Mysticism in the Indian Tradition of Yoga

8/4/2019 Mysticism in the Indian Tradition of Yoga

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1999ChristopherD.Wallis

MysticismintheIndianTraditionofYoga

Throughintense,deepmeditationyoureachastatethatisbeyondthought,beyondchange,beyondimagination,beyonddifferencesandduality.Onceyoucanstayinthatstateforawhileandcomeoutofitwithoutlosinganyofit,

thentheinnerdivinelovewillbegintopourthroughyou.Youwillnotseepeopleasdifferent,separateindividuals. YouwillseeyourownSelfineveryonearoundyou. Thentheflowoflovefromwithinyouwillbeconstantand

unbroken. SwamiMuktnanda

H I S T O R I C A L C O N T E X T

Inmypreviouspaperonmysticism,thetermwasdefinedasanindividuals

directexperienceofcommunionwithaperceivedtranscendentprinciple(MORE),the

methodsusedtoreachthatexperience,andtheknowledgesuchanexperiencebrings.

Giventhisdefinition,theIndianreligioustraditionclaimsforitselfanancientandrichmysticaltradition. InitsHinduaspect,thenamethistraditiongivestothetranscendent

principleinquestionisusuallyBrahman. Intheearliest,VedicstrataofHindureligion,

thistermmeantthepowerofsoundinherentinthemantrasoftheyaja(sacrifice).

(Hopkins) Theyajawasaritethatwasbelievedtonourishandmaintaintheuniversal

forcesrepresentedbythegods(devas)andtherebycontinuallyrecreateandholdthe

universetogether. Hence,intheUpanishadicperiodofphilosophicalspeculation(700-

100BCE)Brahmancametobeseenasthesubstratumoftheuniverseitself,an

omnipresentgroundofallbeing. Brahmanmightbeconceptualisedasthescreenupon

whichthemovieoftheworldplaysout. Justaswedonotnoticethescreenpersewhen

wewatchamoviethoughourexperiencewouldbeimpossiblewithoutitinthesame

wayBrahmanissoall-pervasivewearenotgenerallyconsciousofitsexistence.

BhadrayakaUpaniad2.4.12says:

Itislikethis.Whenachunkofsaltisthrowninwater,itdissolvesintothatverywater,anditcannotbepickedupinanyway.Yet,fromwhicheverplaceonemaytakeasip,thesaltisthere!InthesamewaythisImmenseBeinghasnolimitorboundary,andisasinglemassofperception.(Olivelle30)

Ascanbeseenfromthispassage,Brahmanisascribedcharacteristicsofbeing

andconsciousness(thelatterimpliedbyperception). Thetextsspecifythatallthings

havetheirrootinBrahman,thesupremecause(Olivelle152). Therefore,whileitisnota


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deityinanytraditionalsense,Brahmanisattributedconsciousnessthoughofapure,

undifferentiated,objectlesskindinordertoexplainhumanconsciousness. Later

Vedntinschoolsalsoascribedthecharacteristicofbliss(nanda)totheessentialnature

ofBrahman. Thus,Brahmanmaybeseenasaconsciousforce,ablissfulwellspringof

beingtowhichallthingshaveacontingentrelationship.

TherealrevolutionoftheUpaniadicera,however,wastherevelationthattheself

(tman)ofmanwasinsomesenseunitedwithBrahman,thatdivine,all-powerfulforce.

IfamanknowsIamBrahmaninthisway,hebecomesthiswholeworld.Noteventhegodsareabletopreventit,forhebecomestheirveryself.Sowhenamanveneratesanotherdeity,thinking,Heisone,Iamanother,hedoesnotunderstand. (Bhad.Up.1.4.10,Olivelle15)

Thisdevelopmentofthoughtcanbechartedinthetextualtradition,particularly

becauseUpaniadictextswerecompiledoverthecourseofseveralgenerations. Wesee

thesamepassagethatisquotedatthetopofthispagerepeatedlaterintheUpaniad,but

withImmenseBeingreplacedbytheSelf. Clearly,iftmanisidentifiedwith

Brahman,thenthelogicalconclusionisthattheSelfisinallthings,andallthingsinthe

Self(Olivelle70). ThecapitalShereismeanttoindicatethattheSelfthatis

assimilatedtoBrahmanisnottheeverydayphenomenalself(i.e.themind/body),but

ratherthataspectofthehumanbeingthatisqualitativelysimilartothetranscendent

principleofBrahmanthatis,theundifferentiatedconsciousawareness,theinnersense

ofpurebeingwhichhumansarecapableofexperiencingintheprimaryHindumystical

practice:meditativeabsorption,orsamdhi.

ArelatedbutphilosophicallydistinctschoolofIndianthoughtalsohasitsrootsin

theUpaniads. InMuakaUpaniadweread:

Twobirds,companionsandfriends,nestleontheverysametree. Oneofthemeatsatastyfig;theother,noteating,lookson.(3.1.1,Olivelle274)

Hereweseeaveryearlyexpressionofthedualistschoolthatseesmanasadual

entityofmind-stuff(prakti)andpurespirit(purua). Thetreeisthebody;thefirstbird,

theenjoyerofsensepleasures,i.e.thephenomenalself;thesecondbird,theeternal


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witness(skin),thepureconsciousknowerofallcognitionandexperience.1 Inthis

schoolofthought,thegoalisnotunionwiththeAbsoluteorGod,butrealisationofour

truenatureaspurua,andisolationorseparationofthatspiritfromthemind/bodyfield.

Herethetranscendentprinciplewithwhichonecommunesisnotanexternalrealityin

anyway,butratherthehighestrarefiedessenceofourownbeingofwhichmanylive

unaware,butwhichis,nevertheless,thesourceofourself-awareness,unboundedand

free.

Eachofthetwomysticalphilosophiesoutlinedaboveproposesdifferentmeansto

reachtheirgoals,suchasdevotionorknowledge,butbothshareatleastonemethodin

common:thepracticeofyoga.

YogaprobablyhasitsearliestrootsintheindigenousshamanicpracticesofSouthAsia,butitacquiredtheformwithwhichwearefamiliarinthetextualtraditionthrough

thegreatAryan/Dravidianculturalsynthesis.2 Yogaentersthetextualtraditioninthe

laterpartoftheUpaniadicera(c.200BCE). Thewordyogacomesfromtheverbalroot

yuj,toyokeorjoin,andwecanseetheconnection,andhencethederivation,clearlyin

vetvataraUpaniad2.9:

Awisemanshouldkeephismindvigilantlyundercontrol,justashewouldthatwagonyokedtounrulyhorses.(Olivelle256)IfollowvanBuitenenintakingthewordyogatomeandiscipline,ormore

accuratelyadisciplinedspiritualpracticewithspecificmeansandaspecificgoal.(van

Buitenen18) Yogaimpliesthejoiningofonesmindtosuchaneffort. The vetvatara

Upaniadgivesanearlydescriptionofarudimentaryyogicpractice,consistingofproper

posture(hekeepsthebodystraight,withthethreesectionserect),breathing

(compressinghisbreathsinhereandcurbinghismovements),andwithdrawalofthe

sensesfromthesense-objects([he]drawsthesensestogetherwiththemindintohis

heart).(Olivelle255-6) Thiskindofdisciplinedpractice,ofwhichthefulldetailsarenot

yetelaboratedornotrevealedinthetext,issaidtoleadtotheultimategoaloffull

1Paul Muller-Ortega, Classical Yoga Traditions of India classroom lectures,Spring 1999.

2 This is the complex cultural assimilation of autochthonous peoples and migrating Indo-European tribes thatproduced the category we call Hinduism and Hindu culture generally of the last two to three millennia.


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manifestationinBrahman. Amanwhohasattainedthisgoalisfreedfromallfetters,

becausehehasknownGod.(Olivelle256) TheKahaUpaniad,fromthesameperiod,

alsorecommendscontrolofthemindthroughdisciplineofthesenses(Olivelle239). It

wouldseemthatthepracticebeingdescribedhereresultsinakindofdeautomatization,

assuggestedbyArthurDeikman. Bycontrollingthemind,andturningitsattention

withinthroughone-pointedfocus(ekgrat),theactiveintellectualstyleisreplacedbya

receptiveperceptualmode.(Deikman248) Thisunderstandingisconfirmedbythetexts,

whichcharacteriseBrahmanasthisselfherewhichperceiveseverything(Olivelle33)

andasinglemassofperception(Olivelle30).

Aswehaveseen,theUpaniadiceraofIndianspiritualitywasnotcharacterised

byamonolithicphilosophicaltradition. Thetextsshowseveraldifferentincipient

philosophiesfromdifferentVedickhsorschools. Onesuchdifferencehasalready

beennotedabove,betweentheviewpointthatthegoalisrealisationoftheunionofthe

SelfandBrahman,andtheviewpointthatthegoalisrealisationofonestruenatureas

purua(spirit)andtotalseparationofpuruafromthematerialworld(prakti). Itisthe

latterperspectivethatinformstheyogaphilosophyoftheclassicalera.

BythetimeoftheclassicalperiodinIndia(c.100-500CE),thereweresix

dominantschoolsofphilosophy(a-daranas). ThesewereLogic&Atomism,Vedic

Exegesis&UpaniadicNon-dualism,andEnumeration&Yoga. TheschoolofYoga

wasarefinementandsystematicelaboration,bothinphilosophyandpractice,ofthe

earliestformsappearingintheUpaniads. TheexponentofclassicalYoga,who

influencedalmostallthelaterdiverseformstosomedegree,wasPatajali,authorofthe

Yoga-Stra(lit.,AphorismsonYoga,c.250CE). TheYogastratextdelineatedboth

thephilosophicalbackdropofclassicalyogaandgavespecificpracticaldetailsonthe

natureofyogicpraxis. Patajalisbrandofyoga,aselaboratedinthetext,cametobe

knownasRja-yoga(kinglyyoga)orAga-yoga,theeight-limbedyoga,on

accountofitseightstages. Patajaliwasadualistinthesensethatheproposedaduality

betweenspiritandmatter. Interestingly,allpsychologicalaspectsofman(mind,

intellect,ego)arecategorisedasmatter. Onlythepurecontentlessconsciousnessofthe


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witness(skin),theknowerthetrueessenceofourveryownbeingbelongsonthe

sideofspirit. Thelocusofhumanconsciousnessissituatedhere;itcannotbeinthe

mind,orwewouldnotbeabletoobservethemind.3 Wearetheonewhoknowsthe

mind,andperceivesitsmotions. Bywhatmeanscanoneperceivetheperceiver?ask

thetexts(Olivelle30). Itcannotbeperceived,butonlyfeltthroughdirect(deautomatized)

experience.

Patajalismeditationisanintrovertiveortrophotropickindofmysticism.

Throughsuccessivestagesofsamdhi,orabsorption,thesubjectmovesdeeperthrough

thelayersofhisownconsciousness,inakindofinvolutionprocess. Thefirststageis

savitarkasamdhi,whichisthesimplecontemplationofaphysicalobjectandallthe

words,ideas,andknowledgeassociatedwithit. Thenonemovesontonirvitarkasamdhi,inwhichthesameobjectiscontemplatedinanon-discursivemode,asthe

thing-in-itself. Inthisstate,itissaidthattheobjectaloneshinesforth;allthoughts

abouttheobjectfallaway(Yogastra1.43). Thethirdandfourthstagesmirrorthefirst

andsecond,butwithanon-physicalobjectofcontemplation(savicraandnirvicra

samdhis). Ultimately,throughaprolongedpractice,onereachesastateofcontinuous

andabsolutementalfocusontheobject,andoneforgetsevenoneself. Theobjectalone

exists. Thisismeditation(dhynaYogastra3.3). Whenthisstageisachieved,the

aspirantisreadytomoveontothefinalstage:thatofseedlessconcentration

(asamprajtasamdhi). Inthisstate,meditationhasnoobjectatall. Itisthehighest

statebecauseitisabsolutelypure,contentlessconsciousness:thestateofspirit(purua)

itself.

ThusweseeinPatajaliaprocesswhichRobertFormandescribesasforgetting.

ThetermisdrawnfromthemedievalChristiantext,TheCloudofUnknowing,whichadvisesthepractitionertoforgetallthecreaturesthateverGodmadeandtheworksof

them,sothatthythoughtorthydesirebenotdirectedorstretchedtoanyofthem.

(Deikman240) WhileIamnotarguingthatPatajaliandtheCloudaredescribingthe

samething,theybothassertthatbyfocusingthoughtinward,andsuppressingthe

3Paul Muller-Ortega, op. cit.


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modificationsofthemind(Yogastra1.2),aradicallydifferentformofconsciousness

occurs,oneindependentofsensualstimuli.

TheUpaniadsdescribethisstateofbeingembracedbytheSelf:

HereafatherisnotafathergodsarenotgodsHereanoutcasteisnotanoutcasteandanasceticisnotanascetic. Neitherthegoodnorthebadfollowhim,for

hehasnowpassedbeyondallsorrowsoftheheart. Now,hedoesnotseeanythinghere;butheisquitecapableofseeing,foritisimpossiblefortheseertolosehiscapacitytosee,foritisindestructible. Butthereisntasecondrealityherethathecouldseeassomethingdistinctandseparatefromhimself.Clearly,thisistheaspectofhiswhichisfreefromdesiresandfarfromsorrows. (Bhad.Up.4.3.22,23,21)

* * *

M U K T N A N D A : N E O - H I N D U F U S I O N I N T H E C O N T E M P O R A R Y E R A

Thuswereachapointatwhichwecandiscussthequoteatthebeginningofthe

paper. SwamiMuktnanda(c.19051982)wasapopularIndianguruandaprolific

author,writingprimarilyaboutthemysticalexperiencesattainedthroughmeditationand

otherHindureligiouspractices. Inhisyouth,hestudiedatatraditionalsouthIndian

rama,aschoolofaguru,wherehelearnedtheprinciplesofVedantaandyogapractice.

Bytravellingthesub-continent,helaterbecamethoroughlyacquaintedwithdevotional

literatureandpractice,thealchemicalHahayogatradition,andfinallywithTantric

philosophy,primarilythroughstudyofthenon-dual aivismofKashmir. His

philosophicalwritingsmaybeunderstoodasafusionofthesevariousstrandsofIndianreligion. Muktnandaattemptstoreconcilethedifferentschoolsofthoughtdiscussed

above,oftenbycombiningthepracticeofonewiththephilosophyofanother. For

example,hecombinestheyogicpracticeprescribedbyPatajaliwiththephilosophical

ideasoftheunion-with-Goddevotionalists. Inthisheisnotdivergingfromhis

tradition;earlier,thegreatphilosopherofthe9thcentury, akara,attemptedtoweldthe

diversespeculationsoftheUpaniadsintoasinglecoherenttheology.

Clearly,theintrovertivemysticalformswhichhavebeendiscussedarein

evidenceintheMuktnandasquotationpresentedatthetopofpageone. Meditationis

saidtoengenderastatebeyondthought,beyondchange,beyondimagination,beyond

differencesandduality. ByexaminingMuktnandasreligio-culturalcontextinsome

detail,wearenowinapositiontorealisethatthesearecharacteristicsonlyofBrahman,


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thetranscendentprinciplewhichforusdefinesanexperienceasmystical. Muktnanda

prefersthetermSelf,whichisofcourseequivalent,duetothe tman=Brahman

equationwhichhasbeenthedominantleitmotifofIndianmysticalthoughtfor2600

years. NotealsotheremarkablesimilaritybetweenthestateMuktnandaswords

identify(throughvianegativa)andthatwhichisdescribedbythequoteonpage6,

writtenmillenniaearlier. AnadditionalelementhasbeenaddedbyMuktnanda,thatof

innerdivinelove. Hereweseethesurfacingofthedevotionaltraditionspersistent

assertionthatthenatureoftheabsolute(i.e.Brahman)issupremebliss(paramnanda),

inthefaceofthephilosophicalschoolstrepidationaboutapplyinganypredicates

whatevertotheabsolute.

MysticismappearsasthecoreofMuktnandasphilosophy. Thegoalofthe

spiritualpracticeadvocatedbyhimistounfoldfullytheGod-consciousnesswhichlies

hiddeninallhumanbeings.(Muktnanda,Secret,2) ThefloweringoftheIndianmystical

traditiontookplaceinthemedievalera,andwentbythenameofTantra(lit.,loom,i.e.

thatonwhichthefabricofrealityiswoven). Hereweseeoneofthemostcomplex,

systematic,andelaboratelyarticulatedmysticalphilosophyoftheworldsreligionsone

thatpresupposesknowledgeofoverahundredtechnicaltermsuniquetoit. Thecentral

tenetsofTantraincludetheideasofkualin,thedivineenergywithinman,identified

withtheGoddess;aktipta,theawakeningandunfoldingofthatenergythroughaseries

ofspiritualcentrescalledcakras(partofacomplexsubtlephysiology);andmoka,the

finalreleasefromconditionedrealitythroughthemergingofkualinintothehighest

spiritualcentre,thesahasrra(thelocationofthe tmaninthecrownofthehead).The

tantricphilosophyofKashmir(i.e.Trika) aivismhadadeepimpactonMuktnanda,

andtheexperientialmodeljustoutlinedispresupposedinhisspiritualdiscourse.

(Muktnanda,Secret,9-17)

Tantricphilosophyisnon-dualist,meaninginthissensethatitpostulatesan

essentialunitybetweenhumanandGod,andbyextensionbetweenthesoulsofall

humans. Hence,Muktnandacansaythatasaresultofmystical(meditative)experience,

youwillnotseepeopleasdifferent,separateindividualsYouwillseeyourownSelfin


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everyonearoundyou. HerewealsoseeacorrespondencewiththeearlierUpaniads,

whichassertwhenonehasreflectedandconcentratedononesSelf,oneknowsthis

wholeworld.(Olivelle70)

Eveninthemodernsyncretisticera,theHindureligioustraditionisabsolutely

primaryforvirtuallyanyIndianspiritualpreceptor. Infact,aHindugurulike

Muktnandaspecificallydoesnotseektocreatenewteachings.Suchanundertaking

wouldberegardedsuspiciouslybymostHindus,whoareconvincedthatalltruthwas

expoundedintheVedasatthebeginningoftime. Hence,Muktnandastates:Yogais

thesameasitwasthousandsofyearsagoatthecreationoftheuniverse.(Muktnanda,

Secret,2) FortheIndianreligioustradition,creativityinteachingconsistsininnovation

overthefamiliar,ofre-presentingtheeternaltruthsinafreshandcontemporaryway.

ThreemeansofknowledgearegivenvirtuallyequalweightinIndian

epistemology:directperception(pratyaka),logicalinference(anumna),andthewords

ofthescripturesandoftheguru(gama).4 Thelatterdemonstratestheimportanceof

traditiontotheIndianreligiouspractitioner. Theimportanceofreligioustraditionto

mysticisminIndiaisimmenselargelybecausemysticismconstitutestheexperiential

coreofIndianreligion. MydefinitionofHinduismitselfisasfollows: aconfederation

ofalliedpathsintheSouthAsianreligioustraditionthatdrawonacommonbodyof

Sanskrittextsfortheirbeliefsandrites(beginningwiththeVedas),andthatbelievein

thepossibilityofhumanperfectioninthisworldthroughdirectexperienceofspiritual

truths. Themysticalovertonesinthelatterpartofthisdefinitionshouldbeclear.

WehavehadaglimpseofboththeoriginsandgrowthofmysticalyogaintheHindu

religioustradition,andofoneexampleofitscontemporaryexpressioninateacher

primarilyconcernedthefusionofmultiplemysticalelementsintoasinglecohesivesystemofthoughtandpractice. Theseexamplesservetoshedlightontheroleof

mysticismwithintheIndianreligiousandculturalcontexts,specificallyinthe

instantiationofSwamiMuktnandasKualinMahyoga.

4

Douglas Brooks, Medieval Hindu Philosophy classroom lectures, Spring 1999.


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Deikman,ArthurJ.,DeautomatizationandtheMysticExperienceinUnderstanding

Mysticism,RichardWoods,ed. GardenCity,NewYork:ImageBooks,1980,pp.

240-260.

Forman,RobertK.C. TheProblemofPureConsciousness. NewYork:Oxford

UniversityPress,1990.

Hariharnanda,Swami. YogaPhilosophyofPatajali. Albany:StateUniversityofNew

YorkPress,1983.

Hopkins,ThomasJ. TheHinduReligiousTradition.Encino,California:Dickenson,

1971.

Muktnanda,Swami. TheSecretoftheSiddhas. SouthFallsburg,NewYork:SYDAFoundation,1980.

Muktnanda,Swami,andSwamiChidvilasnanda.ResonatewithStillness. South

Fallsburg,NewYork:SYDAFoundation,1995.

Olivelle,Patrick. Upaniads. Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1996.

vanBuitenen,J.A.B. TheBhagavadgt intheMahbhrata. Chicago:Universityof

ChicagoPress,1981.

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Mysticism in the Indian Tradition of Yoga