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MTEC202: Learners and the Learning Process Unit IV- Learning Environment and Assessment Ismail Thamarasseri Asst. Professor, Dept. of Education Central University of Kashmir E-mail: [email protected], Ph: +919446154254
E- Content
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Index
Sl. No. Description Page No.
1 COURSE OBJECTIVES: 3
2 INTRODUCTION 3
3 THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 8
4 THE INSTRUCTIONAL TIME 9
5 RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILDREN 9
6 SPACE FOR THE PARENTS AND THE COMMUNITY 12
7 INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENT IN THE CLASSROOM FOR ALL LEARNERS 14
8 DISCIPLINE AND PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT 16
9 IMPROVING LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AND CLASSROOM PROCESSES 18
10 LEARNING PATHS AND LEARNING STYLES 20
11 CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION 23
12 DESIGNING GOOD TEST ITEMS 25
13 OPEN BOOK EXAMINATION 27
14 CONCLUSION 29
15 MODEL QUESTIONS 30
16 REFERENCES 30
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UNIT IV- LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AND ASSESSMENT
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
On completion of this course the students will be able to:
• Critically analyse the process of learning from the point of view of Cognitive
Psychology and the implications of constructivist learning
• Understand the learner in terms of various characteristics Learn the factors
affecting learner’s environment and assessment
• Conceptualise a framework for understanding and evaluating teaching-learning
situation as well as the method of analysing and reflecting upon learning
episodes
• Visualise the brief epistemological frame of major curricular areas.
INTRODUCTION
Learning environment refers to the diverse physical locations, contexts, and cultures in
which students learn. Since students may learn in a wide variety of settings, such as outside-
of-school locations and outdoor environments, the term is often used as a more accurate or
preferred alternative to classroom, which has more limited and traditional connotations—a
room with rows of desks and a chalkboard, for example.
The term also encompasses the culture of a school or class—its presiding ethos and
characteristics, including how individuals interact with and treat one another—as well as
the ways in which teachers may organize an educational setting to facilitate learning—e.g.,
by conducting classes in relevant natural ecosystems, grouping desks in specific ways,
decorating the walls with learning materials, or utilizing audio, visual, and digital
technologies. And because the qualities and characteristics of a learning environment are
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determined by a wide variety of factors, school policies, governance structures, and other
features may also be considered elements of a “learning environment.”
Educators may also argue that learning environments have both a direct and indirect
influence on student learning, including their engagement in what is being taught, their
motivation to learn, and their sense of well-being, belonging, and personal safety. For
example, learning environments filled with sunlight and stimulating educational materials
would likely be considered more conducive to learning than drab spaces without windows
or decoration, as would schools with fewer incidences of misbehaviour, disorder, bullying,
and illegal activity. How adults interact with students and how students interact with one
another may also be considered aspects of a learning environment, and phrases such as
“positive learning environment” or “negative learning environment” are commonly used in
reference to the social and emotional dimensions of a school or class.
‘Learning environment refers to the diverse physical locations, contexts, and cultures in
which students learn. Since students may learn in a wide variety of settings, such as outside-
of-school locations and outdoor environments, the term is often used as a more accurate or
preferred alternative to classroom, which has more limited and traditional connotations—a
room with rows of desks and a chalkboard, for example. The term also encompasses the
culture of a school or class—its presiding ethos and characteristics, including how
individuals interact with and treat one another—as well as the ways in which teachers may
organize an educational setting to facilitate learning…..’
This definition recognises that students learn in many different ways in very different
contexts. Since learners must do the learning, the aim is to create a total environment for
learning that optimises the ability of students to learn. There is of course no single optimum
learning environment. There is an infinite number of possible learning environments, which
is what makes teaching so interesting.
Components of an effective learning environment
Developing a total learning environment for students in a particular course or program is
probably the most creative part of teaching. While there is a tendency to focus on either
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physical institutional learning environments (such as classrooms, lecture theatres and labs),
or on the technologies used to to create online personal learning environments (PLEs),
learning environments are broader than just these physical components. They will also
include:
• the characteristics of the learners;
• the goals for teaching and learning;
• the activities that will best support learning;
• the assessment strategies that will best measure and drive learning
• the culture that infuses the learning environment.
Figure 1: A learning environment from a teacher’s perspective
Source: https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/wp-
content/uploads/sites/29/2014/09/Culkture-in-learning-environments.jpg
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Figure 1 illustrates one possible learning environment from the perspective of a teacher or
instructor. A teacher may have little or no control over some components, such as learner
characteristics or resources, but may have full control over other components such as
choice of content and how learners will be supported. Within each of the main components
there are a set of sub-components that will need to be considered. In fact, it is in the sub-
components (content structure, practical activities, feedback, use of technology, assessment
methods, and so on) where the real decisions need to be made.
It is listed just a few components in Figure 1 and the set is not meant to be comprehensive.
For instance it could have included other components, such as developing ethical behaviour,
institutional factors, or external accreditation, each of which might also affect the learning
environment in which a teacher or instructor has to work. Creating a model of a learning
environment then is a heuristic device that aims to provide a comprehensive view of the
whole teaching context for a particular course or program, by a particular instructor or
teacher with a particular view of learning. Once again, the choice of components and their
perceived importance will be driven to some extent by personal epistemologies and beliefs
about knowledge, learning and teaching methods.
Influencing a learning environment
Why do you think we focused on learning environments from a teacher’s perspective rather
than a learner’s perspective? One of the most important things a teacher can do is provide a
positive learning experience. Setting up a positive learning environment is tricky, but not
difficult. Ready to learn about how to do this and why?
What Is a Learning Environment in Classrooms? Almost all of us have spent a great deal of
time in the classroom, beginning in kindergarten and extending for years beyond. Have you
ever noticed what the teacher did to make learning more inviting? Was it colourful posters,
clear and consistent rules, and fun and interesting teaching methods? If so, you were lucky
to have a teacher who paid close attention to the learning environment, or the physical,
psychological and instructional atmosphere.
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Elements of a Positive Learning Environment
The use of space includes how furniture is arranged and organized, how materials are
stored and maintained, how clean the classroom is and the overall colour and brightness.
Imagine a classroom that is has little light, dirt on the floors, messy bookshelves and broken
supplies. Sound like a fun place to be? Ms. Martin recognizes that children need a clean,
bright, organized space to strengthen learning experiences.
We've all had a teacher or two that has been a little more vocal than we liked. Teachers who
yell at students, are random about consequences, and embody an overall negative attitude
aren't good for student learning. The psychological environment in the classroom is how
students feel about their learning. A teacher has specific rules and consequences posted in
her classroom and clearly explains each to students. She has a calm, patient conduct and is
focused on helping students learn, both intellectually and socially. She maintains a positive
control of her classroom by being a role model for kind words and actions. She knows that
students react negatively when they feel things are unfair, unclear or are worried about
getting in trouble. Because she is clear and consistent, offers praise and gratitude, and sets a
good example, her students are confident and comfortable in the classroom.
How to provide good Learning Environment?
The core business of schools is to provide students with a rich learning environment that is
open, respectful, caring and safe. This ideal learning environment optimises wellbeing. It
reflects a positive school ethos that makes the school an exciting, stimulating and
welcoming place. Schools do this by:
• developing and communicating an explicit commitment to wellbeing
• acknowledging individual differences and providing opportunities for all students to
learn and succeed
• ensuring students have opportunities to participate in school decision-making
processes
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• applying consistent school-wide rules and consequences that are:
• collaboratively developed with students and the broader school community
• clearly explained
• positively enforced
• rewarding of good behaviour
• providing pastoral care for students
• maintaining a physical space, including in the cyber environment, that
maximises staff and student safety
• supporting staff wellbeing.
• Links and ideas
THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Physical environment refers to the level of upkeep, ambient noise, lighting, indoor air
quality and/or thermal comfort of the school’s physical building and its location within the
community. The physical environment of the school speaks to the contribution that safe,
clean, and comfortable surroundings make to a positive school climate in which students
can learn.
• Physical environment is related to both student achievement and student behaviour.
• Decent, safe, and secure facilities are essential to successful educational programs.
• Physical environment is related to teachers’ levels of absenteeism, effort,
effectiveness in the classroom, morale, and job satisfaction.
• Physical environment of schools is often mirrored by the physical environment of
the surrounding neighbourhoods in which they are located.
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THE INSTRUCTIONAL TIME
"Until we can manage TIME, we can manage nothing else" - Peter F. Drucker (1954)
The clock seems to manage every school day. The daily schedule is based on a variety of
factors, such as state - or district - mandated time periods for a given subject, bus schedules,
local school schedules for special classes, lunch periods, and teacher planning time. Wong
and Wong (1998) describe four different types of school-day time:
• Allocated time: The total time for teacher instruction and student learning
• Instructional time: The time teachers are actively teaching
• Engaged time: The time students are involved in a task
• Academic learning time: The time teachers can prove that students learned the
content or mastered the skill
According to research reported in Wong and Wong (1998), the typical teacher consumes 90
percent of allocated time. Yet the only way a student learns anything is by putting in
effort—by learning to work. Here, we examine some basic daily schedules used in a variety
of elementary, middle, and high school settings and look at ways to use this scheduled time
to maximize instructional time. Time management is critical to student achievement and
attitudes toward learning.
RESPECTING THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILDREN
Children's rights are the human rights of children with particular attention to the rights
of special protection and care to minors, including their right to association with
both parents, human identity as well as the basic needs for food, universal state-paid
education, health care and criminal laws appropriate for the age and development of the
child, equal protection of the child's civil rights, and freedom from discrimination on the
basis of the child's race, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, national
origin, religion, disability, color, ethnicity, or other characteristics. Interpretations of
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children's rights range from allowing children the capacity for autonomous action to the
enforcement of children being physically, mentally and emotionally free from abuse,
though what constitutes "abuse" is a matter of debate. Other definitions include the
rights to care and nurturing.
"A child is any human being below the age of eighteen years, unless under the law
applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier." According to Cornell University, a
child is a person, not a subperson. The term "child" often, but does not necessarily, mean
minor, but can include adult children as well as adult non-dependent children. There
are no definitions of other terms used to describe young people such as "adolescents",
"teenagers," or "youth" in international law, but the children's rights movement is
considered distinct from the youth rights movement. The field of children's rights spans
the fields of law, politics, religion, and morality. As minors by law children do not have
autonomy or the right to make decisions on their own for themselves in any known
jurisdiction of the world. Instead their adult caregivers, including parents, social
workers, teachers, youth workers, and others, are vested with that authority, depending
on the circumstances. Some believe that this state of affairs gives children insufficient
control over their own lives and causes them to be vulnerable. Structures such as
government policy have been held by some commentators to mask the ways adults’
abuse and exploit children, resulting in child poverty, lack of educational opportunities,
and child labour. On this view, children are to be regarded as a minority group towards
whom society needs to reconsider the way it behaves. Researchers have identified
children as needing to be recognized as participants in society whose rights and
responsibilities need to be recognized at all ages.
Historic definitions of children's rights
Consensus on defining children's rights has become clearer in the last fifty years. A 1973
publication by Hillary Clinton (then an attorney) stated that children's rights were a
"slogan in need of a definition". According to some researchers, the notion of children’s
rights is still not well defined, with at least one proposing that there is no singularly
accepted definition or theory of the rights held by children.
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Children’s rights law is defined as the point where the law intersects with a child's life.
That includes juvenile delinquency, due process for children involved in the criminal
justice system, appropriate representation, and effective rehabilitative services; care
and protection for children in state care; ensuring education for all children regardless
of their race, gender, sexualorientation, genderidentity, nationalorigin, religion,
disability, colour, ethnicity, or other characteristics, and; health care and advocacy.
Types of rights
Children's rights are defined in numerous ways, including a wide spectrum of civil,
cultural, economic, social and political rights. Rights tend to be of two general types:
those advocating for children as autonomous persons under the law and those placing a
claim on society for protection from harms perpetrated on children because of their
dependency. These have been labelled as the right of empowerment and as the right to
protection. One Canadian organization categorizes children's rights into three
categories:
• Provision: Children have the right to an adequate standard of living, health
care, education and services, and to play and recreation. These include a balanced
diet, a warm bed to sleep in, and access to schooling.
• Protection: Children have the right to protection from abuse, neglect, exploitation
and discrimination. This includes the right to safe places for children to play;
constructive child rearing behaviour, and acknowledgment of the evolving
capacities of children.
• Participation: Children have the right to participate in communities and
have programs and services for themselves. This includes children's involvement in
libraries and community programs, youth voice activities, and involving children as
decision-makers. In a similar fashion, the Child Rights Information Network, or CRIN
for short, categorizes rights into two groups:
• Economic, social and cultural rights, related to the conditions necessary to meet
basic human needs such as food, shelter, education, health care, and gainful
employment. Included are rights to education, adequate housing, food, water, the
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highest attainable standard of health, the right to work and rights at work, as well as
the cultural rights of minorities and indigenous peoples.
• Environmental, cultural and developmental rights, which are sometimes called
"third generation rights," and including the right to live in safe and healthy
environments and that groups of people have the right to cultural, political, and
economic development.
Amnesty International openly advocates four particular children's rights, including the
end to juvenile incarceration without parole, an end to the recruitment of military use of
children, ending the death penalty for people under 21, and raising awareness of human
rights in the classroom. Human Rights Watch, an international advocacy organization,
includes child labour, juvenile justice, orphans and abandoned children, refugees, street
children and corporal punishment. Scholarly study generally focuses children's rights
by identifying individual rights. The following rights "allow children to grow up healthy
and free":
• Freedom of speech
• Freedom of thought
• Freedom from fear
• Freedom of choice and the right to make decisions
• Ownership over one's body
Other issues affecting children's rights include the military use of children, sale of
children, child prostitution and child pornography.
SPACE FOR THE PARENTS AND THE COMMUNITY
The school needs to explore opportunities for active engagement by parents and communities
in the process of learning. This can be done in many ways. For instance, parents and community
members could come into the school as resource persons and share their knowledge and
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experiences in relation to a particular topic. Schools should allow community to transfer oral
history (e.g. folklores, migration, environmental degradation, traders, etc.) and traditional
knowledge (sowing and harvesting, traditional crafts etc.) to children; influence the content of
subjects by providing local, practical and appropriate examples; support children in their
exploration and creation of knowledge and practise of democracy; monitor the realization of
children’s rights as well as violations of these rights; and participate in setting criteria for
vocational training. There can be an understanding that school space can be shared with the
community for local events. Community involvement can also be sought for maintaining the
school and its facilities.
According to the recent MetLife Survey of the American Teacher, teachers, parents and
students all agree that parent engagement in schools has increased over the past 25 years.
Given the role that family engagement plays in not only academic success, but life success,
that is great news. However, the survey also noted that parent engagement remains a
challenge for many schools.
Linking Schools and Communities
As the old African proverb says, "It takes a village to raise a child." One could imagine then
that it would take a community to raise a school. We can't rely on local, state, or federal
governments to take ownership of the issues we face locally. We need to work as a
community to nurture our schools for our particular community needs.
Community engagement was a relatively unknown concept in Indian education field
until the late 19th century. From that, higher education in India has attempted in
integrating advanced knowledge and skills with larger social concerns. General
educations, complementing curricular instruction of more specialized varieties, were
thought to be important in shaping future citizens and enabling active engagement with
society.
From the pre-Independence Zakir Hussain Commission to the post - 1947
Radhakrishnan and then the Kothari Commission on higher education, educationists
have emphasized the need for students to be aware of social issues. The instituting of
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the National Service Scheme (NSS) in 1969 was a concrete manifestation of this
emphasis. This was, however, in the mode of ‘adding on’ community engagement to
teaching and learning. The NSS, which exists in every university in the country and in
some of the undergraduate colleges, has about 20 lakh of students enrolled as
volunteers. While many worthwhile projects are undertaken by the NSS (such as blood
donation, building village roads, afforestation, teaching children in urban slums), they
tend to remain as assorted activities without any clear links to the role of higher
education itself.
Rapid economic growth in India is fuelling demand for post-secondary education in its
various forms. It is estimated that nearly 32 million learners will be enrolled in some
form of formal post-secondary education by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan (2012-
2017). The Government of India has also been enhancing public investment in the
growth of tertiary and vocational education since the 11th Plan. In addition, private
investment in post-secondary education has also been expanding rapidly.
Simultaneously, the country is witnessing continuation of earlier trends of poverty,
marginalization hunger and deprivation, structurally located in rural, tribal, slum,
homeless, and Dalit and Muslim households.
INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENT IN THE CLASSROOM FOR
ALL LEARNERS
According to research, traditional teaching methods are often ineffective for learners
outside of the majority culture. For example, studies have shown that many students,
including women and students of colour, may be more likely to prosper academically in
settings with more collaborative and “connected” modes of learning- ones that acknowledge
personal experience, examine the relationships between persons and ideas, and encourage
students to work together to produce knowledge. Wlodkowski and Ginsberg point out, for
that matter, that “most human beings-European Americans, people of colour, women,
international students-favour learning experiences that are collaborative and
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participatory”. Establishing a classroom tone that is friendly, caring and supportive, and
that lets students explore the relationship between course material and personal and social
experiences enhances, rather than undermines, students’ learning.
Analyzing the type of learning environment you are creating for your students is one way to
begin. As you prepare for class, consider the following questions:
• Are the classroom norms clearly stated, so that students accustomed to different
norms in their homes or communities are able to understand and negotiate them?
• What implicit values of your discipline might disturb or bewilder some students?
• Do your examples or illustrations acknowledge the experiences of people from
different backgrounds in non-stereotypical ways?
• Are the students welcome to share from their own lives and interests? Are they
treated as individuals?
• Have you examined your own conscious or unconscious biases about people of other
cultures?
Studies also suggest that some students do better or participate more frequently in
classrooms with cooperative learning projects and open discussions. For those students
from supportive and interdependent ethnic minority communities, competitive learning
environments can cause feelings of isolation or alienation. In such environments, class
discussion can seem like a game where one “wins” access to the conversation by speaking
up or raising one’s hand more quickly than others. Classrooms that operate solely according
to this model risk alienating some students and reward others who speak quickly, often at
the expense of fully worked-out thought. Ways to help make competitive learning
environments seem less intimidating include explaining the implicit rules and stakes clearly
(e.g., who can speak when, how you will respond, that it’s safe to make mistakes or ask
questions because that helps teachers know when students do or don’t understand a point,
etc.) and injecting a sense of fun or healthy competition into them by using games or staged
debates as learning tools.
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Another way to create an inclusive classroom is to use cooperative learning techniques.
Under this system, the teacher provides clearly structured small-group activities that
encourage everyone to participate. These techniques incorporate varied learning
preferences and styles of participation and help create learning environments accessible to
all students. Care does need to be taken to make sure that such groups do not reproduce the
social dynamics of the classroom on a smaller scale, so, for the best results, the teacher must
not only form groups consciously, but must also monitor group work carefully. Whichever
methods you choose to make your classroom more inclusive, know that remaining sensitive
to and flexible about the ways diverse populations communicate, behave and think, will
help create a supportive learning environment for all students.
Various items that can make your classroom more inclusive
o A Large Table
o Technology
o Manipulatives
o Visual Aides
o Positive Behaviour Management System
o High-Interest Levelled Books
o Job Chart
o Popsicle Sticks
o Student Information Binder
o Games
DISCIPLINE AND PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT
School discipline is a required set of actions by a teacher towards a student (or groups of
students) after the student's behaviour disrupts the ongoing educational activity or breaks
a pre-established rule created by the school system. Discipline guides the children's
behaviour or sets limits to help them learn to take care of themselves, other people and the
world around them. An obedient student is in compliance with the school rules and codes of
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conduct. These rules may, for example, define the expected standards of clothing,
timekeeping, social conduct, and work ethic. The term discipline is also applied to the
punishment that is the consequence of breaking the rules. The aim of discipline is to set
limits restricting certain behaviours or attitudes that are seen as harmful or going against
school policies, educational norms, school traditions, etc.
The importance of discipline
Disciplining children is important to create a safe and fun learning environment. Discipline
requires knowledge, skill, sensitivity and self-confidence; like any art, it is something that
will acquire through training and experience; it becomes easier with practice. Many people
confuse discipline with classroom management; discipline is one dimension of classroom
management and classroom management is a general term. Discipline was brought up due
to misbehaving students. Students misbehave because of the lack of engagement and
stimulation, a rigid definition of acceptable behaviours and lack of attention and love.
• Lack of engagement and stimulation: Students are curious and constantly
searching for meaning and stimulation. Classes that are too one-dimensional, that
fail to involve students sufficiently, are too challenging or are very much information
heavy (leaving little room for discussion and consideration), will not satisfy
students' curiosities or needs for authentic intellectual stimulation.
• A rigid definition of acceptable behaviour: Most students, particularly older
ones, are asked to sit at their desks for many minutes at a time and listen, read,
and/or take notes. Teachers who fail to offer opportunities for movement and
interpersonal engagement are likelier to have to use strictness and rules to maintain
law and order.
• Lack of attention and love: When students fail to receive the attention that they
crave, they are likelier to find other ways to get it, even if it means drawing negative
attention to themselves and even negative consequences. The more teachers let
their students know how much they care about them and value their work, the
likelier they are to respect a teacher's request and conform to their expectation.
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IMPROVING LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AND
CLASSROOM PROCESSES
Schools are institutions created for teaching and learning through a series of activities.
Activities such as plays, celebrating festivals, group work, classroom study, examination etc.
pave the way for interactions and creation of learning community. The head teacher and
teachers, behind the scenes, plan and carry out the activities, which build up the
environment of the school. Each school creates its own environment reflecting its own
physical and psychological dimensions. Curriculum reform can only be realised if school
provides enabling physical and psychological environment to all the learners. With respect
to secondary stage of schooling efforts for curriculum reform have been initiated in many
states/UTs, this also requires to look into the concerns related to school ethos and
providing orientation and training to head teachers, teachers and district level functionaries
to take initiatives for required change corresponding with the curriculum reform at the
secondary stage.
Concerns related to school environment
• Physical Environment: Physical environment of the school is a crucial factor for
organising activities and ensuring learners participation. However, schools with
dilapidated building, overcrowded and unattractive classrooms or those with faulty
designs or without space for play can be seen. Large number of schools in rural
areas particularly in dalit and tribal habitations are devoid of minimum facilities.
Such conditions may affect the teachers’ productive output and classroom
management. With continued effort of school teachers, administrators and
community through careful planning, school and classroom spaces can be made
attractive and used effectively as pedagogic resources. This can be done in many
ways. For instance, classrooms can be made lively by displaying learner’s work on
the walls. The walls of secondary classes can be used for displaying information
related to new inventions and work in the area of science and mathematics,
biographies of famous scientists, mathematicians, women achievers, social
scientists, artists, etc. A corner of classrooms may be used for organising learning
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materials. Likewise, physical layout of the classroom can be altered through
rearrangement of desks, chairs, etc. so that children sit together in small groups or in
a large circle and do activities. With regard to class size, a ratio higher than 1:30 is
not desirable at secondary stage of school education. On an average teachers and
children spend around 6 hours a day and over 1000 hours a year in school.
Obviously, setting norms and standards relating to space, building and furniture are
essential for ensuring school quality. Norms related to creating physical
infrastructure at the secondary stage have been discussed in details in the
Framework of RMSA (MHRD, 2009).
• Nurturing an Enabling Environment: Schools need to nurture an enabling leaning
environment. It means an environment where learners feel secure without fear;
where they are encouraged to talk and ask questions, and where the relationships
are governed by the principles of equality. In such an environment, school and
classrooms become places of interacting minds where students are neither
subjected to unfair treatment nor denied opportunities on the basis of their gender
or membership of caste or tribe or minority group. However, children’s identities
based on membership of caste, gender, religion and linguistic group continue to
influence their treatment within schools. It is essential in this context that we build a
school culture that values students’ identities as learners and creates an
environment that enhances the potential and interests of each learner. It means that
school practices must reflect the values of equality, social justice and respect for
diversity as well as the rights of children.
• Participation of All Children: Participation of all learners is a means of preserving
our culture of egalitarianism, democracy, secularism and equality. Learning through
participation in the life of a community and the nation at large is crucial to the
success of schooling. Enabling democratic participation provides for empowering
the weak and marginalised. It should become part of school curricula and be
integrated into the learning processes. We must recognise the rights of the child. The
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), where India is a signatory, identifies the
right to participation, the right to association or to organization, and the right to
information as the key principles.
• A policy of inclusion in our education system is essential: This becomes crucial
when we think of participation of all learners, especially the differently-abled,
marginalized and children with difficult backgrounds. While we appreciate
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excellence and ability, it is a necessity that we give opportunity to all learners and
recognise their abilities. Learners with disabilities need assistance or more time to
complete their tasks. While planning activities, it is better that the teacher discusses
with all learners in the class and ensures that each child gets an opportunity to
contribute.
• Discipline and Participatory Management: Maintaining discipline in schools is
usually the prerogative of teachers. Frequently they engage children as monitors
and prefects, and delegate the responsibility of maintaining order, and ensuring
control.
LEARNING PATHS AND LEARNING STYLES
Several of the key trends in educational models throughout the 20th and early 21st century
include progressive education, constructivist education, and 21st century skills-based
education. These can be provided in comprehensive or specialized schools in a variety of
organizational models, including departmental, integrative, project-based, academy, small
learning communities, and school-within-a-school. Each of these can also be paired, at least
in part, with design-based, virtual school, flipped classroom, and blended learning models.
Passive learning, a key feature of direct instruction, has at its core the dissemination of
nearly all information and knowledge from a single source, the teacher with a textbook
providing lessons in lecture-style format. This model has also become known as the "sage
on the stage". A high degree of learning was by rote memorization. Education at the time
was designed to provide workers for the emerging factory-based, industrial societies, and
this educational model and organization of schools became known as the "factory model
school", with curriculum, teaching style, and assessment heavily standardized and centred
around the needs and efficiencies of classroom and teacher management.
Active learning is a model of instruction that focuses the responsibility of learning on
learners, not on teacher-led instruction, a model also termed student-centred. It is based on
the premise that in order to learn, students must do more than just listen: they must read,
write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems. It relates to three learning domains
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referred to as knowledge, skills and attitudes, whereby students must engage in such
higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Active learning engages
students in two aspects – doing things and thinking about the things they are doing
Differentiated learning has developed from an awareness of the effectiveness of different
learning styles which have emerged from late 20th/early 21st century neurological
research and studies of the different learning styles. As the impacts of the factory model
school's design on learning became more apparent, together with the emerging need for
different skills in the late 20th century, so too did the need for different educational styles
and different configurations of the physical learning environments. Direct instruction is
now expanding to include students conducting independent or guided research with
multiple sources of information, greater in-class discussion, group collaboration,
experiential (hands-on, project-based, etc.), and other forms of active learning. Direct
instruction's "sage on the stage" role for teachers approach is being augmented or replaced
by a "guide by the side" approach.
Progressive education is a pedagogical movement using many tenets of active learning
that began in the late 19th century and has continued in various forms to the present. The
term progressive was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional Euro-
American curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the
university and strongly differentiated by social class. Progressive education is rooted in
present experience. Many progressive education programs include qualities such as
learning by doing (hands-on projects, experiential learning, integrated curriculum,
integration of entrepreneurship, problem solving, critical thinking, group work, social skills
development, goals of understanding and action instead of rote knowledge, collaborative
and cooperative learning projects, education for social responsibility and democracy,
personalized education, integration of community service, subject content selection based
on what future skills will be needed, de-emphasis on textbooks, lifelong learning, and
assessment by evaluation of students' projects and productions.
Constructivist education is a movement includes active learning, discovery learning, and
knowledge building, and all versions promote a student's free exploration within a given
framework or structure. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to
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discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working answering open-
ended questions and solving real-world problems. Montessori education is an example of a
constructivist learning approach.
21st century learning: Personalized learning, 21st century skills, and Blended learning
21st century learning environments is a term that refers to a learning program, strategy,
and specific content. All are learner-centred and supported by or include the use of modern
digital technologies. Many incorporate key components of active learning.
Blended learning is a learning program in which a student learns at least in part through
delivery of content and instruction via digital and online media with greater student control
over time, place, path, or pace than with traditional learning.
Personalized learning is an educational strategy that offers pedagogy, curriculum, and
learning environments to meet the individual student's needs, learning preferences, and
specific interests. It also encompasses differentiated instruction that supports student
progress based on mastery of specific subjects or skills.
21st century skills are a series of higher-order skills, abilities, and learning dispositions that
have been identified as being required content and outcomes for success in 21st century
society and workplaces by educators, business leaders, academics, and governmental
agencies. These skills include core subjects (The three Rs), 21st century content,
collaboration, communication, creativity, critical thinking, information and communication
technologies (ICT) literacy, life skills, and 21st century assessments.
Digital literacy is critical, for mobile and personal technology is transforming learning
environments and workplaces alike. It allows learning—including research, collaboration,
creating, writing, production, and presentation—to occur almost anywhere. Its robust tools
support creativity of thought—through collaboration, generation, and production that does
not require manual dexterity. It fosters personalization of learning spaces by teachers and
students, which both supports the learning activity directly as well as indirectly through
providing a greater feeling of ownership and relevancy.
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CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION
The 'continuous' and 'comprehensive' evaluation implies two interrelated usages.
Continuous' means evaluation of students throughout his academic career and
comprehensive means evaluation of the all aspects of the individual and group.
However it does not de-emphasis the importance of term-end evaluation.
The Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation scheme refers to a school-based
evaluation of students that covers all the aspects of a student’s development.
Continuous means regular assessments, frequency of unit testing, analysis of learning
gaps, applying corrective measures, retesting and giving feedback to teachers and
students for their self-evaluation, etc. Comprehensive on the other hand attempts to
cover both the curricular and the co-curricular aspects of a student’s growth and
development — with both these aspects of the evaluation process being assessed
through Formative and Summative Assessments.
At present, Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) is being followed in 25
States/UTs out of 32 States/UTs in India. In seven States/UTs, the scheme is yet to be
developed and implemented in school education. Even among the States where the CCE
is implemented it is not done at all levels but confined to upper primary, secondary or
higher secondary stage.
CCE helps in reducing stress of students by;
• Identifying learning progress of students at regular time intervals on small
portions of content.
• Employing a variety of remedial measures of teaching based on learning needs
and potential of different students.
• Desisting from using negative comments on the learner’s performance.
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• Encouraging learning through employment of a variety of teaching aids and
techniques.
• Involving learners actively in the learning process.
• Recognizing and encouraging specific abilities of students, who do not excel in
academics but perform well in other co-curricular areas.
While adopting CCE teachers should keep in mind;
• Use a variety of tools (oral, projects, presentations) .
• Understand different learning styles and abilities.
• Share the assessment criteria with the students.
• Allow peer and self assessment.
• Give an opportunity to the student to improve.
Functions of CCE
• It helps the teacher to organize effective teaching strategies.
• Continuous evaluation helps in regular assessment to the extent and degree of
learner’s progress (ability and achievement with reference to specific scholastic
and co-scholastic areas).
• Continuous evaluation serves to diagnose weaknesses and permits the teacher to
ascertain an individual learner’s strengths and weaknesses and her needs. It
provides immediate feedback to the teacher, who can then decide whether a
particular unit or concept needs re-teaching in the whole class or whether a few
individuals are in need of remedial instruction.
• By continuous evaluation, children can know their strengths and weaknesses. It
provides the child a realistic self assessment of how he/she studies. It can
motivate children to develop good study habits, to correct errors, and to direct
their activities towards the achievement of desired goals. It helps a learner to
determine the areas of instruction in which more emphasis is required.
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• Continuous and comprehensive evaluation identifies areas of aptitude and
interest. It helps in identifying changes in attitudes, and value systems.
• It helps in making decisions for the future, regarding choice of subjects, courses
and careers.
• It provides information/reports on the progress of students in scholastic and co-
scholastic areas and thus helps in predicting the future successes of the learner
DESIGNING GOOD TEST ITEMS
Evaluation tools can be categorized on the basis of method and procedure of
measurement. As such there are three major types of evaluation tools, they are essay
type, short answer type and objective type tests. A test or an examination (or "exam")
is an assessment intended to measure a test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical
fitness, or classification in many other topics (e.g., beliefs). In practice, a test may be
administered orally, on paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that requires a test
taker to physically perform a set of skills. The basic component of a test is an item,
which is sometimes colloquially referred to as a "question." Nevertheless, not every
item is phrased as a question given that an item may be phrased as a true/false
statement or as a task that must be performed (in a performance test). In many formal
standardized tests, a test item is often retrievable from an item bank.
Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a test
taker is often required to rely upon memory to respond to specific items whereas in an
open book test, a test taker may use one or more supplementary tools such as a
reference book or calculator when responding to an item. A test may be administered
formally or informally. An example of an informal test would be a reading test
administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be a final
examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a
psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score.[ A test
score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The
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norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of a large number of
participants.
A standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to
ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are often used in education, professional
certification, psychology (e.g., MMPI), the military, and many other fields. A non-
standardized test is usually flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty and
significance. Since these tests are usually developed by individual instructors, the
format and difficulty of these tests may not be widely adopted or used by other
instructors or institutions. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the
proficiency level of students, to motivate students to study, and to provide feedback to
students. In some instances, a teacher may develop non-standardized tests that
resemble standardized tests in scope, format, and difficulty for the purpose of preparing
their students for an upcoming standardized test. Finally, the frequency and setting by
which a non-standardized tests are administered are highly variable and are usually
constrained by the duration of the class period. A class instructor may for example,
administer a test on a weekly basis or just twice a semester. Depending of the policy of
the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may last for only five
minutes to an entire class period.
In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are widely used, fixed in
terms of scope, difficulty and format, and are usually significant in consequences.
Standardized tests are usually held on fixed dates as determined by the test developer,
educational institution, or governing body, which may or may not be administered by
the instructor, held within the classroom, or constrained by the classroom period.
Although there is little variability between different copies of the same type of
standardized test (e.g., SAT or GRE), there is variability between different types of
standardized tests. Any test with important consequences for the individual test taker is
referred to as a high-stakes test. A test may be developed and administered by an
instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. In some instances, the
developer of the test may not be directly responsible for its administration. For
example, Educational Testing Service (ETS), a nonprofit educational testing and
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assessment organization, develops standardized tests such as the SAT but may not
directly be involved in the administration or proctoring of these tests. As with the
development and administration of educational tests, the format and level of difficulty
of the tests themselves are highly variable and there is no general consensus or
invariable standard for test formats and difficulty. Often, the format and difficulty of the
test is dependent upon the educational philosophy of the instructor, subject matter,
class size, policy of the educational institution, and requirements of accreditation or
governing bodies. In general, tests developed and administered by individual
instructors are non-standardized whereas tests developed by testing organizations are
standardized.
Characteristics of a good test item are:
• Validity-Types of validity
• Reliability- Methods of determining reliability of a test
• Objectivity
• Practicability ( Usability )
• Objective-based
• Comprehensiveness;
• Discriminating Power
OPEN BOOK EXAMINATION
Open book exams allow you to take notes, texts or resource materials into
an exam situation. They test your ability to find and apply information and knowledge,
so are often used in subjects requiring direct reference to written materials, like law
statutes, statistics or acts of parliament. Open book exams allow you to take notes, texts
or resource materials into an exam situation. They test your ability to find and apply
information and knowledge, so are often used in subjects requiring direct reference to
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written materials, like law statutes, statistics or acts of parliament. Open book exams
usually come in two forms:
(a) Traditional sit-down / limited-time exams, with varying degrees of access to
resources and references.
(b) Take home exams–open book exams you do at home. Question(s) are handed
out, answers are attempted without help from others, and the exam is returned
within a specified period of time (often the next day).
Kinds of Material
The materials you can take into an Open Book exam can vary. Some restrict the type of
materials (e.g. formula sheets and tables or a limited number of texts), others may be
totally unrestricted (any quantity of any material). Materials might be:
• your notes
• readings, reference materials or textbooks
• equipment like calculators, drafting tools etc.
Materials used in Take Home exams are usually unrestricted. The main restriction for
Take Home exams is that they must be your work–you must attempt them by yourself
without any help from others.
Some exams are 'open book'
Because they test for more than just rote-learning. At university, simply memorising
and repeating information is not enough to get you a good mark. Higher education is
supposed to equip you with intellectual abilities and skills. Open Book exams test your
ability to quickly find relevant information and then to understand, analyse, apply
knowledge and think critically.
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Questions in the exam
Open Book Exams don't test your memory. They test your ability to find and use
information for problem solving, and to deliver well-structured and well-presented
arguments and solutions. Open Book exam questions usually require you to apply
knowledge, and they may be essay-style questions or involve problem solving or
delivering solutions. The style of question depends on the faculty or school setting the
exam. For example in Law, the questions may set up a hypothetical fact situation that
you will need to discuss.
CONCLUSION
Learning environment can refer to an educational approach, cultural context, or physical
setting in which teaching and learning occur. The term is commonly used as a more
definitive alternative to "classroom", but it typically refers to the context of educational
philosophy or knowledge experienced by the student and may also encompass a variety of
learning cultures—its presiding ethos and characteristics, how individuals interact,
governing structures, and philosophy. In a societal sense, learning environment may refer
to the culture of the population it serves and of their location. Learning environments are
highly diverse in use, learning styles, organization, and educational institution. The culture
and context of a place or organization includes such factors as a way of thinking, behaving,
or working, also known as organizational culture. For a learning environment such as an
educational institution, it also includes such factors as operational characteristics of the
instructors, instructional group, or institution; the learning styles and pedagogies used; and
the societal culture of where the learning is occurring.
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MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Are you in favour of Open Book Examination? Substantiate.
2. Describe the salient features of CCE.
3. How we can ensure community-school relationship?
4. Define learning environment. Why learning environment vary institution to
institution?
5. Who is prominent in the education system - Teacher or Learner? Substantiate.
6. Enlist the qualities of a good Test Item.
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