The industrial production in 1933 was only half the 1929 level.

(iii) Unemployment soared very high and world unemployment doubled. There were 5 to 10 crores of unemployed

persons in the world. The number of unemployed persons stood round 14 million in the U.S.A. alone.

(iv) There was a great fall in the living standard of the people in all parts of the world.

(v) The economic depression resulted in poverty. Many people became poor and led a miserable life and began to

die of hunger.

(vi) Agricultural prices fell disastrously in many countries.

(vii) The results of this depression in Italy and Germany were insecurity, unemployment, poverty, frustration, panic

and discontentment. This led to the rise of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany. Democratic Party came to power in

U.S.A. under the leadership of Roosevelt. It adopted the policy of ‘New Deal’ to overcome the evil effects of the

economic depression and to provide jobs to the people and to improve the condition of the workers.

(viii) The New Deal of Roosevelt in America and the economic nationalism of Britain necessitated state control.

Multiple Choice Questions:

(i) In which year did the First World War break out?

(a) 1911 (c) 1919

(b) 1943 (d) 1914

(ii) Which American president built up a plan known as New Deal?

(a) Theodore D. Roosevelt (c) Franklin D. Roosevelt

(b) Richard M. Nixon (d) Lyndon B. Johnson

(iii) In which year did the Bretton Woods Conference take place?

(a) 1941 (c) 1943

(b) 1942 (d) 1944

(iv) Which organization represents the interests of more than 120 less developed states of the world?

(a) New International Economic Order

(b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

(c) International Monetary Fund

(d) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

Page 20

(v) The Great Depression started with the crash of _________

(a) British Stock Exchange

(b) New York Stock Exchange

(c) French Stock Exchange

(d) None of these

Ans. (i) d; (ii) c; (iii) d; (iv) c; (v) b.

Fill in the Blanks: (a) A plan offered by U.S.A for the recovery of European nations was called ___________

(b) The Great Depression started with the Stock Exchange crash of __________.

(c) The International Monetary Fund and ____________ were set up by financial conference held at Bretton Woods.

(d) GATT was established at ___________ in the year _________.

(e) The short name for association of South Asian Nations is ___________

Ans. (a) Marshall Plan; (b) 1929; (c) World Bank; (d) Geneva, 1948; (e) SAARC.

THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

Q. 1. Explain the following:

(a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.

(b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans

within the villages.

(c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century.

(d) The East India Company appointed Gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.

Ans. (a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny because it speeded up the spinning process, and

consequently, reduced labour demand. This caused a valid fear of unemployment among women working in the woollen

industry. Till date, they had survived on hand spinning, but this was placed in peril by the new machine.

(b) In the seventeenth century, merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the

villages because production in urban areas could not be increased due to the presence of powerful trade guilds. These

maintained control over production, regulated prices and competition, and restricted the entry of new people in the trade.

Monopolisation was also a common tactic. In the countryside, there were no such rules, and impoverished peasants

welcomed these merchants.

(c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century on account of the growing power of European

companies in trade with India. They secured many concessions from local courts as well as the monopoly rights to trade.

This led to a decline of the old ports of Surat and Hoogly from where local merchants had operated. Exports slowed and

local banks here went bankrupt.

(d) The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India to establish a more direct control

over the weavers, free of the existing traders and brokers in the cloth trade. The gomasthas were the paid servants who

supervised the weavers, collected supplies and examined the quality of cloth. The gomasthas ensured that all

management and control of the cloth industry came under the British. This helped in eliminating competition, controlling

costs and ensuring regular supplies of cotton and silk products.

Q. 2. Write True or False against each statement:

(a) At the end of the nineteenth century, 80 per cent of the total workforce in Europe was employed in the

technologically advanced industrial sector.

(b) The international market for fine textiles was dominated by India till the eighteenth century.

(c) The American Civil War resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from India.

(d) The introduction of the fly shuttle enabled handloom workers to improve their productivity.

Ans. (a) False; (b) True; (c) False; (d) True.

Q. 3. Explain what is meant by proto-industrialisation.

Ans. Proto-industrialisation is the phase of industrialisation that was not based on the factory system. Before the

coming of factories, there was large-scale industrial production for an international market. This part of industrial history

is known as proto-industrialisation.

Discuss:

Q. 1. Why did some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?

Ans. Some industrialists in nineteenth-century England preferred hand labour over machines because there was no

labour shortage in the market, and as a result, there was no problem of high wage costs either. Industrialists did not wish

to replace hand labour with machines that would require large capital investment. Also, in industries where the

production and amount of labour required were dependent on the seasons, hand labour was preferred for its lower costs.

Page 21

Apart from this, many goods could only be manufactured by hand. Machines could provide mass quantities of a uniform

product. But the demand was for intricate designs and shapes; this required human skill, and not mechanical technology.

Handmade products also stood for refinement and class status. It was commonly believed that machine-made goods were

for export to the colonies.

Q. 2. How did the East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian

weavers?

Ans. After establishing political power, the East India Company successfully procured regular supplies of cotton and

silk textiles from Indian weavers via a series of actions. These actions were aimed at eliminating competition from other

colonial powers, controlling costs and ensuring regular supplies of cotton and silk goods for Britain. Firstly, it

appointed gomasthas or paid servants to supervise weavers, collect supplies and examine textile quality. Secondly, it

disallowed Company weavers from dealing with other buyers. This was ascertained by a system of giving advances to the

weavers for procuring raw materials. Those who took these loans could not sell their cloth to anyone but thegomasthas.

Q. 3. Imagine that you have been asked to write an article for an encyclopaedia on Britain and the history of

cotton. Write your piece using information from the entire chapter.

Ans. Britain and the History of Cotton: During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants would trade

with rural people in textile production. A clothier would buy wool from a wool stapler, carry it to the spinners, and

then, take the yarn to the weavers, fuller and dyers for further levels of production. London was the finishing centre for

these goods. This phase in British manufacturing history is known as proto-industrialisation. In this phase, factories were

not an essential part of industry. What was present instead was a network of commercial exchanges.

The first symbol of the new era of factories was cotton. Its production increased rapidly in the late nineteenth

century. Imports of raw cotton sky-rocketed from 2.5 million pounds in 1760 to 22 million pounds in 1787. This

happened because of the invention of the cotton mill and new machines, and better management under one roof. Till

1840, cotton was the leading sector in the first stage of industrialisation.

Most inventions in the textile production sector were met with disregard and hatred by the workers because

machines implied less hand labour and lower employment needs. The Spinning Jenny was one such invention. Women in

the woollen industry opposed and sought to destroy it because it was taking over their place in the labour market.

Before such technological advancements, Britain imported silk and cotton goods from India in vast numbers. Fine

textiles from India were in high demand in England. When the East India Company attained political power, they

exploited the weavers and textile industry in India to its full potential, often by force, for the benefit of Britain. Later,

Manchester became the hub of cotton production. Subsequently, India was turned into the major buyer of British cotton

goods.

During the First World War, British factories were too busy providing for war needs. Hence, demand for Indian

textiles rose once again. The history of cotton in Britain is replete with such fluctuations of demand and supply.

Q. 4. Why did industrial production in India increase during the First World War?

Ans. Industrial production in India increased during the First World War because British mills became busy with

tending to war needs. Manchester imports decreased, and Indian mills suddenly had a huge home market to supply. Later,

they were also asked to supply war needs such as jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, tents, leather boots, saddles and

other items. There was so much demand that new factories had to be set up even when old ones ran on multiple shifts.

Industrial production boomed with the employment of new workers and longer working hours.

Project Work:

Q. Select any one industry in your region and find out its history. How has the technology changed?

Where d the workers come from? How are the products advertised and marketed? Try and talk to the

employers and some workers to get their views about the industry’s history.

Ans. History of cotton textile in Ahmedabad (Gujarat):

1. Cotton textiles are among the oldest industries of Ahmedabad, Gujarat. One can trace it back to the day of

Indus Civilisation when cotton fabrics from Lothal (port) were send to different parts of Asia.

2. Initially, old technology was followed by the weavers. The spinning wheel constituted its sole machine.

Ladies of the village used to spin the cotton. During the British period, technology changed and several cotton

textile mills were set up in different parts of the country. Power loom was used in place of handloom. Factories

were opened for twenty- four hours. Several types of machines were used. Machines of advanced technologies

invented in England and other countries in Europe were also installed.

3. The workers for cotton textile mills used to come from rural areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Some of

them used to come daily by cycles and most of them settled nearby the factory. Slums developed and they created

several types of problems for the city dwellers.

Page 22

4. The industry provided living to farmers, cotton ball pluckers and workers engaged in ginning, spinning,

weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, sewing and tailoring.

5. The products were advertised by the agents of mills under the British East India Company and local

merchants and traders. The European traders used to buy fine quality of cotton textile from Ahmadabad and that

was taken to Surat.

6. We have talked with employers and some workers of the cotton textile. Employers said that they used to

face tough competition with the British cotton textile before the independence but after India’s independence, they

could receive certain incentives. The globalisation since 1990s have however, opened the way for “Wealth is Right”

in the form of MNCs and Gandhi’s common people including small scale industries at the brink of extinction.

7. After 1991, as the Indian Government has adopted globalisation and liberalisation we have to face, the

competition of foreign manufactured textiles—the mill owners stated. We have started research work in our

designing units and accepted advise of fashion designers—the mill owners said. Every year, two times, they conduct

fashion shows to promote their sale. They are having no problem from labourers as the impact of trade union is

decreasing day-by-day due to globalisation and liberalisation.

8. On the other hand, employees say that their pay packets are not attractive. They work hard over eight hours

daily and get only eye wash bonus and medical facility. The employers express inability to give more benefits due

to the environment of perfect competition at global level. They say, such competition has reduced their margin of

profit. Sometimes, they expel some labourers also. They argue that they don’t require their services anymore

because there is no lack of workers in the labour market. Unemployment is a serious problem for labourers which

can be removed only when labour market is allowed free from trade tariffs or barriers. SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. What was the result of the import of Manchester cloth to India?

Ans. (i) It ruined the cloth industry in India because the Manchester cloth was both cheap showy and durable.

(ii) The weavers were forced to give up their ancestral profession of cloth weaving and had to work as labourers in

urban areas.

Q. 2. What was the result of First World War on Indian industries?

Ans. The First World War gave a great boost to the Indian industries because of the following reasons:

(i) The British mills became busy with the production of war materials so all its export to India virtually stopped.

(ii) Suddenly, Indian mills got clearance to produce different articles for the home market.

(iii) The Indian factories were called upon to supply various war related materials like jute bags, cloth for uniforms,

tents and leather boots for the forces and so on

Q. 3. Explain the meaning of term ‘Industrial Revolution’.

Ans. The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ stands for those developments and inventions which revolutionized the

technique and organization of production in the latter half of the 18th

century. The Industrial Revolution in face replaced

the domestic system, by the new ‘factory system’. In place of animal and manual power, new machines and steam-power

were used for producing things. This revolution replaced the cottage industry by the factories, the handwork by the

machine-work and the craftsmen and the artists by the capitalist and the factory-owners.

Q. 4. Why does industrialization affect farming or agriculture?

Ans. Effects of Industrialization on Agriculture. With Industrialization grew the demand for raw-materials so

rapidly that it forced the cultivators to adopt new methods to ensure more production. New machines were invented for

digging the soil, sowing seeds, reaping the harvest and thrashing the corn. New crops were sown and chemical fertilizers

were developed for a bumper harvest. Means of irrigation were improved and new breeds of farm cattle were developed.

These and several other techniques ensured more food for the growing population and more raw material for the growing

industries.

Q. 5. What conditions are favourable for the continuing growth of industries in India?

Ans. (1) India abounds in coal and iron-ore deposits, which are essential for the development of industries. We can

export our surplus coal and iron-ore to other countries.

(2) We have a number of perennial rivers whose perpetual flow of water can be used to generate more electric

power.

(3) We can produce abundant raw-materials as were have vast agricultural potential in rich and fertile land of our big

country.

(4) We have a vast network of roads and railways and our shipping industry has also developed considerably and as

such we can transport our goods not only within India but also outside India.

(5) India itself is a big market with its big population. Besides, Indian goods are in great demand in several Arabian

and Asian countries.

Page 23

(6) We have good potential in capital as well. Besides, the foreign aid and the foreign investment can also help us in

this respect.

Q. 6. Explain the factors responsible for the Industrial Revolution in England.

Ans. The Industrial Revolution began in England in the later half of the 18th

century as favourable conditions

for such a development were present there:

(1) Men like Walpole, who was a great economist, encouraged the foreign trade which brought more and more

wealth to England. The British traders had thus accumulated sufficient capital that was needed to establish new factories.

(2) England had plenty of natural resources like iron and coal which are essential for industries.

(3) England had established many new colonies from where they could easily get cheat raw-materials and which

could also serve as best markets for finished goods.

(4) England had developed a large shipping industry which solved their problem of transporting things to distant

lands.

Q. 7. ‘Industrialisation gave birth to Imperialism’. How?

Ans. There is no exaggeration in calling imperialism as the ill-begotten child of industrialization. Other things

beside, industrialization chiefly needs two things. One of them being the constant supply of raw-materials and the other is

that the finished goods be sold at the same speed. The industrialized countries had introduced heavy import duties as

protective tariffs to check the import from other countries. Faced with the problem of finding new markets for their

products, the producer nations chose such countries where industrialization had not yet reached. Hence a race for bringing

those areas under their effective occupation or effective influence started among the various industrialized nations. As a

consequence, Britain, France, Germany and Japan, etc. set up their colonies in Asia, Africa and South America etc. These

colonies served their two purposes of being the suppliers of cheap raw materials and an easy market for their finished

goods. In this way, it can be rightly said that industrialization gave birth to imperialism or carving out of new colonies in

other lands.

Multiple Choice Questions:

(i) In which country did the industrial revolution start?

(a) Germany c) England

(b) France d) Japan

(ii) Who invented the Spring Jenny?

(a) Richard Arkwright d) Samuel Crompton

(b) James Hargreaves d) Edmund Cartright

(iii) Which was the first industry to be set up in India?

(a) Jute c) Iron and Steel

(b) Cotton d) Sugar

(iv) Cotton Gin was invented by

(a) Eli Whitney (c) Richard Roberts

(b) Abraham Darby (d) Henry Bessemer

(v) he first modern jute mill in India was established in

(a) Bombay (c) Surat

(b) Bihar (d) Bengal

Ans. (i) c; (ii) b; (iii) b; (iv) a; (v) d.

Fill in the Blanks:

(a) Richard Arkwright patented the ___________

(b) Steam Engine was invented by ____________

(c) The first regular steam boat service in Britian was inaugurated in the year __________.

(d) Tata Iron and Steel Company was established at ________ in the year __________.

(e) _________Movement also added to the momentum of expansion of the Indian industries.

Ans. (a) Water Frame; (b) James Watt; (c) 1812; (d) Jamshedpur, 1912; (e) Swadeshi Movement.

URBANISATION Write in Brief:

Q. 1. Give two reasons why the population of London expanded from the middle of the eighteenth century

Ans. The city of London was a magnet for the migrant populations due to the job opportunities provided by its

dockyards and industries. By 1750, one out of every nine people of England and Wales lived in London. So, the

population of London kept expanding through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Page 24

During the First World War, London began manufacturing motor cars and electrical goods. This increased

the number of large factories, which in turn increased the number of people coming to the city in search of work.

Q. 2.What were the changes in the kind of work available to women in London between the nineteenth and

the twentieth century? Explain the factors which led to this change.

Ans. Changes in the kind of work available to women in London between the nineteenth and the twentieth century

were primarily based on industrial and technological advancements. Consequently, women had to work in households for

a living, and this led to an increase in the number of domestic servants. Some women also began to earn by lodging out

rooms, tailoring, washing or making matchboxes. With the coming of the First World War though, women once again

joined the industrial sector.

Q. 3. How does the existence of a large urban population affect each of the following? Illustrate with

historical examples.

(a) A private landlord

(b) A Police Superintendent in charge of law and order

(c) A leader of a political party

Ans. (a) The existence of a large urban population means that there would be greater number of individuals in need

of a place to stay. This increased demand for places of residence is profitable for private landlords who can then rent out

rooms at high rates. In nineteenth-century London, individual landowners made huge profits by taking advantage of the

helplessness of the hoards of migrants in the city that needed a place to live.

(b) The existence of a large urban population means that there are increased cases of crimes, social conflict and

rebellion. Police are responsible for maintaining the law and order. Hence, a police superintendent would definitely have

increased work on his/her hands. In nineteenth-century London, policemen had a tough time controlling crime during the

migrant influx. In the 1870s, there were 20,000 criminals living in London. The job of a policeman was made more

complex in hunting down pick-pockets, thieves, cheats and tricksters whose numbers kept multiplying

(c) The existence of a large urban population implies the simultaneous presence of several social problems, such as

problems of housing, food, water, etc. These issues become political issues when they are taken up by political parties. A

political party and its leaders can mobilise the masses to support them in these political causes. This was the case in

nineteenth-century London as well.

Q. 4.Give explanations for the following:

(a) Why well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for the poor in the nineteenth century

(b) Why a number of Bombay films were about the lives of migrants.

(c) What led to the major expansion of Bombay’s population in the mid-nineteenth century.

Ans. (a) Well-off Londoners supported the need to build housing for the poor in the nineteenth century on account

of three reasons: one-room houses of the poor came to be seen as the breeding ground of diseases, and hence, a threat to

public health; fire hazards became a worry in these over-crowded, badly ventilated, unhygienic homes; lastly, there was a

widespread fear of social disorder, especially after the 1917 Russian Revolution. Housing schemes were undertaken to

avoid a rebellion by the poor.

(b) Bombay became an attractive destination for people seeking jobs after the British administration replaced Surat

with Bombay as its principal western port. The consequent increase in trade and industries led to a great influx of

people. Thus, migrants were (and still are) an important facet of Bombay. Most of the people in the film industry were

migrants themselves, and wanted to portray the plight of this class of people through films. Thus, a number of Bombay

films were about the lives of migrants.

(c) In mid-seventeenth century, Bombay became East India Company’s principal western port, replacing Surat.

Later, by the end of the nineteenth century, it had become an important administrative as well as industrial centre. All

through these years, the prospects for trade and commerce, and employment kept increasing, thereby making Bombay an

attractive destination for migrants.

Discuss

Q. 1. What forms of entertainment came up in nineteenth century England to provide leisure activities for the

people.

Ans. Forms of entertainment that came up in nineteenth-century England to provide leisure activities for the people

were aplenty. For the upper classes, an annual “London Season” was one of the sources of leisure. It comprised the opera,

the theatre and classical music events. For the working classes, pubs, discussions and meetings for political action served

the same purpose. Libraries, art galleries and museums were new types of entertainment brought about through the

Page 25

utilisation of state money. Music halls and cinema theatres too became immensely popular with the lower classes.

Industrial workers were encouraged to undertake seaside vacations to rejuvenate from the banes of working in the

polluting environment of factories.

Q. 2. Explain the social changes in London which led to the need for the Underground railway. Why was the

development of the Underground criticised?

Ans. The development of suburbs as a part of the drive to decongest London led to the extension of the city beyond

the range where people could walk to work. Though these suburbs had been built, the people could not be persuaded to

leave the city and stay far away from their places of work in the absence of some form of public transport. The

Underground railway was constructed to solve this housing problem.

The development of the Underground was criticised because underground travelling was considered risky. Many felt

that it added to the mess and unhygienic conditions of the city. Also, to clear the path for the construction of the

Underground, a number of houses were destroyed. This led to the displacement of a great number of London poor.

Q. 3. Explain what is meant by the Haussmanisation of Paris. To what extent would you support or oppose

this form of development? Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper, to either support or oppose this, giving

reasons for your view.

Ans. Haussmanisation of Paris refers to the re-building of Paris by Baron Haussmann in the mid-eighteenth century.

When Louis Napoleon III came to power, he appointed Haussmann as the chief architect of the new city. He laid out new

streets, straight sidewalks, boulevards and open avenues, and planted full-grown trees. Haussmann’s architectural plans

had positives as well as negatives. His name has become a representation of forcible reconstruction to enhance the beauty

of a city and impose order. This is because his plans led to the displacement of 350,000 people from the centre of Paris.

This included many poor people who were now rendered homeless.

Nevertheless, this “Haussmanisation of Paris” had its boons too. Public works employed nearly one in five working

people. Haussmann’s work was criticised by the wealthy and poor alike during his time, but Paris became a symbol of

civic pride for the French and it became the nucleus of many new architectural, social and intellectual developments that

influenced other parts of the world in the twentieth century.

Letter to the Editor

(In support of the Hussmannisation of Paris):

Rebuilding of Paris is really a splendid ea recently discussed by the chief architect, Baron Haussmann with his

majesty Louis Napoleon. It is said that the plan drawn and submitted by Haussmann is already received consent of the

ruler. As per the blue-print, there are straight and broad avenues, open spaces and tree groves planned. There are police

chowkis planned at certain distance. Bus shelters and tap water would also available for commuters and pedestrians at the

roadside. Theatres and other leisures have been given place at each terminal of the city. There has been shown a network

of streets connecting each-other at right angle and finally, leading to highways. Paris will thus, become shortly one of the

most beautiful city of the world. This city will promote culture of upper classes, Civilization of France will receive new

definition and tourism industry will boost with bulk earning of hard currency.

Yours

Xyz

Letter to the Editor

(Opposing the Haussmannisation of Paris):

Sir,

It smells atrocity on part of the monarch Louis Napoleon III. The king cannot destroy the houses of poor just to

fulfill his fancy to beautify his capital city. Haussmann had ‘killed the street’ and its life as he had produced an empty and

boring city full of similar-looking boulevards and facades. In a play called ‘Maison Neuve’ written recently, an old

shopkeeper has been referred to saying— ‘Now-a-days for the slightest excursion, there are miles to go ! An eternal

sidewalk going on and on forever I A tree, a bench, a kiosk I A tree, a bench, a kiosk I A tree, a bench...’

Yours

Xyz

Q. 4. To what extent does government regulation and new laws solve problems of pollution? Discuss one

example each of the success and failure of legislation to change the quality of

(a) Public life (b) Private life

Ans. Government laws play an important role in controlling the rates of pollution in a city. However, simply passing

laws is not enough. They need to be properly enforced as well. It is also a fact that people tend to find ways of getting

around laws. So, apart from legislations, government also needs to carry out intensive public awareness programmes

aimed at educating the public about the need and ways of controlling pollution; and about how they too have a stake in

environmental governance.

Page 26

Example to show the success of legislation to change the quality of

Public life - The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Commission, established as per the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act of 1905,

was successful in controlling industrial smoke in colonial Calcutta.

Private life - The British government passed the Clean Air Act in 1956. This law was aimed at controlling domestic

sources of smoke pollution, and to do so, it introduced the concept of smokeless zones. In these areas, smokeless fuels

had to be burnt. As a result, air pollution in British cities was substantially reduced.

Example to show the failure of legislation to change the quality of

Public life - By the 1840s, British cities such as Derby, Leeds and Manchester had smoke control laws in place.

However, these laws did not succeed much in controlling smoke emission. Since smoke is not easy to monitor or

measure, it was easy for factory and steam engine owners to get away with small adjustments to their machinery, and this

did nothing to stop smoke.

Private life - During the colonial period, a huge population depended on dung and wood as fuel in their daily life.

This was an important source of air pollution in Calcutta. Though successful in controlling industrial smoke, the Bengal

Smoke Nuisance Commission found it difficult to control this domestic smoke.

[Note: The following can also be a possible answer to the second part of this question.]

Example to show the success of legislation to change the quality of

Public life - The British state used public funds to provide for entertainment forms such as museums, art galleries

and libraries for the working classes.

Private life - British administrative officials built houses in new suburbs for fulfilling the housing needs of the

working classes.

Example to show the failure of legislation to change the quality of

Public life - The Underground railway enhanced transport, but caused the demolition of many houses, rendering

their inhabitants homeless.

Private life - The availability of one-room tenements and no housing facilities for a major part of the industrial

revolution time period caused the family to get divided into smaller units. There were even cases where rural people had

to leave their families behind and live alone in the urban areas where they worked.

SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. Give some chief characteristics of the city.

Ans. Chief Characteristics of the Cities and their Distinction from the Towns and Villages:

(i) Cities, like London and Bombay, were larger on scale as compare to towns and villages like Ur, Nippur and

Mohejodaro.

(ii) Cities could develop only when there was an increase in food supplies that could support a wide range of non-

food producers. Villages and towns required only food supplies in small quantitites.

(iii) Cities were often the centre of multifarious activities, like trade and industry, religious institutions, intellectual

pursuits and administrative set-up while villages and towns had restricted activities.

(iv) In cities, a large number of social groups such as merchants, traders, bankers, wholesale traders and brokers,

skilled artisans and various professionals lived while the villages and towns were predominated by farmers and petty

artisans and shopkeepers.

Q. 2. What were the changes in the kind of work available to women in London between the 19th

and the 20th

century? Explain the factors which led to this change.

Ans. (1) Women in the later 18th

and early 19th

centuries were employed in large number in the factories because

they were available at cheaper rates than men.

(2) In the 19th

century due to technological developments, women gradually lost their industrial jobs and forced to

work elsewhere. Some of them began to work as maid servants so much so that their number rose to quarter of a million

as recorded by the Census of 1861.

Some other women, who remained within the four walls of their houses, increase the family income through various

activities as tailoring, washing, making match boxes etc.

However, there was a change once again in the beginning of the 20th

century when women got employment in the

wartime industries and offices linked with war activities. They happily gave up their domestic services.

Q. 3. Why a number of Bombay films were about the lives of the migrants?

Ans. There is no denying the fact that a number of Bombay films were about the lives of the migrants. There were

reasons for the same.

(1) Most of the film directors, film producers, playwriter, dramatists and artists were themselves migrants, who

came from far off areas to Bombay, so naturally they were familiar and more interested in themes relating to them. The

Page 27

Kapoors, the Ghais, the Chopras, the Sehgals (Shri K.L. Sehgal, the immortal singer) were all migrants (from Punjab),

without whose help were cannot think of the Bombay dream world.

(2) The migrants, especially the labourers and factory workers, led a very pathetic life which can easily be converted

into a good theme for films. So many films were made on the housing problems of the migrants. The clash of interests

between the tenants and owners of the ‘Chawls’ over and over again were woven into interesting themes by the different

Directors and Film Producers.

Q. 4. Explain what is meant by the Haussmanization of Paris. To what extent would you support or oppose

this form of development? Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper to either support or oppose this, giving

reasons for your view.

Ans: What is meant by Haussmanization of Paris. It simply means the new city of Paris as was designed

by the chief architect of new Paris. At the instance of Napoleon III (a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte), Haussmann built

the new city of Paris for continuous 17 years (between 1852 to 1869). He designed straight, broad avenues (or

boulavards) and open spaces and transplanted full grown trees. By 1870, about one-fifth of the streets of Paris were the

creation of Haussmann. In addition night patrols were introduced, bus shelters were built and tap water introduced.

Opposition of Haussmanization. Many opposed this form of development. About 350,000 people were evicted

from the centre of Paris. Some said that the city of Paris had been monstrously transformed. Some lamented the passing

of an earlier way of life and the development of an upper class culture. Others believed that Haussmann had killed the

street and its life to produce and empty boring city.

Arguments in Support of Haussmanization. The new Paris city soon got converted into a civic pride as the new

capital became the toast of all Europe. Paris became the hub of many new architecture, social and intellectual

developments that were very influenced through the 20th

century in many parts of the world.

Guidelines. The students now to write a letter to the editor of a newspaper to either support or oppose this, giving

reasons for their views.

Multiple Choice Questions:

(i) Which town became the first centre of urbanization?

(a) London c) Paris

(b) Tokyo d) Rome

(ii) Between 1810 and 1880, the population of London multiplied by

(a) Two times c) Three times

(b) Five times d) Four times

(iii) During the seventeenth century Bombay was under the control of the

(a) British c) French

(b) Dutch d) Portuguese

(iv) In which year was the first textile mill set up in Bombay?

(a) 1850 c) 1854

(b) 1852 d) 1856

(v) Which Indian city is known as Mayapuri?

(a) Kolkata c) Bengaluru

(b) Mumbai d) New Delhi

Ans. (i) a; (ii) d; (iii) d; (iv) c; (v) b.

Fill in the Blanks:

(a) The speed of urbanization in ___________ was faster than London.

(b) Usually migration is from rural to __________ centres.

(c) In the seventeenth century, Bombay was a group of _________ islands.

(d) A group of chawls was called a ___________.

Ans. (a) Bombay; (b) Urban; (c) Seven; (d) Wadi.

PRINT CULTURE AND THE MODERN WORLD

Write in Brief:

Q. 1. Give reasons for the following

(a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295

(b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.

(c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from the mid-sixteenth century.

Page 28

(d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of

association.

Ans. (a) Woodblock print was invented around the sixth century in China. It came to Europe, along with Marco

Polo, in 1295. Marco Polo returned to Italy after many years of exploration in China, and he brought the knowledge of

woodblock print with him on his return.

(b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it because print media helped popularise and

spread his ideas. In 1517, he wrote the Ninety Five Theses, criticising the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic

Church. These writings were immediately reproduced in vast numbers and read widely. His translation of the New

Testament was also accepted and read by thousands. This was only possible due to the improvements in

print technology which had allowed even the working classes to gain access to books.

(c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an index of Prohibited books from the mid-sixteenth century

because its authority was being put in danger by the several individual and distinctive readings and questionings of faith

prompted by the easily accessible popular religious literature. To supplement its inquisition and repression of heretical

ideas, the Roman Catholic Church exercised strict control over publishers and booksellers, and also began to keep an

Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.

(d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association

because he considered these to be powerful modes of expression and cultivation of public opinion. The denial of these

freedoms was not compatible with the idea of self rule and independence. Hence, the fight for these freedoms, according

to him, was intrinsically a fight for swaraj or self rule.

Q. 2. Write short notes to show what you know about:

(a) The Gutenberg Press

(b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book

(c) The Vernacular Press Act

Ans. (a) The Gutenberg Press: It was established by Johann Gutenberg. By 1448, he had perfected the system of

printing with olive and wine presses, using contemporary technological innovations. The first book that he printed was

the Bible, making 180 copies in 3 years. Although these books were printed, a unique touch remained in the handmade

decorations of the front page, illuminated borders and purchaser-specified designs. The Gutenberg Press was the first-

known printing press in the 1430s.

(b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book: He was critical of the print medium. He believed that though some

books do provide worthwhile knowledge, others are simply a bane for scholarship. Erasmus accused printers of

publishing books that were not mere trifling but “stupid, slanderous, scandalous, raving, irreligious and seditious”. He

also felt that large numbers of such books reduce the value of the quality writings.

(c) The Vernacular Press Act: Modelled on the Irish Press Laws, it was passed in 1878. This law gave the

government tyrannical rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. If a seditious report was published

and the newspaper did not heed to an initial warning, then the press was seized and the printing machinery confiscated.

This was a complete violation of the freedom of expression.

Q. 3. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:

(a) Women (b) The poor (c) Reformers

Ans. (a) Women: The spread of print culture in nineteenth-century India brought about educational reforms for

women. Liberal husbands and fathers educated their womenfolk at home or sent them to schools for women. Women who

had been restricted to a domestic life for generations, now found a new medium of entertainment. They also began to

write articles for journals, in favour of women's education and literacy. Some even wrote books; Rashsundari Devi’s

autobiography “Amar Jiban” was the first full-length autobiography, published in 1876. Conservatives believed that

education and reading would make women widows, or corrupt them. Many women learnt to read and write in secret in

such traditionalist environments.

(b) The poor: They benefitted from the spread of print culture in India on account of the availability of low-price

books and public libraries. Enlightening essays were written against caste discrimination and its inherent injustices. These

were read by people across the country. On the encouragement and support of social reformers, over-worked factory

workers set up libraries for self-education, and some of them even published their own works, for example,

Kashibaba and his “Chhote Aur Bade Sawal”.

(c) Reformers: Print culture’s popularity was an advantage for social and religious reformers as they could now

spread their opinions, through newspapers and books, across the masses. These ideas could then be debated upon by

different groups of people. Reformist ideas were put forward in the local, everyday languages of the common people so

as to create a wider platform for the same.

Page 29

Q. 1. Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment

and end despotism?

Ans. Some people in eighteenth-century Europe thought that print culture would bring enlightenment and end

despotism. Its easy and cheap availability meant that literacy would no longer be restricted to the upper classes. While the

clergy and monarchs feared the enlightenment that a vast reading public would gain, reformers like Martin Luther

welcomed the change. They felt that it would mark an end to the blind adherence to the rulers’ ideology. This can be seen

in the French Revolution as well. The print medium allowed the ideals of freedom, equality and brotherhood set forth by

Rousseau and Voltaire in their writings to reach the public. It created a new culture of dialogue and debate that initiated

the working class into questioning and re-evaluating social customs and norms. The power of reason that the public

gained initiated social reform, and brought an end to despotism.

Q. 2. Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe

and one from India.

Ans. The people who feared the effect of easily available printed books were the ones who held some power,

whether in terms of religion, caste, class or politics. The fear was that their power and authority would get eroded if ideas

questioning their power and authority gained mass popularity. In Europe, for example, the Roman Catholic Church

conveyed its sense of apprehension for the print medium by stating that the promotion of new "printed" readings of

faith would lead to blasphemous questionings of faith and encourage heretical ideas. It considered itself to be the sole

authority for interpreting religion. Hence, it set up the Index of Prohibited Books in 1558 to repress any published

material that it felt corroded this authority.

In India, apart from the colonial government which did its bit in regulating and suppressing newspapers and books

that questioned and criticised colonial authority, the religious leaders and the upper castes also displayed their fear of the

print medium. They understood that their religious and social superiority was in danger due to the easily

accessible "printed" ideas contradicting their systems of beliefs. They knew that the popularisation of such ideas would

incite people to rebellion.

Q. 3. What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India?

Ans. The poor people benefitted from the spread of print culture in India on account of the availability of low-price

books and public libraries. Enlightening essays were written against caste discrimination and its inherent injustices. These

were read by people across the country. On the encouragement and support of social reformers, over-worked factory

workers set up libraries for self-education, and some of them even published their own works, for example,

Kashibaba and his “Chhote Aur Bade Sawal”.

Q. 4. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.

Ans. Print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India by providing easy access to nationalist ideals and ideas

of freedom and equality to the masses. Social reformers could now print their opinions in newspapers, which sparked off

public debates. The power of reason made the common people question the authority of colonial power. Interestingly,

when the British tried to censor and control print media, nationalist newspapers grew in number everywhere in the

country. They reported on colonial misrule and encouraged people to participate in nationalist activities. Attempts to

censor anti-colonial publications aroused militant protests as well.

PROJECT WORK

Q. Find out more about the changes in print technology in the last 100 years. Write about the changes,

explaining why they taken place, what their consequences have been.

Ans. As the project makes a query upon the last 100 years, we mean it, the period beginning with twentieth century;

we would like to discuss further changes that came in printing technology in the following points:

(i) In the twentieth century, the development of newsprint, paper and printing technology connected with books,

together with photography and sound engineering have opened up, new era of printing press which has tremendous

potentiality to remove illiteracy and expand the scope of education.

(ii) Presses began electrically operated during those periods.

(iii) Offset press was already developed in the last nineteenth century. It was capable to print upto six colours at a

time.

(iv) Other developments in printing technology can be started as—(a) improvement in method of feeding paper, (b)

improvement in plate quality, (c) introduction of automatic paper reels and (d) introduction of phoelectric control of

colour prints viz, the process of colour arrangements.

(v) These changes came because increase in number of authors commentators, critics, novelists, historian poets,

missionaries and theologists. Root these developments is the invention of paper in East Asia (China) and then Chinese

first attempt to compose words on paper. Papyrus the living plant and its inventor are therefore first worthy to thanks.

Page 30

Former sacrificed body (physique) and the latter sacrificed temporal sentiments at the altar of finding something so vital

to mankind.

Cause for Change: Gregarious instinct within each individual, like other organism unites him with society that

embraces family nation and the whole world in its vast import. It is language intertwined with words that contributes

large in writing them. It was therefore, necessity felt to expand contacts, aricultatlons, relationships through means that

would bear spoken words in signs symbols viz. in black and white. As initial prints made certain auspicious changes in

society, It proceeded by leaps and bounds.

At present, with the pace of human minds polluted in coalieries of passions, ignorance mores, print culture is also

polluted. Travesty tamper, dub, prying, espionage; peeping /peering into short-cuts are the bacterias causing T.B. to Print

Culture.

SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. Who was Martin Luther?

Ans. He was a great religious reformer of Germany, who by his criticism of the Roman Catholic Church laid the

foundation of the Reformation Movement in Europe.

Q. 2. What is meant by Reformation?

Ans. It was a reform movement started in the 16th

century to reform the Catholic Religion.

Q. 3. When did the first printing press come to India?

Ans. The printing-press first came to India in Goa with the Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century.

Q. 4. What led to the diversification in the use of print in China?

Ans. Upto the sixteenth century, the print was used only by the scholars officials but in the 17th

century, the

merchants along with the reading public also began to use print in their everyday life.

Q. 5. What was the use of printing press?

Ans. (1) It enabled people to produce books at greater speed.

(2) The production of books in large number created a new culture of reading and enlarged the number of readers.

Q. 6. Who was Martin Luther? What is his contribution to the Protestant Reformation?

Ans. Martin Luther was a great reformer of Germany. The credit for starting Reformation in Germany goes to him.

In 1512 A.D., he went to Rome for pilgrimage. He was stunned to see that the Pope had sunk to the level of an Italian

Prince and led a very luxurious life. The corrupt practices of the church and immoral life of the clergymen brought a great

change in his ideas and he became a staunch opponent of the Pope.

When working as a Professor at the University of Wittenburg, he was asked to sell ‘Indulgences’ as a means of

salvation he frankly refused. Instead he wrote down his objections against the scale of Indulgences’ in Latin, in the form

o f95 statements known as ‘Ninety-Five Theses’ and nailed them on the door of the church at Wittenburg and challenged

the scholars to have a debate on them. In these Theses, Luther laid great stress on faith and strongly opposed the sale and

purchase of Indulgences as a means of salvation. He believed in the infallibility of the Bible and not of the Pope.

Luther’s Theses were printed and distributed widely in Germany. They created a great excitement everywhere.

Consequently, a National Church was established in Germany and prayers began to be held in the German language. This

fact proved the beginning of the Reformation Movement in Europe.

Luther’s translation of the New Testament were sold 5,000 copies within a few weeks and the second edition

appeared within three months. Deeply grateful to print he remarked, “Printing is the ultimately gift of God and the

greatest one”.

Q. 7. Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment

and end despotism?

Ans. Contribution of Print – There is no denying the fact that the invention of print has greatly contributed to the

spread of knowledge. Without this invention, all the progress that we see today was not possible. The words of the

German reformer Martin Luther in favour of print, and worth quoting. Deeply grateful to print, he said, ‘Printing is the

ultimate gift of God and the greatest one.” What better words can be said in favour of print!

Author after author, whether educationist, religious and social and the political giants, sing in favour of print:

(i) Without the introduction and invention of the new print technology, the quicker and cheaper reproduction of texts

was not possible.

(ii) Printing reduced the cost of books as a result books could reach out to wider sections of the society otherwise

they would have been only the luxury of the elite or the rich people.

(iii) As a result of the printing technology, the time and labour required to produce each book came down which

resulted in flooding the market, reaching over to ever growing readership.

(iv) Painting led to the rise of literacy rate in almost all countries of the world in the 17th

and 18th

and the subsequent

centuries.

Page 31

(v) Similarly, the ideas of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the common people. The writings

of great thinkers like Thomas Paine, Rousseau, Montesquien, Voltaire completely revolutionized the moods of the people

and some of them began to think that print culture would bring not only enlightenment but also end of despotism.

Most of the revolutions of the world, which ended despotism and brought about democrate governments in the

world were much because of the advancement of the print culture. Without the spread of education and knowledge, how

could such a transformation be possible.

Multiple Choice Questions:

(i) From which country did the earliest kind of print technology develop?

(a) China (c) India

(b) Japan (d) Germany’

(ii) To which country did Gutenberg belong?

(a) France (c) England

(b) Italy (d) Germany

(iii) Which was the first book published by Gutenberg?

(a) Mahabharata (c) David Copperfield

(b) Bible (d) Gita

(iv) Who criticized many of the rituals and practices of the Roman Catholic Church?

(a) Gutenberg (d) Richard M. Howe

(b) James Watt (d) Martin Luther

(v) Who started Bengal Gazette as a weekly publication?

(a) Raja Rammohan Roy (c) Hicky

(b) Fardoonji Murzben (d) Vir Rajhavachari

(vi) Which two papers were the mouthpieces of Gandhiji’s philosophy?

(a) Young India and Harijan

(b) Maratha and Kesari

(c) Kavivachan Sudha and Hindi Pradeep

(d) Harijan and Independent India

(vii) Who, among the following, was appointed the first Indian Law Member?

(a) Motilal Nehru c) Jawaharlal Nehru

(b) Tej Bahadur Sapru d) Maulana Azad

Ans. (i) a; (ii) d; (iii) b; (iv) d; (v) c; (vi) a; (vii) a.

Fill in the Blanks:

(a) K.M. Panikkar edited English daily _________.

(b) Dadabhai Naoroji edited the _________.

(c) Mr. Hicky was arrested by ___________ since he criticized his policies.

(d) Indian Press Act was signed in the _________.

Ans. (a) Hindustan Times; (b) Rast Goftar; (c) Warren Hastings; (d) 1910.