MOTOR TRANSPORTATION, OPERATIONS · ing references, charts, and data helpful to the marchll planner. 3. MOTOR TRANSPORT'S RELATIONSHIP TO THE OVER-ALL MOVEMENT FUNCTION lfotor transportation

MHICopy 3 Io 0

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

MOTORTRANSPORTATION,

OPERATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY · FEBRUARY 1953

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

FM 25-10

This mnul upersedes,, FM 25-10, 12 March 1942, including C 1, 27 July 1942,C2, 21 September 1942, and C3, 10 November 1942

MOTORTRANSPORTATION,

OPERATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY · FEBRUARY 1953

United States Government Printing Ofice

Vashinglon : 1953

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARnM

WASIIINGTON, D. C., 11 February 1953

FM 25-10 is published for the information and guidanceof all concerned.

[AG 353 (11 Nov 52)1

By ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE ARMY:

OFFIOIAL:

WM. E. BERGIN J. LAWTON COLLINSMajor General Chief of StaffThe Adjutaont General United States Army

DIsTRnIUTION:

Active Army:Tech Svc (1); Tech Svc Bd (1); AFF Bd (1);

AFF (10); AA Comd (5); OS Maj Comd (5);Base Comd (5); MDW (.1); Log Comd (2); A(5); CHQ (3); Div (2); Brig (2); Regt (5);Bn (2); Sep Co (2); Co (1): FT (2); Sch (20)except 55 (250); PMS & T (1); Hosp (2); POE(2), OSD (2); Mil Dist (3); T/O & Es, 10-500CA, CB, CD thru CI, CN thru CQ, FA thru FD(1) ; 55-12 (4); 55-16 (5) ; 55-17 (5); 55-18 (5);55-19 (5) ; 55-37 (5); 55-402 (4); 55-500, CA,CB, CC (1).

NG: Div. (2) ; Regt (2); Bn (1) ; Co (1).Army Reserve: Div (2); Begt (2); Bn (1); Co (1).For explanation of distribution formula, see SR 310-90-1.

CONTENTS

PART ONE. GENERAL p-CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION jraphs paot

Section 1. Purpose and scope - 1-3 1II. Motor transport's role in modern

warfare _------- - 4, 5 3III. Conditions affecting military

motor movements .- . ... 6, 7 5CHAPTER 2. BASIC FACTORS INVOLVED IN

MOTORIZED OPERATIONSSection 1. Combination of factors - 8-15 8

II. The motor vehicle-character-istics and uses .------- 16-20 16

III. Motor vehicle administration 21, 22 27IV. Motor pools _-- 23-29 28

V. Automotive maintenance .---- 30-36 48

PART TWO. PRINCIPLES OF THE MARCHCHAPTER 3. ORGANIZED MILITARY

MOTOR MOVEMENTSSection I. Classification of highway move-

ments- -.......... .37, 38 58II. Organization of marches 39-43 59

111. Elements of motor columns .-- 44-47 65CHAPTER 4. MARCH PLANNING AND PLAN-

NING AIDSSection 1. Reconnaissance and planning _ 48-51 69

II. Rate, time, and distance factors_ 52-56 75III. The march graph -__--------- 57- 63 81

CHAPTER 5. MARCH PRINCIPLES ANDMETHODS

Section I. Mechanics of column movement_ 64-70 94II. Types of marches - . ..... .71 80 110

iii

PART THREE. CONDUCT OF THE MARCH r.-CHAPTER 6. CONTROL OF THE MARCH Prapbh l'ae

Section 1. March control and discipline 81 84 125II. Control personnel - . ...... 85-88 131

Ill. Detached parties - . ..... 89-94 137CHAPTER 1. ROAD PROCEDURES AND EN

ROUTE TECHNIQUESSection 1. Formation of the march ----- 95-99 144

II. En route techniques .- ... 100-109 147III. Completion of the march 110 112 168

CHAPTER 8. SUPPLEMENTAL ACTIVITIES ONTHE MARCH

Section 1. General administrative arrange-merits -.............. 113, 114 170

If. Messing -....... 115-117 171III. Quartering --------- 118. 119 172IV. Medical -............ .120, 121 174

V. Accidents and procedures follow-ing accidents - . ... 122, 123 175

VI. Refueling on the march ----- 124, 125 178

PART FOUR. HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAYTRAFFIC

CHAPTER 9. MILITARY HIGHWAY TRAFFICSection 1. General -...... 126-129 181

II. Fundamentals of highway trafficplanning - ....... ..... 1:0-133 189

III. Traffic aids-maps and sym-bols -......... 134, 135 193

IV. Signing and marking routes_ 130-146 204CHAPTER 10. HIGHWAY REGULATION AND

TRAFFIC CONTROLSection 1. General.---........... 147-150 213

II. Highway regulation - . ... 151-157 217III. Highway traffic control - 158-162 228

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PART FIVE. CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSON-NEL AND SUPPLY MOVE-MENTS Para-

CHAPTER 11. PERSONNEL MOVEMENTS raxpha PageSection I. Distinctive characteristics _- 163-165 233

II. Methods and procedures 166-169 237III. Entrucking and detrucking __ 170-176 246IV. March orders and march

tables ----------------- _ 177-180 251CHAPTER 12. SUPPLY MOVEMENTS

Section 1. Distinctive characteristics__ _ 181-183 259II. Types and methods of supply

operation - . ._ .._.._ 184-189 263III. Loads and loading __-._._. 190-193 270IV. Cargo losses - . ..._ ..... 194, 195 279

V. Handling explosives and inflam-mable liquids - . ..... 196-201 280

PART SIX. CONDITIONS OF OPERATIONCHAPTER 13. MILITARY HIGHWAY TRANS-

PORTATION WITHIN THEUNITED STATES --------- 202-209 288

14. MOVEMENTS OF CONVOYS INCOMBAT AREAS

Section 1. General- -.......... 210-214 295II. General security measures___ 215-219 298

CHAPTER 15. EFFECTS OF TERRAIN ANDCLIMATE

Section I. Operations under difficult con-ditions - ... 220, 221 309

II. Steep grades, curves-mountainoperations --------- _---- 222-226 310

III. Mud, swampy ground, gumbo_ 227-229 316IV. Crossing ditches, streams, and

other existing obstacles :__ 230-235 320V. Forest, brush jungle opera-

tions .-. ........... 236-239 325VI. Heat and sand-desert opera-

tions .-. ....._._._.._ 240-244 329VII. Cold weather, snow, ice-arctic

conditions - ._..... 245-249 339

¥

CHAPTER 16. EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT ANDEXPEDIENTS

Section 1. Use of equipment and expe- Parn-dients in meeting emergen- graphs Page

cies -............. 250, 251 348II. Use of wrecker sets and

winches -252-256 350II1. Miscellaneous devices and equip-

ment -......... 257-260 357APPENDIX I. REFERENCES ---------------- --- 8- 362

II. MARCH DATA --------- -8..--- 364

INDEX .......................... 375

VI

This manual supersedc¢ FM 25-10. 12 March 1942, incltuding0 1, 27 July 1942, 0 2, 21 Selitenlber 1942, and C 3, 10Novemaber 1942

PART ONE

GENERAL

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Section I. PURPOSE AND SCOPE

1. PURPOSE

This manull is a guide for the conduct of move-ments by motor vehicles on highways and in off-roadoperations. Its purpose is to enable all concernedto understand the organization, principles of opera-tion, and requirements of discipline and control es-sential to the smooth and effective conduct of convoysand march units.

2. SCOPE

a. The manual covers the conduct of march unitsand motor columns of combat troops, supply and per-sonnel convoys of service troops, and related casualmovements necessary to all military operations. Itsets forth the differences in technique of each type ofoperation. It shows the relationship of individualmovements to the general highway traffic plan. Itemphasizes the importance of, but does not go intodetail as to, such closely related subjects as driver

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selection, driver training. and preventive mainte-nance.

b. The manual is so organized as to cover firstthose basic subjects of general application and laterthose subjects dealing with particular types of move-ment or conditions.

(1) Part one deals briefly with the basic factorsof motor movements such as the driver, thevehicle, and preventive maintenance.

(2) Part two outlines the principles of marchorganization and planning.

(3) Part three deals generally with the conductof all marches.

(4) Part four outlines the fundamentals ofhighway traffic management.

(5) Part five gives the distinctive characteris-tics of supply and personnel movements.

(6) Part six deals with highway transportationunder various conditions of operation.

(7) The appendixes supplement the text by giv-ing references, charts, and data helpful tothe marchll planner.

3. MOTOR TRANSPORT'S RELATIONSHIP TO THEOVER-ALL MOVEMENT FUNCTION

lfotor transportation has a common purpose withall modes of transportation in the accomplishmentof the uninterrupted flow of troops and supplies fromsource to final destination. AMotor transport's re-lationship to the over-all transportation function liesin that common purpose of movement.

a. JIovemlent. Movemnent is basically the changeof location of persons and things in time and space.2

This means the transfer of troops and supplies fromone place to another, often over long distances, and asexpeditiously as possible.

b. Transportation. Transportation is the move-ment of persons and things over land, by water, orthrough the air, and the means used to accomplishthis movement.

c. Organic Transportation. Organic transporta-tion is that transport which is a regularly assignedpart of a military unit as contrasted with that tem-porarily furnished by other units or by a service sup-porting that unit.

Section II. MOTOR TRANSPORT'S ROLE IN MODERNWARFARE

4. NEED FOR MOTOR TRANSPORT

a. Modern wars are wars of movement. Afterarmies are mobilized, trained, and equipped, theymust be transported to a place where they can meetand defeat the enemy. After reaching that place,they must be supplied with ammunition, food, equip-ment, and replacements. If armies are victoriousand advance rapidly, supplies must be moved fastenough to keep up with them. The striking powerand the mobility of an army are dependent on theefficiency of the military motor transport system andits ability to get war materials to the places wherethey are needed and get them there on time.

b. Time and again it has been shown that high-way transportation is one form of movement with-out which armies cannot function. With the in-creasing effectiveness of long range aerial attack

3

and vulnerability of fixed forms of transportation,it is probable that highway transportation will be-come increasingly important.

5. TYPES OF MOTOR MOVEMENT

a. Broadly, all movements may be classified ascasual, organized, or unorganized, depending onwhether the elements are movinlg separately andunder no close supervision, or moving together andunder adequate control. Military movements maybe either casual or organized to varying degrees.

b. The various types of movernent and traffic overwartime highways include combinations of thefollowing:

(1) Casual military movements. Casual mili-tary movements consist of individual ele-ments proceeding more or less at will in theperformance of routine administrative,evacuation, staff, command, and supplyfunctions of units.

(2) Organized military movements. Organizedmilitary movements of combat and support-ing units consist of elements on foot,mounted, or in vehicles, grouped togetherfor purposes of control. These are themarches and convoys to be dealt with in de-tail in this manual.

(3) Unorganized traffic. Unorganized trafficincludes refugee and disorganized militarytraffic fleeing from destroyed cities or beforethe advance of an opponent force. Thiscondition occurs only in event of disasteror defeat or whel effective control breaks

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down. Emergency plans for controllingtraffic should be made so that these condi-tions can be avoided or mitigated to a largedegree.

Section III. CONDITIONS AFFECTING MILITARYMOTOR MOVEMENTS

6. VARIED CONDITIONS

a. Military motor movements must be made undera wide variety of conditions over which the personnelof the movement may have little or no direct control,but by which they must govern their actions. Amongthese conditions are effects of location, weather, andterrain, and of the tactical situation, as existing-

(1) In the zone of interior.(2) In the communications zone.(3) In the combat zone.(4) In friendly territory.(5) In enemy territory.(6) When enemy aerial attack is or is not

probable.'(7) When enemy ground attack is or is not

probable.(8) On open, supervised, dispatch, or reserved

routes.(9) In areas of good or adverse weather and

terrain.b. It is important that officers appreciate the con-

ditions under which their movement is made, andknow how to select the methods which are appro-priate to the particular conditions with which theyare faced.

S

7. EFFECT OF CONDITIONS ON MOVEMENTS

Examples of tile effect of conditions include thefollovwillg:

a. Location. Highway movements in the conti-nental United States which, by reason of number orunusual size or weight may cause trouble, should haveclearance from state and/or local civil authorities.In territory of a friendly nation this may or may notbe true. In enemy territory no clearance from civilauthorities is required.

b. Terrain and qlihnate. Conditions of terrainand climate may require special issueof equipmentand special training to meet those conditions.

c. Reconnaissance. When a. movement is madeover a route on which all traffic is regulated, recon-naissance by the moving unit may require only astudy of a map, but if a movement is made overroads which are not regulated and on which little in-formation is available, or over unknown terrain, per-sonal reconnaissance is usually necessary.

d. Organization. A combat unit, expecting con-tact with the enemy, must marchl in the order whichis best for tactical deployment. The movements ofservice troops will be influenced by their differentfunctions and the special purposes of their equip-ment. For example, Medical, Engineer, and Quar-termaster perform services requiring the use of spe-cialized motor transport and special methods of op-eration. Each may require special procedures in themovement of its convoys.

e. Command. When a unit moves by its own orattached transportation, there is no question as tocommand. However, when a troop unit is moved

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by an unattached transportation truck unit, there arecertain command responsibilities which fall upon thecommander of the truck unit, and others upon thecommander of the troop unit being moved. Thiscommand responsibility may be altered, however, bythe tactical situation (par. 164).

f. Defense. In a tactical situation not only pas-sive defense such as camouflage, deception, and black-out may have to be employed but also active defensivemeasures. If the advantage is with the friendlyforces, many defense measures may be relaxed toallow more complete freedom of action.

g. Protective Forces. Advance, flank, and rearguards are usually not required in the zone of in-terior, communications zone, or in well-held rearareas of the combat zone, but they may be neededwhen a movement is being made in territory whichmay contain enemy troops. A supply convoy nor-mally has no troops available to use for advance,rear, or flank guards, and when such protection isrequired, it must be furnished by other troops. Apersonnel convoy, however, may use part of the per-sonnel being moved where such protection is needed.

A. Tactical Motor Movenments. Since it will notalways be possible to attach sufficient motor transpor-tation to a command to enable it to move entirely inone trip, the ability of a command to concentratesuperior forces at the desired place and time willoften depend upon the use of motor transportationto move by echelon. Units which are not completelymobile can move tactical groupings by augmentingtheir organic transportation with transportation ob-tained from higher headquarters, or they can ac-complish the move in two or more trips, using theirorganic transportation only.

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CHAPTER 2

BASIC FACTORS INVOLVED IN MOTORIZEDOPERATIONS

Section I. COMBINATION OF FACTORS

8. BASIC FACTORS

The methods of operation of motor marches andconvoys treated in this manual are not in themselvessufficient to secure good highway transportation.They can be applied with full effectiveness only bya combination of related factors.

9. DRIVER SELECTION AND UTILIZATION

Commanders or personnel concerned with driverselection should constantly strive to make sure thatonly men with proper qualifications are selected to betrained as drivers, and that men who are obviouslyunfitted are transferred to other duties. Men withlow intelligence, low physical ability, slow reaction,little education, or little sense of responsibility can-not be trained to become good drivers. The militarymotor vehicle is an expensive piece of mechanicalequipment which is easily damaged by poor driving.Poor drivers can cause costly damage. They causeexcessive vehicle deadlinilg, which overburdensmaintenance facilities and impairs the effectivenessof highway transportation. Drivers must know notonly how to drive properly and how to perform firstechelon maintenance (TM 21-300, TM 21-305, andTM 37-2810), but they must be skilled therein. They

8

must learn to appreciate the value of, and necessityfor, good driving and good first echelon maintenance.They must wcant to drive properly and to performtheir maintenance function thoroughly. Selection ofpersonnel of sufficiently high standard for driverswill not suffice. Trainining of drivers must be thor-ough, and it must be continued throughout their as-signment to organizations. They must learn toapply "defensive driving." which means they mustkeep alert to what others do and keep their vehicleunder such control at all times that even if the otherdrivers do the wrong thing they can avoid anaccident,

10. POINTS COVERED IN BRIEFING THE DRIVERThe fact that the driver is operating in column

does not lessen the need for him to be alert and care-ful. Rather it increases his responsibility. Drivingin column requires that he keep his position andmaintain the pace. The tendency to become lax inhabits in column driving and merely to "follow thevehicle ahead" must be avoided. This fact cannotbe overemphasized and should be impressed upon thedriver at all times. The following are particularlyimportant points in the conduct of motor marchesand convoys, and march commanders should brief alldrivers concerning them before movement of convoy.

a. Start engine on the proper signal and keep alertfor the command to move out.

b. Move out slowly and allow the vehicle ahead togain its proper distance before normal speed isreached.

c. Keep within the lane of the column unless re-quired to give way to or pass other traffic.

9

d. Maintain an even driving pace, increasing anddecreasing speed gradually. Never speed unneces-sarily to catch up; never lag behind.

e. Maintain proper distance from the vehicleahead by opening gradually as speed increases, clos-ing gradually as speed decreases. Never get tooclose; never carelessly lose the vehicle ahead.

f. Keep alert and watch the vehicle ahead forchanges in direction, traffic hazards, column signals,etc.

g. Repeat the appropriate signals passed backalong the column and observe them at the propertime for changing direction, slowing down, or stop-ping.

A. Use horn only when necessary.7. Keep position in the colmnn unless ordered or

signalled to pass other elements.j. Shift into proper gear on climbs or slow

stretches of road; never coast down hills with theclutch disengaged or transmission in neutral; usesame gear that would be used to ascend the hill.

k. Obey traffic signals, signs, and markers exceptwhen otherwise instructed as, for example, when theway has been cleared for the column to pass inter-sections by traffic personnel.

1. If vehicle is disabled, move it to the side of theroad and signal the succeeding vehicles to pass and be,prepared to inform maintenance personnel of thetrouble.

ma. Move as far as possible off the road or to theright side of the roadway before halting.

7. Stop engine on proper signal or if vehicle is tostand longer than a few minutes.

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o. After the column halts, wait for the commandbefore dismounting; when hauling troops, dismountonl proper order-alud open tailgate for the troops.

p. When dismounted, keep to the off-road side ofthe vehicles, and off the traveled part of the road.

q. Perform the prescribed inspection and mainte-nance functions during operation and at halt, givingspecial attention to items which might be taken forgranted, such as checking the fuel supply for the restof the march.

r. Be alert for signal to remount and resumemarch, and move out promlptly.

s. Under blackout or other conditions requiringsecurity, conform strictly to all restrictions.

11. FULL USE OF AVAILABLE VEHICLES

a. The utmost use must be made of all availablehighway transport. The requirements for suchtransportation are not presented in an average de-mand, day after day. For example, an infantrydivision on occasion has need for more than its or-ganic highway transportation to incr6ase its mobility.

b. It is impossible to provide each nnit and in-stallation with all the high\way transportation neededto meet peak requirements. Thus, it is a basic prinl-ciple that a unit or installation should be providedonly with such motor transport as it will constantlyemploy day after day. Motor transport vehicles, forthe purpose of meeting peak loads, should be pooledand allocated to meet requirements as they occur.Every effort should be made to minimize the move-ment of empty or partially loaded vehicles.

23865 a:-53- 2 1 1

c. A requirement of full utilization is an organizedsystelm for providing information on forward andreturn loads. This is accomplished by cooperationbetween troop unit, movement control, and highwaystaff personnel. Movement control officers furnishhighway transport staff officers with information asto pending cargo or personnel to be moved by high-way, and highway transport staff officers, having thisinformation, employ their vehicles for maximumutilization. When diversions are necessary, themovement control staff must coordinate the changeswith highway transport staff personnel. It is im-portant that the commanding officers of units andinstallations cooperate to the fullest extent in themaxinmum utilization of all transportation.

d. The return load program provides a method ofutilizilg cargo space of vehicles which would other-wise travel entirely or partially empty, but shouldnot result in such vehicles being required to makeexcessive detours, or to be unduly delayed in return-ing to their proper station. The bad practice of of-ficers seizing truck units or trucks seriously disruptsthe supply program, and, when resorted to by seniorcommanders, is an indication that such commandershave failed to take proper steps to meet their truckrequirements.

12. HIGHWAY CAPABILITIES

a. The term "highway" in its broadest sense meansany specified line of travel, any common or open wayor course. In like manner, the term "highway jlet-work" includes all ground surface routes of travelother than rail.

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b. The characteristics of highways are diversifiedTheir differences require planning and proper use.There are two main factors which limit the use of thehighway network. These are-

(1) Hightway capacin'ty (vehicle). This is themaximum traffic flow obtainable on a givenroadway using all available lanes. It isusually expressed as the number of vehiclesper hour.

(2) Highway capability (tonnage). This is thenumber of vehicles (highway vehicle capa-bility) or the number of short tons pay loadwhich can be moved over a highway withina given time, with reasonable road mainte-nance and proper consideration of the typeof roadway, mountains, hills, curves,weather, other traffic, types of vehicles em-ployed, etc. Thus, the highway tonnagecapability indicates the practical tonnagesupport that can be moved over a highway.

c. With the exception of the best modern high-ways, the tonnage capability rather than the vehiclecapability is the more important limiting factor.The tonnage capability of a road may be exceededfor short periods. However, if the full vehicularcapacity of a road is used without consideration of itstonnage capability, the road may break down andbecome impassable. Therefore, road capabilitiesmay necessarily restrict freedom of movement.Commanders must consider both vehicle and tonnagecapability in scheduling and routing highway move-ments. They must consider the highway tonnagecapability in plallning road maintenance and new

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construction. They must take road capability intoconsideration when making tactical or logisticalplans.

d. In estimating the capability of a highway, itmust be realized that any military force not onlycreates definite requirements for supply movement,but, in addition, generates other traffic. This in-cludes the traffic involved in administrative opera-tions, casual movement of messengers, staff officers,etc. In some areas such casual traffic may be severaltimes the volume generated by hauling of cargo.Furthermore, the limitations of terrain, bridges,feeder and egress routes, cross traffic, and similarvariable factors, make it impractical to maintain avolume of traffic equal to the full capability of thehighway for other than very short periods of time.Capability of a highway must, therefore, be com-puted on the basis of these various limitations on therealization of full capacity.

13. THE HIGHWAY TRAFFIC PLAN

a. There must be a highway traffic plan. Normallythe general plan originates in theater or similar head-quarters. It may prescribe the main supply roads(MINSR) through various sections of the communica-tions zone and combat zone. It may prescribe pro-cedures as to blackouts, camouflage, and other passivedefense measures. It may prescribe traffic rules andregulations applicable throughout the command. Itusually includes circulation maps depicting thethrough routes, direction of traffic flow, and extentof area road networks as described in the text of theplan.

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b. Successive subordinate commands promulgateplans which conform to the plan of higher author-ity, and supplement it by regulations as to use ofhighways within their control and not covered by thehigher plan. It is important to stress the fact thatlower commanders implement the larger, over-allplan, but do not change it.

14. CARRYING OUT THE PLAN

a. So much of the highway traffic plhn as dealswith highway regulation is carried out by the trans-port service or transportation staff of the appropriatecommand (par. 152).

b. Regulation of highway traffic is imposed onlyto the degree necessary to prevent congestion and tonmke sure that all movement is constantly in hand,so that any moving unit can be reached almost in-stantly and its orders changed whenever the tacticalsituation requires.

c. If highway regulation is to prevent congestionand efficiently perform its mission, it must be the re-sponsibility of a single agency. Therefore, a staff isorganized in the office of the appropriate transporta-tion officer to regulate traffic on dispatch routes. Inthe case of routes reserved for the operation of a par-ticular unit, highway regulation is a proper fune-tion of the staff of the command charged with theoperation.

d. This office prepares the schedules of and recordsthe progress of all serials whether they be marchunits, convoys, or individual vehicles traveling overthe routes which it controls. Convoys and marchunits using such routes must adhere to highway reg-

1is

ulation. When doubts arise, or information regard-ing schedules or routes of travel is desired, theycontact the nearest highway regulation point (HRP)along the route of march.

15. ENFORCING THE PLAN

a. The regulations as to speed, rules of the road,etc., are enforced by officers and noncommissionedofficers of marching units and by military policetraffic control (FM 19-25).

b. Military police traffic control is exercised toenforce speed regulations and rules of the road, andto keep unauthorized movements off dispatch orreserved routes.

Section II. THE MOTOR VEHICLE-CHARACTERISTICSAND USES

16. MILITARY MOTOR VEHICLES(fig. 1)

a. A motor vehicle is any vehicle propelled by aself-contained power unit, except vehicles designedfor use on railways and materials handling equip-ment. For practical purposes, the term is expandedto include vehicles designed to be towed by a motorvehicle, that is, trailers and semitrailers.

b. A military force is normally equipped withvehicles suited to the conditions under which theforce will operate, or with vehicles designed for thespecialized tasks to be performed. For example,some combat units have tanks or other vehiclesequipped with armor and armament which are

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AUTOMOBILE TRUCK, CARGOSEDAN, 5 PASSENGER

TRUCK, TRACTOR DOLLY,TRAILER CONVERTER

SEMITRAILER TRAILER, VANSTAKE a PLATFORM

TANK, MEDIUM TRACTOR,CRAWLER TYPE

Figure 1. Motor velhicles-examples of major types.

17

designed for combat; artillery units have self-propelled guns or prime movers which tow the gunsto firing positions; and tactical units which mayoperate over difficult or hazardous terrain havevehicles with cross-country capabilities. Vehicleswith strictly military characteristics have tended toset the standard for all military vehicles. However,transportation truck companies which operate longdistances over improved routes get more efficientservice from vehicles similar to those in general com-imercial use; such vehicles are designed to transporta large volume of cargo at maximum speed, withminimum use of personnel, fuel, and equipment.

c. There are two general classes of military ve-hicles according to the use for which they are in-tended. These are the following:

(1) Adnidnistrative vehicles. Vehicles, normal-ly of commercial type, suitable for routinepurposes in connection with the transpor-tation of supplies, personnel, or equipmentat installations. Administrative use of avehicle is any use not directly connectedwith combat, tactical, or service unit fieldoperations or the simulation of such oper-ations for training purposes.

(2) Tactical vehicles. Vehicles designed pri-marily to meet field requirements in directconnection with combat tactical operationsand the training of troops for combat aretactical vehicles.

d. Tactical vehicles are, in general, those mostoften used for strictly military purposes, and insofaras practicable, administrative vehicles are those used

I8

for purposes closely paralleling civilian usage. Inthis sense, the 21/2-ton, 6 x 6 truck, because of its all-wheel drive for operations over difficult terrain, isgenerally termed a tactical vehicle and the common4 x 2 pick-up truck is termed an administrative vehi-cle. This, however, does not preclude use of the21/2-ton, 6 x 6 truck administratively, nor use of thepick-up truck tactically.

17. PURPOSES FOR WHICH DESIGNED(fig. 2)

Vehicles are further grouped according to thepurpose for which they were designed:

a. General Purpose Vehicles. These are motorvehicles designed to be used interchangeably formovement of personnel, supplies, or equipment, with-out modification to body or chassis to satisfy generalautomotive transport needs. These include suchitems as passenger cars and buses, and cargo trucks,trailers, and semitrailers.

b. Special Equipment Vehicles. These are motorvehicles, the chassis of which are identical, except forminor alterations, to those used in general purposevehicles, but which have a special body or specialequipment mounted thereon. These include suchitems as wreckers, repair and shop trucks, and othersmodified to perform special functions or services.

c. Special Purpose Vehicles. These are motor ve-hicles designed for a specialized requirement forwhich no general purpose vehicle chassis can beadapted. This category includes items that arespecified from time to time by technical services such

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BY PURPOSE FOR WHICH DESIGNED

GENERAL PURPOSE SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

SPECIAL PURPOSE COMBAT

BY MANNER IN WHICH USED

ADMINISTRATIVE TACTICAL

Figwu'e 2. Classificatioi of vehicles.

as fire trucks, engineer road equipment, tractors, am-phibious trucks, and combat vehicles.

d. Combat Vehicles. These are special purposevehicles, with or without armor and/or armament,which are designed for specific fighting functions.

20

They include scout cars, armored cars, half-track andfull-track carriers or carriages, and tanks. Limitedarmor protection and/or armament mounted or in-stalled on vehicles of otherwise noncombat type donot operate to change the classification of such ve-hicles to combat vehicles.

18. CHARACTERISTICS OF VEHICLES(fig. 3)

Military vehicles are designed with characteristicswhich will insure acceptable performance undermany varied conditions. The ability of a motor ve-hicle to negotiate difficult terrain depends upon itsdesign specifications and performance characteristicsresulting therefrom. A proper appreciation of theserelated factors will assist military personnel inproper use of vehicles under various conditions.

a. Gradability. This is the ability of a vehicle tonegotiate a slope while carrying the pay load forwhich it is designated and with transmission in low-est forward gear.

b. Traction. This is the ability of the wheels ortrack of an automotive vehicle to adhere to the road.

c. Fordability. This is the ability of a vehicle tonegotiate a depth of water without stalling theengine.

d. Mlomentumn, This is the energy stored up bythe weight of the vehicle in motion. It increaseswith the speed of the vehicle and weight of the vehi-cle and load.

e. Flotation. This is the ability of a wheel ortrack to resist sinking into the surface supporting it.

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GRADABILITY' TRACTION

FORDABILITY MOMENTUM

'FLOTATION POWER:'..5::

FLOTATION POWER

CLEARANCE,TURNING RADIUS ANGLE OF APPROACH aANGLE OF DEPARTURE

Figure 3. Vehicle perfornallce characteristics.

It increases if the area of ground contact afforded,per pound of weight, is increased. Flotation variesinversely with ground pressure, which is measuredin pounds per square inch.

/. Power. This is the force built up in the engineof a vehicle and transmitted to the wheels or tracks

22

to produce motion. Power in any gasoline-propelledvehicle depends primarily upon maintaining properengine speed. A shift to a lower gear gives moreeffective application of power, but with a loss ofspeed.

g. Other Characteristics. Other characteristicswhich limit or extend the use of vehicles under vari-ous conditions include: ground clearance, angle ofapproach, angle of departure, turning radius, grossweight distribution, etc.

19. CARE OF VEHICLES AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

a. Prevention of Vehicle Abuse. Vehicle abuse isthe chief cause of mechanical failures, excessive op-erating and maintenance costs, general unsatisfac-tory performance of the motor vehicle and itscomponent parts, and consequent impairment of mo-bility. Prevention of abuse of vehicles is of theutmost importance and is the responsibility of eachcommanding officer. Evidence of abuse of vehicleswill be investigated and will be cause for disciplinaryaction. Mechanical failures which are not the re-sult of fair Near and tear or defective material orworkmanship will be considered evidence of vehicleabuse and will be reported to the appropriate com-manldilg officer by maintenance personnel makingthe discovery. The following forms of vehicleabuse are among those which should be prevented.

(1) Improper use of manual controls, particu-larly gear shift, clutch, brakes, and choke.

(2) Racing or overloading engine before nor-mal oil pressure or operating temperature isestablished.

23

(3) Excessive speeds (for the gear being used),particularly over rough roads and acrosscountry, on turns and down grades.

(4) Lack of lubrication or use of improper lu-bricants.

(5) Deferred maintenance, including lack ofproper servicing and adjustments.

(6) Lack of systematic maintenance inspectionand follow-up.

(7) Unauthorized loading beyond rated (high-way or cross-country) capacity, and im-proper loading.

(8) Unsafe driving practices, failure to observeregulations as to speed, etc.

(9) Continued operation of malfunctioning ve-hicle which will result in more seriousdamage.

(10) Lack of proper care of vehicles in storage.(11) Driving with front axle engaged, under

conditions when front wheel drive is notneeded.

b. Safety Precautions. Commanding officers areresponsible for enforcement of safe driving rules andwill cooperate fully with civilian and/or militaryauthorities in the enforcement of traffic regulations.They are responsible for seeing that adequate pre-cautions against fire and accident are maintained.These precautions include the following:

(1) Proper selection and training of driversand the maintaining of qualified personnel.

(2) Training of personnel in defensive drivingand in the respect for the rights of others.

24

(3) Assuring the observance of the rules of theroad.

(4) Maintaining proper march discipline inconvoy.

(5) Insuring the security of loads being hauledby-

(a) Proper loading and lashing.(b) Clear marking of explosives and danger-

ous cargo, and safe distribution in column.(6) Taking necessary measures to prevent fires

especially in regard to the use of fuels, andsmoking limitations.

(7) Taking necessary parking precautions, in-cluding posting of warning devices whenvehicles are parked along an open way.

(8) Prescribing necessary precautions in shopsor in connection with maintenance activitiessuch as regarding the proper disposal ofcombustible waste and the careful use oftools.

e. Speed Limits. The caution plate mounted oneach vehicle indicates the maximum safe speed, ineach gear, for which the vehicle is designed. It willnot be exceeded in any gear except in case of extremeemergency.

(1) Speeds will not exceed those prescribed bycompetent authority or the limits set bylocal laws or regulations, except in casesof emergency or where prior arrangementshave been made for release from such regu-lations.

(2) Regardless of allowable speeds, vehicles willbe operated within the limits required by

25

road and traffic conditions to assure safeoperation.

(3) On all vehicles regulated by governors,governors will be set and sealed at a speednot to exceed the maximum speed indicatedon the caution plate.

20. RESPONSIBILITY AND USE OF VEHICLES

a. Responsibility. Each commanding officer is re-sponsible for the vehicles under his jurisdiction-fortheir proper operation, utilization, and maintenance.

b. Use. Regulations prescribe certain limitationsand restrictions on the use of motor vehicles. Exceptfor weight, design, and loading restrictions, these aregenerally:

(1) The comluanding officer of an installationor organization will prohibit operation ofany vehicle under his command which is notin safe operating condition or where furtheroperation will cause additional damage tothe vehicle.

(2) Motor vehicles will be used only for officialbusiness, including special uses prescribedby regulations.

(3) Motor vehicles will not be assigned to ex-clusive use of individuals except as spe-cifically authorized by Army Regulations.

(4) Motor vehicles will not be assigned for usesnot properly part of, or connected with, anofficial task.

(5) Motor vehicles, when available withoutdetriment to other official business, and sub-ject to restrictions, may be used by special

26

direction of a commanding officer for au-thorized and supervised recreational, wel-fare, and morale-building activities.

(6) Motor transportation should be furnishedonly after every effort has been made to con-solidate and coordinate trips.

Section III. MOTOR VEHICLE ADMINISTRATION

21. DEFINITION

Motor vehicle administration seeks to attain effi-cient utilization of vehicles by consolidating and co-ordinating their assignments. It includes the fol-lowing:

a. Allocation and Commitment.(1) Allocation by assignment is the assignment

or attachment of vehicles or units to variousinstallations or commands based on the re-quirements of the using installation or or-ganization and in accordance with avail-ability of equipment. It is exercised bymajor commands or responsible services.

(2) Commitment for a particular lift or haulingjob is the templorlry allotment of vehicles towork on a job without assignment or at-tachment to the using installation or organ-ization.

b. Dispatch. The process by which a motor pool,organization, or unit directs and supervises the useand movement of vehicles'under its control so as toprevent improper use and attain maximum utiliza-tion is dispatch. Dispatch is normally exercisedthrough the scheduling and recording of driver and

2386585-53-3 27

vehicle assignments and by the issuance of a ticketcovering each trip of a vehicle or group of vehicles.

22. HIGHWAY TRANSPORT UNIT POOLS

a. In a theater of operations, requirements forhighway transportation'will usually be so great thatmaximum utilization must be made of all truck com-panies and the vehicles organic thereto. This pre-cludes the assignment or attachment to depots, ports,and other installations of sufficient units to meet peakloads. It requires such assignment to be kept downto the minimum required for regular daily needs.

b. Highway transport service pools are unit poolsconsisting of Transportation Corps units such astruck or car companies, battalions, or other unitswhich provide a general hauling service for a theater,communications zone, army, corps, division, etc. Un-der this type of pooling, units perform specific haul-ing jobs as required by the command they serve, butthey are not assigned or attached to any organiza-tion or installation within or subordinate to suchcommand. The general highway transport servicepool operation is normally controlled by the theaterarmy, communications zone, or other appropriatehighway transport service.

Section IV. MOTOR POOLS

23. GENERAL

The localized pooling of available motor transpor-tation will, under most conditions, give the most effi-cient and economical results, so that a given numberof vehicles can transport more cargo or personnel

28

in a given time. The common terms used in referringto vehicle pools follow:

a. Motor Pool. A group of vehicles under centralcontrol, that is available for common use of severalagencies or individuals is called a motor pool.

b. Motor Park. An area where vehicles are storedor parked when not in use, or where repairs can bemade when necessary is called a motor park. Itis also called a vehicle park.

24. TYPES OF MOTOR POOLS

a. In distinguishing between the physical group-ing of vehicles and the centralization of the dispatchfunction without the physical pooling, the followingterms are used:

(1) Functional pool. A functional motor poolconsists of vehicles which are garaged orparked with their own or different organiza-tions, but which are under a central control.

(2) Physical pool. A physical motor pool isone in which the vehicles are assembled inone place and available for use as neededby different organizations or individuals.

b. The general types of motor pools normally setup for routine use at installations and in metropolitanareas are as follows:

(1) Post ototor pool. A pool of vehicles nor-mally employed at an installation for over-head and routine housekeeping purposes iscalled a post motor pool.

(2) Sulbpool. A group of administrative ve-hicles suballocated to a particular activity

29

but which remains under central control iscalled a subpool.

25. OPERATION OF VEHICLE MOTOR POOLS

a. The conditions surrounding the operation ofmotor pools in cities, of highway transport units inthe field, and of organic vehicles, may vary ma-terially: but the general principles set forth below,with minor modifications to meet each type of con-dition, are applicable to the operation of all poolsof motor vehicles.

b. Motor pools may be operated by one of the fo1llowing types of dispatch control:

(1) Central dispatch. Dispatch control per-formed from a central office over a numberof scattered motor pools, or subpools, is cen-tral dispatch.

(2) Local dispatch.. Dispatch located and per-formed at one motor pool, or at subpools, islocal dispatch.

(3) Job dispatch. A temporary dispatch sys-tem set up over vehicles performing shorthauls, or shuttle tasks, as part of a job as-signment for which they have already beendispatched by their organization is job dis-patch.

c. The factors of time, distance, and tasks largelydetermine the type of motor pool operation, forexample:

(1) If the distance between the main pool andloading or discharge points is short, it isnormally desirable to assemble all vehicles

30

at one motor pool and control them fromthat point.

(2) If the distance between the main motor pooland pick-up or discharge points is great,physical pooling at one point might requirevehicles to travel unnecessarily long dis-tances per trip. Under such circumstances,it is generally advisable to establish sub-pools near major outlying loading or un-loading points. Even on small posts it maybe desirable to establish a subpool at oneor more distant points where vehicles arefrequently required.

(3) Subpools may also be desirable on the basisof the special use of certain vehicles, suchas those which are constantly loaded withtools or equipment of a particular technicalservice, or ambulances to be used in emerg-encies.

(4) A surge-type pool may be required on thebasis of particular tasks to be performedsuch as port or beach clearance, airlift op-erations, etc.

d. When the vehicles are not physically assembledin one pool, a functional pool should be establishedwith an experienced motor transport officer super-vising the operation of the main pool and all sub-pools. Training and discipline of personnel,preventive maintenance of vehicles, and general ad-ministrative control of all activities should be underone motor officer. Such an administrative organiza-tion should have a central dispatching system so thatall requests for vehicles may be coordinated andcleared by a single office.

31

26. DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF PERSONNEL(fig. 4 )

a. Commanding Officer. The commanding offi-cer under whose jurisdiction a motor pool is estab-lished is responsible for its operation. The transpor-tation officer acts for the commander in supervisionof motor pools.

b. Motor Pool Officer. The motor pool officer isin direct command of the motor pool and is chargedwith direct responsibility for all phases of its opera-tion. He represents the commanding officer in theapproval and disapproval of requests for transporta-tion referred to him by the dispatcher. Under thesupervision of the motor officer, the clerical staffmaintain all files and records and prepare all re-ports and correspondence pertaining to the motorpool.

c. Motor Maintenance Officer. The motor mainte-nance officer, as the shop superintendent, is chargedwith the organizational maintenance of all motor ve-hicles in the pool. His duties include the propertraining of personnel, the scheduling of maintenanceand emergency repair of vehicles, and the care ofshop equipment.

d. Truckmaster. The truckmaster, as assistant tothe motor officer, is charged with supervision of poli-cies and procedures of the trucking unit.

e. Dispatcher. The dispatcher, upon receipt of anauthorized request, selects the most appropriate pieceof equipment available with operator and accom-plishes the following:

(1) Fills in the following entries on DD Form110 (( and ©) of fig. 5): "Date," "Type,"

32

POST, CAMP, OR STATION....COMMANDER

TRANSPORTATION OFFICER

MOTOR POOL OFFICER

OPERATIONS ...... MAINTENANCE

TRUCKMASTER R MOTOR MAINTENANCE NCO

DISPA-TCHERS | SUPPLY CLERKSC

- COMMAND-- ' 1 STAFF SUPERVISION

COORDINATION-'P---- DISPATCHING

Figure I. Typicnl Oagolli'ztioil for 1motor pools at aOivllsla:tion.

"Registration No.," "Time out," "Operator(name and grade)," "Requested by," "Dis-pateher (signature and grade)," and 'Dis-patching orgalization.l'

(2) Coordinates and effects consolidation ofroutine and extended trips.

33

VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT OPERATIONAL RECORD2 FeL Is2I Dt.t "|EO OT Sc LSR

AUsoT AOSNAIIOR A/</ F~ g / CMTION TIME MILES

Cetk JT.#. JTo c30mTTl: :I 3

,N.T. S,,vt I . s ""

DSIAIMTIMEIT ARRIVAL WAD RELESDDETINATION ARRIVAL DARUR MILEA OAD

Motor Fbol 0q30 6r4°T HL C-oA 3A15r oBoo 5C45 I to,

T14,i 7-071 60t3b 0900 __6_

.A10 0930 s STO

nor PoW o| °5 s570 _z

T.

TO

TO

Windshield wiper not Work4ing.

I he moed al . / 1 l.nb. . / em n anh o tn & en I he hner take te, ef r inmly

pc. 0,.s1g atlure ariad IA o a ~ ohr

D ,EC 110 IlPCsg NMe F= it INo hi a do

(D Frolt.Figure 5. DD F'orm 110, VIchicle and Equipment Operational

34 Record.

OPERATOR'S DAILY AND WEEKLY PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE SERVICES

I. OALY Op<AUTIOKS OK. AIi AT

FNfl. OIL VWA,. (A,,tlfru e)

VEMItrEEOUlPMW ;v,4shtJ4 gutiC b 4de

I .gA S Gr AtE. rr I/nns [ g l Y

2. D OURING OPERATIO

S. AT HALT

4. AFTER OPERATION ERVICES

CIAN rIo:UiPM E_

ruEn tiTERS 1/ = =

5. WEKLY SERVICES

""Win ashield wiPer not =or

TCRS SIGNATURJ

Back.

Figre 3.--Continued.

35

(3) Posts all requests for transportation whenreceived, and operational records at time ofissue on the Daily Dispatching Record ofMotor Vehicles (DA Form 9-75) (fig. 6).

(4) Receives operational records from opera-tors upon their return and records necessarydata on DA Form 9-75. Examines bothsides of each operational record to insurecompleteness of action by all concerned.Refers equipment requiring repair to shop.Initials operational record in space pro-vided and files tickets by registration num-ber and date, pending disposition.

f. Operator (AR 700-105). DD Form 313 (Oand ( of fig. 7) will be issued by commanders to alloperators of motor vehicles who are qualified to op-erate the particular vehicles noted on the permit.The validity of the permit with or without glasseswill be indicated on the reverse side of the permit inthe space marked restrictions. Authentication of ve-hicles the operator is qualified to drive will be indi-cated by the signature of the qualifying official, acommissioned officer, and the permit will be certifiedby the signature of the issuing official, the command-ing officer or the supervising commissioned officer.The operator is responsible for the following:

(1) Performs the daily and weekly preventivemaintenance services and certifies their per-formance by signing in the space provided.When the commanding officer specificallyrelieves a driver or operator from respon-sibility for daily and weekly maintenance,a responsible designated person in the

36

motor pool garage, preventive line main-tenance system, or other agency that per-forms the required maintenance will certifythat performance by initialing in the spaceprovided for the operator on DD Form 110.

(2) Fills in the following:(a) On I)D Form 110, the operator makes

the following entries: "Time in," "Milesin," "Miles out," "Total," "Fuel," "Oil,""Destination," "Arrival time," "Depar-ture time," "'Arrival mlileage,'' "Load"(when applicable - passengers and/ortons), as applicable, for each trip or sub-trip, obtaining the initials and further in-structions from the official user.

(b) In case of an accident resulting in injuryor property.damage. Standard Forin 91((3 and () of fig. 8) will be filled out bythe driver on the spot or as promptly aspossible thereafter. The driver will alsoexecute DD Form 518, Accident-Ideuti-fication Card, (fig. 9), and subtmit it tothe persons directly involved. The driverwill refrain from making a statement,oral or written, to claimants or theiragents.

(3) In the absence of further instructions, theoperator automatically returns to the motorpool by the most direct or usual route.

(4) Carefully notes and records all equipmentdeficiencies under "Remarks" on DD Form110.

37

i~ i~

0

- A-- 0 - - - -

-. 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c

o I

0~~~~~~~ -.- --.---- - -

Tg

I -- I

38 C

~~~~~I~~~ I ~-I.

U. S:GOVERNMENT OPERATOR'S PERMIT PERMIT..DPARTMENT OF DEFENSE 6880?7757

NAME o OPERATOR DAlT 0UiDE I EXPIRATION DAI

Noy-rnoea J. Smni th 4 Feb 52 | Rfe6 53SEX: RACE A2E HEIGHT WEI T COLORolAI LoROpEYES

M W / Sf/" I/o BIoack BlueThe holder of this perziL is qualifled to operate U. S. Government vehicls

nd/or equipment speoified subject to the restrictions set lorth on the revere

SIG RE OF ISSUING OFFICIAL lUi CoSpt-ft

ie.f Aw Brafc W FNAME AND LOCATION OF IiUING UNIT

Aw½ y.Yk Prtof EL-ykkt,;, B; rAkltn., /A Y,NOr rTA NSFERA RLI SIGNATUCE OORTO (IN ,a4d unt i..id --onil Si, .. en op/ ins ;

DD FORM 313, t AUGW E PlACEiWD AGr FORM 9-7. I AUG .WHICH MAY GE

(D Front.

Figuere 7. DD Fonrl 313, U. S. Gorversnmele t Operator's Permnit.

J `DGN Vol;4 L. ;tA 'J3 scs.QUALIFIED TO OPERATE

TYPE VEHIC ANHD/OR EQUIPMENT CAPACITY QUALIFYING OFFICIAL

ACCIDENT OR TRAFFIC VIOLATION RECORDDANT NATUR E OFF[CtAL

GDCo-0-939287 16-62I52

Figure 7.-Continued.

39

J J tll( . ' 9I I ; .i., · : ,

i. .-P.~ '.~~_

'"1~~~"

MIT:

· ii

I~~~~~~~

40:~, i H i t

4Oaii

;ss - 6o O.66a1 -- =Bb , ,",°n n ni~ I ! a

I

H~ia i=N tI aisI ,:,,gloooaoo~~ iiiitt~~

I~=~,111'l ',~ 5~,I,',

41

jiiils~ j~g;lrjl

;,eb 1~~~~~~ 0(

00000M ~ ~ ~ ,"

i~~l i R~~~i~ i UI~~~ iii n4

(5) Upon returning to the pool and after com-pletion of required services, signs the cer-tificate and personally delivers the corm-pleted operational record to the dispatchingoffice.

ACCIDENT-IDENTIFICATION CARD

Any correspondence regarding accidentshould be addressed to:

Commanding OfficerFort Eustis, VirginiaA++,.+ 01n~'" nffiCer

MAKE REFERENCE TO

DATE OF ACCIDENT

2 fs4 jlMAKE AND TYPE OF VEHICLE

1950 2-ton GlIC Dump

REGISTRATION NO.

830715DRIVER (Lol. nameC--irst nome-initiol)

SEfVICE NO. A

ORGANIZATION

fiaf ro-re

16*459l-1 GPO

DD FORM REPLACES WO C1VD V I MAY 51 FORM 614. WNHIC

MAY E USEDO.

Figutre 9. DD Form 518, Accident-Identification card.

42

g. Official User. The official user has the follow-ing responsibilities:

(1) Directs the operator to record any deficien-cies noted.

(2) Secures efficient utilization of the vehicleand assures that it is promptly released uponcompletion of the job for which dispatched.

(3) Releases driver and equipment and certifiesthe official nature of his trip by initialingin that part of the "Released by" spacewhich corresponds to the last trip or sub-trip accomplished for him.

h. Mechanic. AMechanic performs the secondechelon maintenance of motor vehicles and alliedequipment operated by the motor pool.

27. REQUESTS FOR TRANSPORTATION

a. All agencies of the Department of Defense willbe permitted to use the facilities of Army motorpools under such regulations as may be prescribed.

b. So far as practicable, requests should be sub-mitted in writing, 24 hours in advance, to the dis-patch office. Requests for vehicles should containthe following information:

(1) Agency or officer submitting request.(2) Cargo or passenger transportation desired.(3) Description, weight, and cube of load, or

number of passengers. Unusual shapes ordimensions of cargo should be noted.

(4) Date and time the vehicle(s) should report.(5) Point at which the driver should report.

238658-53--- 4 43

(6) Name and rank (or position) of person towhom the driver should report; and/or per-son in charge of the trip.

(7) Purpose of the trip.(8) Place(s) to and from which the vehicle will

be required to travel.'(9) Date, estimated hour, and place at which

the vehicle will be released.(10) Other information which may be pertinent

to the trip such as reference to travel orders;whether user-driver will be furnished; rea-son government transportation is necessaryin place of commercial transportation; etc.

e. Requests for specific types of vehicles shouldnot be made. The dispatcher should determine thenumber and type of vehicles required after consid-eration of the type of cargo, its weight and cube, orshape, vehicle maneuvering conditions at loadingand unloading points, and terrain over which thevehicles will operate. Where there is any doubt thedispatcher will refer the matter to the motor officer.

28. OPERATING METHODS

a. Planning Dispatch.(1) Whatever the type of motor pool, all dis-

patching should be planned at one centraloffice. Priority should be given to requestsas follows:

(a). To emergency or important requests.(b) To those requests which are received 24

hours in advance.(c) To otlier requirements in accordance with

the time of the request.44

(2) It usually will not be practicable to antici-pate all requirements for transportation 24hours in advance. Hence, in dispatch plan-ning the entire fleet should not be used, buta reserve of vehicles of various types shouldbe held to meet important requirementswhich cannot be anticipated. The size ofthis reserve can be determined only by ex-perience at the particular pool. Vehiclesshould be held for reserve in rotation, andfull advantage taken of waiting time to per-form any maintenance which will not inter-fere with the vehicles' readiness to roll.

(3) As requests for transportation come in theyare consolidated so that the greatest practic-able degree of utilization is attained. Forexample, if two individuals request trans-portation to the railroad station in a nearbytown, it will frequently be practicable forone vehicle to take both at the same time andalso meet any incoming personnel at thestation.

(4) If a vehicle is sent to a distant point atwhich it will discharge its load, an attemptshould be made to secure a return load fromthat point. This should be carried to theextent of cooperation between motor officersat various posts, to avoid the possibility thata vehicle will be dispatched with a load fromPost A to Post B and return empty, whileat the same approximate time anothervehicle is bringing a load from Post B toPost A and returning empty. One vehicle

45

from either post can do both jobs, thus real-izing 100 percent utilization for one vehiclerather than 50 percent for two. Vehiclesof one post arriving at any other post shouldclear through the transportationl officer be-fore returning. "Return load" programsshould be instituted in all commands, andtransportation officers should have authorityto use any available vehicles to transport re-turn loads. However, judgment should beused in each instance in seeing that vehiclesare not sent too far off their route in return-ing to the posts from which originally dis-patched.

(5) When a vehicle is sent to a point at whichits load (passengers or cargo) will be dis-charged and no return load has been ar-ranged in advance, the driver should be in-structed to telephone the central dispatchingoffice when his mission is complete. He maythen be sent on another job without return-ing to the motor pool.

(6) The nature of the load and the need for thetrip should be carefully considered. When-ever a vehicleof a different type from thatrequested, or a lesser number of vehicles,will be suited for the work, or whenever theneed for the trip is not apparent, the dis-patcllher should report the facts to the motorofficer for decision.

(7) Except for tactical purposes and local haul-ing, army vehicles will not be dispatchedfor off-post transportation when suitablecommercial means are available.

46

b. Vehicle and Equipment Operational Record DDForm 110.

(1) One vehicle and equipment operational rec-ord form should be made out each time avehicle is dispatched from a pool or sub-pool. It is not satisfactory to make just onesuch ticket per vehicle per day.

(2) These vehicle equipment and operationalrecord forms should be completely filled inas prescribed by TM 37-2810. They mustbe made out by the dispatcher at the poolor subpool from which the vehicles are phys-ically dispatched regardless of the type oforganization of the pool. If dispatchedfrom a subpool, necessary data is trans-mitted by the subpool to the central dis-patching office by available means of com-munication.

c. Daily Dispatch of Vehicles. No vehicles shouldbe dispatched to one person or agency as daily pro.cedure without approved written request justifyingsuch daily dispatch. Approval of daily dispatchshould be for a limited period only and subject to rev-ocation. The motor pool officer is responsible forcarefully investigating the need for daily dispatch ofvehicles to any person or agency, and for permitting the daily dispatch of no vehicle beyond the re-quirements of sound utilization.

d. Trip Routing. Orders posted at each pool andsubpool should include instructions to the effect thatthe shortest suitable route will be followed to andfrom a destination. Such routes should be estab-lished by the motor pool officer, making due allow-

47

uance for the traffic conditions when necessary. Thispractice makes it possible to check trip ticket mileageto ascertain whether or not vehicles are taken offtheir course on matters other than for which dis-patched and makes it easier to locate a vehicle whichfails to return within a reasonable time.

29. BUS OPERATOR

The same general princilles of good driving,safety, and proper maintenance that are applicable toother vehicles are equally applicable to the operationof buses. Buses are part of the general pool alrdwill be operated under the motor officer as are othervehicles. However, when desirable, buses may beconsidered separately and constituted a subpool.Legal and administrative procedures in connectionwith the operation of buses are covered in AR 55-90.

Section V. AUTOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE

30. MAINTENANCE DEFINED

a. Mlaintenance. Maintenance is the care takenand the work done, including minor repairs, to keepvehicles and equipment in serviceable condition. Itincludes the systematic servicing and inspection ofvehicles to prevent vehicle failure; the modification,repair, rebuilding, and reclamation of major items,units, and parts; and the evacuation and recoveryof major items.

b. Preventive Mllaintenance. This is the care andservicing by using personnel for the purpose ofmaintaining equipment in satisfactory operating

48

condition by providing systematic inspection, detec-tion and correction of incipient failures either beforethey occur or before they develop into major defects.Preventive maintenance includes correct operation.DA Form 460 (Preventive Maintenance Roster) pro-vides a simple method for scheduling the periodicservices within organizations. When vehicles are tobe away from their organizational maintenance facil-ities for some time, there should be kept with eachvehicle a running record or log which will indicatewhen the vehicle received its last scheduled servicewith its unit and which will have blank spaces forthe same information to be filled in by the mechanicwho accomplished the next scheduled service awayfrom the unit. Upon return of the vehicles to theirparent unit, the information on the form may betransferred to DA Form 460.

31. INSPECTIONS

a. The unit commander is responsible for themaintenance of his motor vehicles, motor vehicleequipment, and tools. He may delegate maintenancefunctions to his motor officer and other personnel butmust assure himself of their proper performance.

b. In addition to regular inspections and super-vision, higher commanders should see that spot checkinspections are made at irregular intervals but asoften as prescribed by AR 750-5.

49

32. ORGANIZATION OF THE MAINTENANCE FUNC-TION

The motor maintenance prescribed for the mili-tary service is a flexible system that can be adaptedto various operating conditions. This organizationis based on the agency (person or unit) responsiblefor the maintenance function at various echelonsrather than on the type of work done by each echelon.Maintenance operations are divided into three maincategories-organizational, field, and depot-withsubdivisions as indicated:

a. Organizational 1Maintenance. Organizationalmaintenance is that maintenance (including first andsecond echelons) which is performed within the usingorganization by personnel of the unit on its ownvehicles. The mileage that a vehicle travels is theprincipal criterion for the frequency of preventivemaintenance services.

(1) First echelon maintenance. First echelonmaintenance is that part of organizationalmaintenance which is assigned to the driveror crew of the vehicle.

(2) Second echelon maintenance. Second ech-elon maintenance is that part of organiza-tional maintenance which is assigned to unit(company, battalion, or regimental) me-chanics. It normally includes inspections,servicing, adjusting, minor repair, and re-placement of minor parts. Second echelonpersonnel act upon drivers' reports of me-chanical failures. The maintenance func-tions of this echelon are-

so50

(a) Scheduled maintenance based on time andmileage as set forth in TM 37-2810.

(b) Seasonal maintenance, such as spring orfall, when vehicles are prepared to meetthe operating conditions of summer andwinter.

(c) March maintenance, which includesemergency service performed during themarch and the repair of organizationalvehicles necessary to keep transportationon the road.

b. Field Maintenance. Field maintenance incor-porates the third and fourth echelons of maintenanceand is the work exclusive of rebuild or overhaul per-formed by maintenance organizations (ordnance) onequipment for return to using organizations.

(1) Third echelon maintenance. Third echelonmaintenance is that field maintenance per-formed by maintenance and supply organi-zations in direct support of using troops.Third echelon organizations may, for exam-ple, overhaul and replace specified sub-assemblies and repair the overflow fromlower echelons. They also support thelower echelons by furnishing technical ad-vice, supplying units and spare parts, per-forming unit replacements and repairsbeyond the scope of using organizations,etc.

(2) Fourth echelon maintenance. Fourth ech-elon maintenance is that field nlaintenanceperformed by an established pool of variablemembers and types of maintenance and

51

supply units formed as a semifixed shopserving a geographical area. It serves allforward echelons with a higher degree ofskill and a larger stock of parts, subassem-blies, and assemblies. It sends forwardcontact parties or reinforcing elements whenrequired. It includes overflow work fromthe third echelon of maintenance; repair ofmajor items for return to utility stock; andthe reconditioning of assemblies, subassem-blies, and parts, either generated during re-pair operations or received from ordnancecollecting points.

c. Depot Maintenance. Depot maintenance (fifthechelon) is that required for the repair of materialwhich requires a major overhaul or complete rebuildof parts, subassemblies, assemblies, and/or end itemas required. Such maintenance is intended to aug-ment stocks of serviceable equipment or to supportlower levels of maintenance by the use of more ex-tensive shop equipment and personnel of highertechnical skill than are available in organizationalor field maintenance activities.

33. ORGANIZATIONAL MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS OFPERFORMANCE

a. Unit Systevn Maintenance. This is the conven-tional system whereby one mechanic or a team ofmechanics gives the entire service to a vehicle; it issimultaneous maintenance of a number of vehiclesby separate mechanics or teams assigned to each.Unit system maintenance normally requires a highdegree of general mechanical knowledge and the

52

ability of individual mechanics to perform all neces-sary inspections and services.

b. Production Line Maintenance. This is the sys-tem for performing maintenance by accomplishingindividual items of service or repair in specializedwork stations. This system normally requires ahigh degree of specialized skill, and a careful selec-tion of mechanics to perform individual items ofmaintenance.

34. DRIVER'S MAINTENANCE RESPONSIBILITYa. The driver is the most important single factor

in preventive maintenance. Improper driving andneglect of preventive maintenance service are themajor factors in mechanical failures of motor ve-hicles. Inexperienced and careless drivers can nul-lify all efforts to maintain vehicles properly.

b. Driver-maintenance duties include correct load-ing and driving; serviciig with fuel, lubricants,coolants, and air; inspecting; cleaning; tightening;and the care of tools and accessories. The drivermust not perform maintenance that involves an ad-justment which should be made by a mechanic.

c. Preventive maintenance services normally per-formed by the driver, are contained in TM 21-305,TM 37-2810, and appropriate vehicle technicalmanuals. Briefly, they are as follows:

(1) Before-operation check. This is a check tomake sure that no change has occurred sincethe performance of the after-operationservice (see (4) below).

(2) During-operation check. This is a con-tinuing check to observe the actual func-

53

tioning of the vehicle while rolling and totake note of improper performance, so thatit can be given attention at the first oppor-tunity.

(3) At-halt check. This check consists of inqvestigating any deficiencies noted duringoperation and locating deficiencies whichcannot conveniently be observed while thevehicle is in motion.

(4) After-operation service. This is the maindaily preventive service. Its purpose is tomake sure that the vehicle is in conditionto roll again on a moment's notice.

(5) Weekly-selrvice. This service consists ofthose items of the daily after-operationservice plus certain other items which re-quire weekly attention to all vehicles.

d. Normally the driver performs the after opera-tion service. If time does not permit a full service,the unit SOP can modify the service by deletingitems not deemed essential. When vehicles are beingoperated on around-the-clock basis or under otherconditions which make it impracticable to have thedriver perform the after-operation and weekly-maintenance services, second echelon maintenanceaugmentation should be provided to relieve thedriver of these services. However, under any cir-cumstances, the irreducible minimum of drivermaintenance is the during-operation and at-haltservices. The driver should also be taught that, whenothers perform the after-operation service, if hefails to make his before-operation check he has noprotection against being charged with deficiencies

54

which were due to faulty after-operation nilinte-nance.

35. REPAIR PROCEDURE

a. During marches, roadside repairs to disabledvehicles are frequently temporary in character.When a vehicle in colmuni becomes disabled, themaintenance personnel from the trail should attemptto diagnose and correct the trouble.

b. If the diagnosis shows that the vehicle needsonly a minor repair, a mechanic with a kit of toolsand needed parts may be dropped off with the vehicle.

c. When the vehicle is carrying supplies or troops,or towing a gun or trailer. and doubt exists as to itsprobable repair in a reasonable time, its cargo or towmay be removed and loaded on or attached to an-other vehicle.

d. The driver should remain Nwith a disabled ve-hicle, unless ordered by competent authority toabandon it.

e. When a vehicle is disabled, it should be driven,pushed, or towed well off the road, so that other ve-hicles may pass around without halting.

f. When a disabled vehicle is repaired withoutprohibitive delay, it resumes the march at the maxi-mum authorized speed and rejoins the rear of thelast unit of the column, remaining there until thenext halt when it resumes its proper position; or,when properly instructed it passes along the columnand resumes its position wvith its organization. Thetrail maintenance officer of an organization may havea disabled vehicle towed a reasonable distance. When

55

towing is impractical repairs may have to be at-tempted on the spot.

g. When repair personnel are working on or bythe side of the road, guards, flags, or signs shouldbe put out as a warning to passing traffic. At night,security permitting, red lanterns or flares may beused. Lighted warning signals should not be usedwhen blackout light restrictions are in effect.

36. EMERGENCY ROADSIDE REPAIRS

a. In the absence of maintenance personnel, lim-ited emergency roadside repairs may be performedby the driver. These are limited by the ability ofthe driver and the time, tools, and parts availablefor his use.

b. The driver should not attempt repair unlesslie is reasonably certain that he has properly diag-nosed the trouble and is capable of correcting it.Unnecessary tampering with mechanisms is prohib-ited. At the first opportunity after an emergencyrepair has been effected, the driver should reportthe facts to his squad or section chief in order thatproper action may be taken. The following are ex-amples of emergency roadside repairs which a drivermlay perform if he has received proper training:

(1) Change tires. Put cold patches on tubes.(2) Tighten nuts.(3) Remove, clean, reset, and install spark

plugs.(4) Adjust fan belt.(5) Remove, blow out, and install gas lines.

56

(6) Tape leaks in gas or oil lines and tightenconnections.

(7) Drain and clean the sediment bowl of thefuel pump.

(8) Drain and clean the fuel filter.(9) Reconnect and tape electrical lines.(10) Plug leaks in the cooling system and

tighten waterpulmp colnections.(11) Adjust dragging brakes.

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PART TWO

PRINCIPLES OF THE MARCH

CHAPTER 3

ORGANIZED MILITARY MOTOR MOVEMENTS

Section 1. CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYMOVEMENTS

37. GENERAL

a. Organized military movements, as opposed tocasual movements, are made by groups of elements(troops and/or vehicles) over planned routes undersupervision.

b. Military movements are organized to keep thetroop organization intact; for purposes of leader-ship, discipline, and march control; to provide forgroup messing and quartering; to prevent pilferageand loss of cargo or equipment; to control the move-ment of supplies and personnel being transported;to regulate the flow of traffic over the highways; tomake it possible to meet priorities according to pre-scribed schedules; to make it easy to change plansto meet the tactical situation.

e. The organized movements of troops are usuallyclassified as foot marches and motor marches or acombination of the two. While on the road, elementsof a foot march are referred to as the foot column;elements of a motor march, as the motor column orconvoy.

s58

38. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVOYS AND MARCHES

The following defines fundamental terms.a. Motor March. The controlled movement of

troops in motor vehicles is a motor march.b. Convoy. A group of two or more vehicles or-

ganized for the purpose of control and orderly move-ment with or without escort protection is a convoy.

c. Tactical Movemerit. Movemelnts are classifiedas tactical when made under combat conditions.Tactical convoys are organized to facilitate offensiveor defensive action against the enemy.

d. Administrative Movemevts. Movements ofunits or supplies other than tactical movementsagainst the enemy are called administrative move-ments. Administrative convoys are organized tofacilitate movement and control of the vehicles and/or personnel.

Section II. ORGANIZATION OF MARCHES

39. GENERAL

a. Good organization is essential to good marchdiscipline, good convoy control, and compliance withthe regulations imposed by higher authority.

b. The organization of a motor column is affectedby the type of transportation used, whether it con-sist of organically assigned vehicles or vehicles tem-porarily detailed to the particular task, and by thetype of troops or supplies being hauled. It is affectedby the condition of the highway, by the traffic con-ditions over the route being traveled, and by ordersof higher authority. Organization may further de-

238658°-53 5 59

pend on the demands of the tactical situation and therequirements of administration.

c. Military troop unit organization does not al-ways meet requirements in planning for highwaymovement; in preparing schedules, march graphs,and march tables; and in reporting the progress ofcolumns on the traveled route. The larger units aretoo unwieldy to be treated as a whole. Furthermore,there are so many kinds of units that it has beenfound desirable to set up a temporary organizationfor the purpose of regulating and controlling motormarches and convoys, which is sufficiently flexible tomeet the various conditions arising in connectionwith the planning of movements, and which permitsgrouping of elements under single designations de-lineating their respective march functions.

40. FUNDAMENTAL TERMS OF ORGANIZATION

a. Before march organization can be 'explained,certain terms and their relationships and distinctionsmust be understood.

(1) Mllarch. A march is the movement of troopsin a steady, regular manner; in a givenorder; and by their own means, whether onfoot, mounted, or in vehicles.

(2) March unit. A march unit is a unit whichmoves or halts at the order of a single com-mander.

(3) Column. A column is a formation in whichthe elements are arranged one behind theother. When the elements of a column con-sist solely of vehicles one behind the other

60

on the same route they are often termed a'"motor colulil."

(4) Mar~ch coluwmn. A march column consistsof all elements using the same route for asingle movement of troops.

(5) Serial. A serial is an element, or group ofelements, within a series which is given anumerical or alphabetical designation forconvenience in plannming, scheduling or con-trol of movements by land, water or air.

b. These terms are variously employed in definingthe manner in which movemlents are formed. Forexample, in tactical troop movements, the marchmay consist of elements of one organization usingmany different routes and subdivided into serials andmarch units. On the other hand, in highway regiu-lation all elements moving over specific routes maybe designated as serials in accordance with theirscheduled passing times over the routes.

41. THE MARCH UNIT

a. A march unit operates under a unit commanderwho can control it directly by voice or signal. Acompany may operate as a march unlit, and in sometactical movements, the march unlit may be as largeas a battalion; but in many movements-such astruck unit hauls-the march unit is normally of pla-toon section, or smaller size.

b. Unless the tactical situation makes it unwise,march units should have similar march character-istics throughout. For example, it is obvious thatfoot elements and motor elements should not nor-mally be included in the same march unit. The

61

placing of vehicles of different characteristics anddifferent efficient speeds in the same march unitshould be avoided when practicable.

42. THE MARCH COLUMN

a. A march columnn usually consists of a troop unit(company, battalion, combat team, etc.) or a tem-porary organization of march uiits for a single pur-l/ose or mission. Tlhe march column should consist.so far as practicable, of elements capable of main-taining the same rate of march. Unlike the marchunit, march colunull may consist of complementaryrather than similar elements. For example, the tac-tical march column should be a team organization ofthe various march units necessary to accomplish acombat mission.

b. In administrative movements, primary con-siderations in the arrangement of the motor columnare ease of march control, distribution of supplies,and the comfort and convenience of troops.

43. THE SERIAL

a. A serial may consist of any element such as amarch unit or colunl, or any part or combinationthereof, which is given a temporary numerical, alpha-betical, or other designation and treated as a unitfor convenience in preparing march graphs, marchtables, and schedules or orders, and in reporting theprogress of the march.

b. So far as possible, serials should consist of ele-ments having the same rate of march so as to simplifythe scheduling and reporting of the movement.

62

There are three methods of serialization which maybe used advantageously either singly or in ciombina-tion under different circumstances.

(1) Organizational serials. Organizationalserials conform generally to the troop or-ganization. This system has the advantageof ready unit identification and easy re-meminbrance.

(a) The march column of a company could beserialized by platoons, sections, or squads.

(b) The march columln of anl infantry divi-sion organized for tactical movement maybe serialized by combat teams and trains.

(2) Timne sequence serials. Time sequenceserials conform generally to the schedule ofunits past a point as shown on a marchgraph or table. The system gives definiteinformation regarding the sequence of themarch.

(a) It may be used by the tactical troop com-mander in planning. For example:

Clear-Arrival ance

time timeSeriall. Foottroops,31st 2312 0006

Inf Div.Serial 2. Motor elements, 0052 0110

31st Inf Div.Serial 3. Div trains, 31st 0125 0155

Inf Div.

(6) In scheduling successive movements ofmixed elements over a dispatch route, timesequence serialization is used by the high-

63

way regulation'office. An example mightbe:

Clear-Arrival ance

time time

Serial 1. Ist platoon, 0620 0630345th Trk Co.

Serial 2. 125th Artillery 0646 0702Battalion.

Serial 3. Foot elements, 0723 090131st Inf.

(3) Route desigrvation setals. Route designa-tion serials are determined by the routes tobe taken. This system can usually be usedin conjunction with one of the above.

(a) For example, the commander of a tacti-cal unit in platling a march of his corn-mand over various routes may fix the se-rial designation by route each element isto take.Serial 1 (A). Foot troops, 31st Inf.

Route A.Serial 2 (B). Motor elements, 31st Inf.

Route B.Serial 3 (A). 31st Div, trains, hq units.

Route A.(b) Another example of route designation is

found in the case of highway regulationpersonnel regulating movements over dif-ferent dispatch routes of a highlway net-work, as follows:Serial A-I. Route A. Truck Platoon,

345th Truck Company.

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Serial A-2. Route A. 125th ArtilleryBattalion.

Serial A-3. Route A. Foot elements, 31stInf.

Serial B-1. Route B. 345th Truck Com-pany (less one truck platoon).

c. The method for using serial designations in con-nection with the preparing of march graphs and ta-bles is covered in paragraph 62.

Section III. ELEMENTS OF MOTOR COLUMNS

44. THE MAIN COLUMN

a. Every motor column is made up of three inter-nal parts: a head, a main body, and a trail. In thecase of a small column, including small march unitswithin a column, the functions of the three partsmay be combined, but are nevertheless present. Forexample, a convoy may be as small as two vehiclesmoving together under one commander. In suchsmall movements, both vehicles are usually task ve-hicles carrying loads and constitute the main body,but the first vehicle driver or commander performsthe fmlctions of the head, and the second vehicledriver or commander, those of the trail.

(1) The head. The first element of the columnin order of march or advance is the head.The column commander or his representa-tive controls from the head.

(2) The main body. The principal element ofthe column is the main body. In a motorcolumn it consists of all vehicles exclusiveof the column head, trail and control ve-

65

hicles consisting primarily of the task ve-hicles carrying the bulk of the cargo ortroops within the column.

(3) The trail. The last element of the columnis the trail. It consists of aid, maiintenanceand trail control vehicles.

(4) Detached parties (advance and follow-vp).Though detached parties are not a part ofthe main column and operate apart from it,they are detailed to meet special duties suchas quartering or reconnaissance (pars. 90and 91). These parties are provided onlywhen the situation requires them. In sometactical situations, advance, flank, or rearguards may be required.

b. The simplest type of column will consist of onlya head, main body, and trail with the functions ofadvance parties and follow-up parties falling to thehead and trail respectively; whereas, in large andmore complex columns, the main body !nmay be brokendown into smaller elements containing their ownhead, main body, and trail fulnctions, and the de-tached parties may be grouped for performing sepa-rate and distinct functions.

c. The commander of a motor column should befree to go wherever he may be required to supervisethe proper movement of his unit, but le should havesupervisory officer and/or noncommissioned officerpersonnel so located within the collmn as to bestassist him in march control.

(1) Command. Command may be located any-where.

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(2) Control. Control extends throughout thecolumn, including every officer and noncom-missioned officer.

45. THE HEAD

A lead vehicle will contain the commander or anofficer or noncommissioned officer who represents thecommander of the marching unit for the purpose ofmeeting such problems as occur at the head of thecolumn-for example, correctly following the pre-scribed route, checking in at scheduled points, re-ceiving any orders or changes in orders, and issuingsuch instructions as may be required. A lead vehicleshould also contain a pace setter who sets the speedof the column so as to assure conformity with pre-scribed rates of march. The pace setter normallyrides in the slowest vehicle in the column. He mayride in a vehicle which is not the slowest, but in suchcase he sets the pace according to that of the slowestvehicle.

46. THE MAIN BODY

The main body is that portion of the column in-tended to perform the basic mission of the unit. Itincludes the bulk of the task vehicles, that is, thosevehicles actually carrying or intended to carry troopsor supplies. In large movements the main body maybe subdivided into two or more march units, eachhaving its own organization of head, main body, andtrail and moving under the orders of a subordinatecommander.

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47. THE TRAIL

The last vehicle, or vehicles, of the mali columncontains one or more officers or noncommissioned offi-cers who represent the commlander of the marchingunit for the purpose of meeting such problems asoccur at the trail of the column; for example, pre-vention of straggling, maintenance of discipline,checking final clearance of the columnl with scheduledpoints, march maintenance, medical aid, and variousother functions. The trail officer is in a position toobserve anything that has gone wrong with the col-umn and to take such action as may be required.

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CHAPTER 4

MARCH PLANNING AND PLANNING AIDS

Section I. RECONNAISSANCE AND PLANNING

48. RECONNAISSANCE

a. Reconnaissance is a directed effort for usefulinformation in the field. Reconnaissance is charac-terized by the type of information sought, as in en-gineer reconnaissance, and by the method of seekingit, as in photographic or air reconnaissance.

b. Reconnaissance in connection with motor move-ments is undertaken for the purpose of gatheringinformation on which to base plans or, during thecourse of movements, to assure their safe and suc-cessful completion. Reconnaissance is always re-quired before planning a march but in many caseswill have been accomplished by others and need notbe done by personnel of the marching unit. Basicinformation on which to plan a march is usuallyavailable from maps, prior knowledge, and infor-mation furnished. In the zone of interior, in thecommunications zone, and often in the rear areasof the combat zone, routes will be found to be well-signed and traffic personnel will be available to givedirections and other information regarding the routeand conditions to be encountered thereon, but eventhen limited personal reconnaissance may be desir-able.

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49. PLANNING

a. Every motor march and convoy should be or-ganized along a previously prepared plan. In somecases, such a plan may merely tell where to go, whatvehicles to use, the route to take, and when to start.Such simple plans may require only a moment'sthought and an oral order. In other cases, extendedstudy and detailed written orders from differentechelons of command are necessary to assure anefficient movement. In every case the planningshould be limited to that needed for efficient accom-plishlnent of the inission. Overplaluing and over-simplification of plans should be avoided.

6. When highway movements are regulated, thecoordination and most of the phlanning are per-formed by the appropriate staff. In such eases,planning by convoy and march unit commanders isnormally confined to that necessary to assure thatthe unit complies with orders issued and that itmarches in an orderly, systematic manner under theinstructions received.

c. However, if a unit is given an order to moveand a plan has not been furnished by higher com-mand, details as to the mnove nust be worked out bythe unit command. When there is any possibilityof producing serious conflicts with other traffic, or,ganization commanders making a march on theirown initiative should give advance notice of timeof movement and routes to be used in order to obtainproper authority.

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50. PLANNING AIDS

a. An adequate background for plans for marchesand convoys requires a knowledge of appropriate in-telligence, maps, and symbols; the preparation anduse of march graphs; the recording on march tables,of appropriate data as required, all of which mustresult in the promulgation of clear, concise, and com-plete orders.

b. The march graph is an important aid in pre-planning and to recording marches in progress. Itis explained in detail in pararaphs .57-63 and ap-plied to various types of marches throughout themanual].

51. PRELIMINARY MARCH DATA

a. The march planner, having certain basic data,may determine by simple arithmetic additional in-formation which he may desire in regard to a move-ment.

b. Normally, the planner will know the numberand types of vehicles in the column; from whereto where the convoy must travel; and when it shouldarrive. He can determine from his map the numberof miles it must travel, and from his schedule thenumber of hours it should require. By dividing milesby hours he can determine the rate of march vehiclesmust maintain to meet the schedule. If he knowssomething of the road conditions and the skill of hisdrivers he can make a reasonable estimate as to safedriving distances, the positions vehicles shouldmaintain within the column, and how his marchunits will be formed.

71

c. However, march conditions vary, and the in-formation available and that which the planner mustdetermine will also vary. The planner should, firstof all, list the available information, for example:

(1) What? The task or mission to be accom-plished.

(2) Wlhere? From where to where the move-menit must be made.

(3) When? By when the task or mission mustbe completed.

(4) How? The equipment that will be re-quired.

d. The commander of a small march unit mightanswer the above questions as in the following ex-ample:

(1) What? To move a platoon to a new station.(2) Where? From point A to point B.(3) When? To arrive at B before 1800 hours

this date.(4) How? In 3 trucks organized in convoy for-

mation.e. In such a small movement very little additional

information may be needed anld, even if required,factors are easily derived by asking, for example:

(1) How soon? Immediately. It is now 1300hours.

(2) How far? Point B is 100 miles away.(Road distance.)

(3) How long? By 1800 hours gives the unit 5hours to complete the movement. (Timedistance.)

(4) How fast? The convoy must maintain anaverage of 20 miles per hour in order to

72

complete the move within the prescribedtime. (Rate of march.)

f. The larger and more complex the movement themore complete and detailed must be the planning.If the movement is scheduled over a dispatch route,exact data as to road space allocated, the time spaceallowed, and the other factors of lead, gap, length,in both time and space may be required to be known.The rate of movement necessary to meet the point bypoint schedule, within the limitations of the otherfactors, and as limiting them, must be determined.For example, the plannle may begin by asking thefollowing questions:

(1) In regard to the .migsion.(a) What is the tactical or administrative

purpose of the march?(b) What special measures or arrangements

are necessary to assure the accomplish-ment of the mission or task ?

(c) What is the load the movement musttransport either in troops or cargo orboth ?

(2) In regard to the march or'mation.(a) How mallny vehicles or units, and of what

types, will be needed ?(b) How should they be dispatched or

grouped for movement? What should betheir relative positions in the column,their spacings both in time and distance.

(c) How fast can the move be accomplishedafter consideration of maximum allowablespeeds of vehicles and their average run-

73

ning times? How will this rate of m'ove-ment affect the march organization?

(3) In regard to the route to be traveled.(a) Where will the convoy load; where will

it assemble; what will be the exact routeit should follow; and to where should itmove and, if necessary, disperse? Howfar must the convoy move to its ultimatedestination ?

(b) When should the march begin and whenshould each subordinate element enter theroute and pass each important point onthe route in order to arrive at the pre-scribed time? How often will halts haveto be made anld what effect will they haveon the rate of march.

(c) How will traffic or roadway conditionspossibly affect or alter the plans while themarch is in progress?

g. Normally, the march planner will have or besupplied information with which to answer suchquestions. March formulas are the means by whichlihe applies the known data to secure other informa:tion. However, march formulas are only 6ne aid tothe march planner in evaluating his mission and ingathering informnation which the commander maydesire in regard to the march. They should be usedtogether with march graphs and other aids suggestedherein.

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Section II. RATE, TIME, AND DISTANCE FACTORS

52. TIME AND DISTANCE FACTORS IN MOVEMENT(fig. 10)

a. Before movements can be effectively plannedand executed, commanders must understand time anddistance factors and their relationship to each other.

b. The relationship between distance (space) andtime is the basis for all march plannlillg. Examplesof corresponding factors are as follows:

(1) Those pertaining generally to elementswithin columns:

Length Time lengthGap (distance) Time gap (time interval)Lead Time lead (headway)

(2) Those pertaining generally to the columnon the route:

Road space Time spaceRoad distance Time distanceRoad clearance Road clearance time

distance

53. DISTANCE FACTORS

The distance factors of a march are usually ex-pressed in miles, yards or feet.

a. The length of any column or element of a col-umn is the length of roadway which it occupies,measured from front to rear inclusive.

b. Road space is the total length of roadway oc-cupied by a column, or element thereof plus anyspace in addition to the length, which may be re-quired as safety factor or to maintain flexibility.

238658'-53-- 75

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This extra distance allows for a safety factor andfor mobility in planning marches. For example, acolumn of three serials, each 1 mile in length, withone-half mile gaps between serials, and a one-halfmile gap to the next column would have a length of4 miles but a road space of 41/2 miles.

c. Gap is a term used to designate distance betweensuccessive vehicles or elements in a column or be-tween successive columns as measured from the rearof one element to the front of the following element.

d. Lead in highway operations is the linear spac-ing between the heads of elements in a column or be-tween successive heads of successive vehicles, serials,march units or columns.

e. Road distance is the distance from point to pointby road, usually expressed in miles.

/. Road clearance distance is the total distance thehead of a column must travel for the entire columnto clear a given section of a road.

54. TIME FACTORS

a. Time factors are used to clock the relative posi-tions and passage of elements of a march and are ex-pressed in seconds, minutes, or hours.

b. It is easier to understand and appreciate thevalue of time factors if it is kept in mind that eachis related to a corresponding factor of distance.

(1) Time length is the time required for a col-umn, or element thereof, to pass a givenpoint.

(2) Time gap is the period of time measuredfrom rear to front between successive ve-hicles or elements as they move past any

77

given point. This time is measured from theinstant the rear of one unit clears the pointto the instant the front of the next unitreaches it.

(3) Time lead (headway) is the period of timebetween individual vehicles or elements ina march measured from head to head asthey pass a given point.

(4) Time distance is the time required to movefrom one point to another at a given rateof speed.

(5) Time space is the time consumed by a col-uimn, or element thereof, while proceedingpast any point en route. It includes thetime gaps between subordinate elements andadditional time necessary for safety and tomaintain flexibility.

(6) Road clearance time is the total time a col-umn or element thereof requires to travelover and clear a section of road. It isusually clocked between the time at whichthe head of a column enters a given stretchof road and the time at which the tail of thecolumn clears that stretch. Road clearancetime equals time distance plus the timelength of the column; and is the road clear-ance distance of a moving element expressedin minutes or hours.

55. RATE OF MOVEMENT

a. Movement is measured by a ratio of distance andtime generally expressed as miles per hour.

78

b. Often no exact distinction is made betweenterms expressing rate of movement; however, thefollowing distinctions are helpful to march planners:

(1) Speed is the actual rate at which a velhicle,or vehicles, is moving at a given time, nor-mally expressed in miles per hour accordingto the speedometer reading.

(2) Pace is the regulated speed of a column orelement as set by a lead vehicle (the pacesetter). It undergoes constant adjustmentsdue to terrain and road conditions as dif-ferent sections of road are passed over.

(3) Rate of march is the average number ofmiles traveled in any given period of time,including short periodic halts and othershort delays. This rate is expressed as milesin the hour.

c. An example of how these speed factors differis illustrated thus:

(1) A convoy is traveling at a maximum speedof 40 miles per'hour.

(2) Its pace is adjusted by the pace setter be-tween 20 and 40 miles per [tour for ah aver-age pace of 30 miles per hour.

(3) During the first 5 hours of travel, it makesshort halts totaling 1 hour, which reducesits rate of march for the entire trip to 24miles in the hour.

56. BASIC MARCH FORMULAS

a. General. There are three basic march factors:distance (D) rate (R), and time (T). When twoof the three factors are known, the third can be found

79

by simple hrithmetical equation expressed by theformulas:

(1) D (rate equals distance divided by(1) 1R=T time).

T D (time equals distance divided by(2) T=R rate).

(3) D=R x T (distance equals rate multipliedby time).

Any of the distance factors length, gap, lead, orroad distance-may be substituted in the equation ifthe corresponding time factors are also substituted.Corresponding Uleits of measure must be usedthroughout.

b. Determining Rate Factors. Examples:(1) Rate (yards per minute) length (yards)

-time length (minutes).(2) Rate (miles per hour)=road distance

(miles) -time distance (hours).c. Determnining Time Factors. Examples:

(1) Time length (minutes) =length (yards)-rate (yards per minute).

(2) Time lead (minutes)=lead (yards) rate(yards per minute).

(3) Time space (hours) =road space (miles)rate (miles per hourn).

(4) Time distance (hours)=road distance(miles) -rate (miles in the hour ).

d. Determining Distance Factors. Examples:(1) Gap (yards)=rate (yards per minute)

x time gap (minutes).(2) Lead (yards)=rate (yards per minute)

X time lead (minutes).

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(3) Distance (miles) =rate (miles in the hourXtime distance (hours).

e. Conversions. Factors may be converted intoothers of the same class (distance, rate or time) byarithmetic.

(1) Length+gap=lead.(2) Time length+time gap=time lead.(3) Distance (miles) x1760=distance (yards).(4) Time (hours) x60=time (minutes).(5) Rate (miles in the hour)X30=approxi-

mate rate (yards per minute.)f. Formulas Containing Conversions. Examples:

(1) Time length length (miles) X 60(minutes) rate (miles in the hour)

(2) Rate (yards distance (miles) x30per minute) - time distance (hours)

Section III. THE MARCH GRAPH

57. DEFINITION AND USE

a. A march graph is: a time-spadce diagram usedin planning, and controlling both foot and roadmarches, and inlpreparilng or checking march tables.

b. The march graph affords an easily used devicefor visual presentation of movement so that conflictsand discrepancies may be prevented in the planningstage before congestion occurs on the route.

58. APPLICATION

AMarch graphs may be applied to an individualvehicle, to a small unit, to movement of a singlecolumn, or to a large organization scheduling sep-

al

arate elements, moving by various means, with dif-ferent rates of march, over one or different routes.In the operational stage, march graphs are usefulin recording the progress of serials to determinewhat action may be necessary if diversion is orderedor to avoid conflicts if schedules are not maintained.

59. MAKING A MARCH GRAPH

The following preliminary steps are included inthe preparation of a march graph:

a. First Step. Analyze the route on the map.Note important points such as cities, towns, roadjunctions, bottlenecks, etc. to be passed through, andindicate the distances between major points alongthe route (fig. 11).

b. Second Step. Select graph paper with a suffi-cient number of squares to plot distance and timeinvolved. Across bottom, left to right, place scaleof time. Up left side, from bottom to top, placescale of distance (fig. 12).

c. Third Step. Project route on graph. Namesof towns, intersections, highway regulating points,and traffic control posts are plotted at proper dis-tances along distance scale. This may be in theform of a diagrammatic strip map (fig. 12).

60. INDICATING THE MOVEMENT

a. Schedule of the Head of the Columot. If theorigin and destination, rate of march, and time of de-parture of a movement are known, the head of thecolumn may be scheduled as follows:

82

MT. AVERY

DUNDALK

MC LEAN

TAVISTOCK

JACKSON HTS

I.STEVENS

MT. ROYAL

SCALE

ROLAND

Figutre 11: The route.

(1) Assume that a unit is to march from MoulntRoyal (at 25 miles on.the vertical scale)leaving at 0700 hours and proceeding at therate of march of 15 miles in the hour to apoint 5 miles beyond Tavistock (at the 85-mile mark on the vertical scale). The dis-tance is 60 miles (85 minus 25). At 15 milesin the hour, it will require 4 hours to coverthe 60 miles (fig. 12).

83

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84

(2) A dot is placed at the point where the linerepresenting the place of departure (MountRoyal at 25 miles on the vertical scale) in-tersects the line representing the hour ofdeparture (0700 hours on horizontal scale).

(3) A second dot is placed at the point wherethe line representing the destination (5miles past Tavistock at the 85-mile markon the vertical scale) intersects that of thehour of scheduled arrival of the head ofthe column at destination (1100 hours onthe horizontal scale or 0700 plus 4 hours) .

(4) A straight line connecting these two pointsshows the schedule on which the head of thecolumn should reach any point en route.

b. Time the Column A[utst qStart. If it is desiredto determine what time the column must start to com-plete a movement and arrive at the destination at acertain hour, the above procedure is reversed.

c. Schedule of the Tail of the Column. Unlessthe unit is very small, it is usually desirable to showthe schedule of the tail of the column as well as thehead. After charting the schedule of the head, thetail may be scheduled if the time length of the col-umn is known or computed (fig. 13). Assuming thatthe time length of the colllmn is thirty minutes; aline drawn from the point representing the clear-ance of the column at origin (0730 hours) and at thedestination (1130 hours) will show the schedule ofthe tail of the colllhll past all points en route.

85

61. ANALYSIS OF THE GRAPH(fig. 13.)

Length, time length, rate of march, and other fac-tors are clearly indicated on the completed graphand may be deternined as follows:

a. Length of the Colunult1. A vertical line con-necting the head and tail lines, measured by the scaleof miles, will show the planned length of the columnon the road at the prescribed rate of nmarch at allyhour during the movement. For example, whell thehead of the columln is at Stevens (45 miles on the ver-tical scale), the tail will be approximately at the3S-mile mark.

b. Time Length. A horizontal line connecting thehead and tail lines, measured by the scale of hours,will show the planned time length of the columna asit passes any point on the road. For example, if thehead of the column arrives at 'avistock at 1040hours, the tail will not clear that point until half anhour later at 1110 hours.

c. Rate of MJarch. The diagonal line of the graphindicates the rate of march of the movement. Forexample, the distance (mile scale) between the inter-section of the diagonal line with any two verticallines (time scale) indicates the miles per that hour(15 miles il the hour on the illustration).

d. Other Factors. Road distance, time distance,etc., may also be deduced from the graph. Examplesare shown in figure 13.

62. MULTIPLE MOVEMENTS ON A GRAPH

a. A number of serials or colunns over the sameroute can be scheduled by use of a march graph. This

86

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87

is particularly useful in scheduling successive ele-ments of a command or in planning and recordingthe progress of many movements over a heavilytraveled route. It helps prevent conflicts and delayand assists in altering schedules to realize new prior-ities or to meet changes in the tactical situation.

b. Figure 14 shows a number of serials of differentcompositions, speed, and size starting from variouspoints and with various destinations. The sched-uling of a number of movements over the same routewithin a definite limit of time requires careful plan-ning and strict adherence to the prescribed scheduleby movements in progress. A reasonable margin ofsafety between serials should be allowed to compen-sate for minor failures to adhere to schedules. Thus,in figure 14, serials A, B, C, D 1, D-2, D-3, E, anda lateral movement have been scheduled so that noconflicts will arise if the movements are made asplanned.

c. The commander of a large unit or the highwayregulation officer concerned can keel) accurate recordof the whereabouts of each serial by having informa-tion telephoned, teletyped, or telegraphed as eachserial reaches or clears highway regulation points es-tablished along the route of march. As the informa-tion is received, the progress of serials on schedulemay be indicated by filling in the space between thelines representing the scheduled head and tail of eachcolumn with color, tape, or in various other ways.Deviations from schedule may be indicated by similarmeans. This enables the headquarters concerned tosee at a glance the location of each serial, to followthe progress of each movement, to correct situations

88

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89

which may cause congestion and delay, and to knowwhere each serial can be reached in order to issue neworders if the situation demands.

d. Colored pencils, crayons, ink, or adhesive tapesmay be used for indicating various schedules, therelative priority of movements, or in plotting move-ments in progress. For example, the head and tailschedule may be outlined by black lines, progress ofeach serial may be filled in with green, and failuresto adhere to the schedule may be shown in red. Whena conflict is indicated, decision can be made as to theaction to be taken-for example, to pull an off-sched-ule serial off the road so that it will not upset theentire schedule for the route or, if priorities or thetactical situation so require, to revise the entireschedule.

e. Figure 15 shows the plotted progress of serialsscheduled in figure 14. Note that a number ofchanges and adjustments iaI schedules had to bemade. This is what happened:

(1) SerialA. Went through as scheduled.(2) Serial B. Change in orders required that

serial B continue on to Dundalk. It con-tinued on schedule and the head of thecolumn arrived at its new destination atnoon.

(3) Lateral Movement. Due to clhange oforders for serial B, arrangements had to bemade to hold the lateral movement at Mc-Lean. It made its noon halt and crossed theroute 3 hours behind its original scheduleand did not clear until 1830.

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(4) Serial 0. At 1200 it became obvious thatif serial C continued on schedule, it wouldconflict with the delayed lateral movementat about 1730. Serial C had also lost itspriority because of arrival of serial B atDundalk with critically needed supplies.Therefore. serial C was halted for 2 hours(1200 to 1400). It continued at a slowerrate of march until 1700 when it was haltedagain to let serial D pass.

(5) Serial DP (D-1. D-2. D-3). All elementswent ithrough on schedule.

(6) Serial E. Foot colhnm completed its marchaccording to schedule.

f. In the above examples it has been possible tomake adjustments on the graph as they became nec-essary. If more extensive changes had been re-quired necessitating an entirely new schedule, a newmarch graph would have been prepared.

63. ADDITIONAL USES OF MARCH GRAPHS

March graphs have many uses in analvzing, re-cording, and studying vehicular and other trafficover routes. They lmay be devised to indicate:

a. Position of various mixed traffic on a route ata particular time.

b. Scheduled passing of various elements of trafficat a particular point.

c. Conflicts between various elements of trafficsuch as occur at junctions, intersections and at bot-tlenecks such as bridges and defiles.

92

d. Deviations of columns from prescribed sched-ule, making it possible to anticipate conflicts beforethey occur.

e. Reversing directions of march either by simul-taneous turn of all elements of a column or by cir-cling about.

f. Two way traffic over ea route and alternatingtraffic through defiles.

g. Variations in actual runnling speeds and in thetraffic flow and traffic density of a route.

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CHAPTER 5

MARCH PRINCIPLES AND METHODS

Section I. MECHANICS OF COLUMN MOVEMENT

64. GENERAL

a. Alake-up of Colnm'ns. March units should besmall enough to assure adequate march control. Amarch column should be composed of vehicles withsimilar march characteristics, even if this requiresthe temporary separation of a ulit into two or morecolumns. However, this may not always be prac-tical as tactical considerations may demand that acolumn be arranged so as to be ready to fight, andtherefore be composed of vehicles of widely differentmarchl characteristics. Even in a uliformly consti-tuted colunn, there will be variations in performanceability of vehicles due to meclhanlical differences.Hence, it is usually desirable to place the slowestvehicle at the head of the column as the pace setter.

b. Speed and Length Vatriance iVit]in Col~umns.Theoretically, it is possible for the vehicles in anentire motor column to move simultaneously at thesame speed and to maintain exact positions in rela-tion to the rest of the columln. Practically, however,a colmun of any size will cover simultaneously manydiverse stretches of terrain; hills, sharp curves, dust,and varying road surfaces will have their effect. Theresult is that different parts of a large column, re-gardless of traffic conditions and vehicle perform-

94

ance characteristics, move at different speeds and atdifferent distances from each other. This producesaccordion-like action, and on a long hill or a badstretch of road, serious difficulties may result if thisaction is not controlled. On the approach side ofthe slow stretch, vehicles will tend to close up suc-cessively as the headl is retarded in speed. On thefar side, as the lead vehicles regain speed, the otherswill tend to spread out successively causing the col-umn to become elongated. This means that-

(1) As speed of the head of a column decreases,intervehicular gap (and lead) tends to con-tract.

(2) As speed of the head of a column increases,intervehicular gap (and lead) tends to ex-panid.

c. Solution to the Problem of Column Movementat Varying Speeds. In actual practice during themovement of a column some flexibility (accordionaction) is unavoidable and desirable. It is an addedsafety feature to have vehicles maintain greater gapsat higher speeds and to adjust their speeds and gapsas they pass over various sections of road. The idealtype of columni movement is such as to permit eachvehicle to pass over any given stretch of road at thesame speed as the pace setting car passed over it.This ideal can be approached by varying intervehicu-lar gaps or leads so as to produce constant time leads(headways) throughout the collunn and constantcolumn time length at all speeds.

(1) Gaps and speed should be related so that asspeed iucreases or decreases a correspondingincrease or decrease in gap (or lead) will

95

result in relatively constant intervehiculartime lead.

(2) Constant time lead throughout a march re-sults in constant time lengths which arenecessary to assure that if the head of acolumn is on schedule at any point its tailwill clear that point at the scheduled time.

65. COMPARISON OF METHODS

a. Various Nethods. Speed and space variancewithin columns should be controlled to the extentthat will assure maximum flexibility and safety, andminimum chance of interference between vehicles anddisruption of the column. Depending on the type ofmnarch and the degree of control desired. columnsmay be conducted according to one of the followingmethods:

(1) The governed method, in which speed andspacing are constantly adjusted to meetchanging road and traffic conditions.

(2) The casual method, in which, su!bject toproper limitations, speed and space varianceis left much to the discretion of the driver.

(3) The fixed method, in which an attempt ismade to maintain the same distances regard-less of variations in speed.

b. Governed Method. If the gaps between vehi-cles are governed in a manner that will allow forgradual "closing" on a slow or uphill stretch and forgradual "opening" on a fast or downhill stretch, theaccordion action can be regulated to an advantage.This is accomplished by maintaining relatively con-

96

stant intervehicular time leads (headways). Thenearer the approach to constant headways through-out the column, the nearer will be the approach tothe ideal type of column novement. Time lengthwill remain the same throughoult the movement andschedules can be better met by all elements of thecohuimn. In general there are two difflerent methodsof maintainiing constant headways:

(1) Fleaeible lead. In this method the gap (andconsequently lead) between vehicles is madeto vary in proportion to the speed of thevehicles. It is often termed the "speedom-eter multiplier" method. The commoln wiayof appllying it is to note the speedometerreading, multiply it by a designated nlim-ber (2, 3, or 4), and then take the result asthe mlllnber of yards gap to be mauintained.It may also be applied as the "vehiclelength" mithod in which the driver is sim-ply told-

"At 10 mph follow at 3 truck lengths,"At 20 mph follow at 6 truck lengths,"At 30 mph follow at 9 truck lengths,

etc." (Which is approximately thesame as SMA 3.)

Due to drivers' errors in estimating dis-tances, speedometer multiplier and vehiclelength methods are subject to inaccuracies.To make it easier for the driver these meth-ods are normally used to determine gaprather than lead. For plannilng purposesthese methods may be used to determine leadrather than gap.

97

(2) Constant time lead. Another method is toestimate and maintain time lead (headway)directly instead of estimating gaps basedon speed. In this method time lead is com-puted by reckoning the period of time re-quired for a vehicle to occupy the positionjust vacated by the preceding vehicle. It isnormally accomplished by a cadence countusing a telephone pole or some other com-mon road object as the mark on which tobase the position of successive vehicles mak-ing the count. It relates time lead (head-way) directly to lead and is perhaps themore advantageous method when drivershave been properly trained to apply it.

e. Casual Method. In the casual or "follow me"method, good drivers, practiced in other methods ofcolumn marchingg, are able to judge the speed andspacing of their vehicles necessary to keep a smallcolumn intact. Under such conditions the casualmethod becomes, in effect, a governed colmn. How-ever, if the column is large, the road conditions vari-able, or the drivers lacking in experience, this methodis inadequate and may lead to serious disruption ofthe column. T'he aim of training should be to teachdiqvers to so apply the goverened methods that theyneed not apply themn in normal operations, and maythus operate casually qwith the same natural resultsof governed methods.

d. Fixed llethod.(1) If fixed intervehicular leads or gaps are

maintained by a column, it causes vehiclesto operate at reduced speed when it is un-

98

necessary to do so, and an abnormal flowover various sections of road results. Assoon as the first vehicle begins to ascend ahill or hits any slow stretch and must reducespeed, every other vehicle in the column,although not yet having reached the slowstretch, must simultaneously reduce itsspeed to that of the first vehicle. The slowmovement must continue throughout thecohlumn until every vehicle has completed itsascent of the hill or passed through the slowstretch. When the first vehicle has clearedthe slow stretch, and could otherwise pro-ceed at tile normall fast speed, it must con-tinue at the reduced speed until the lastvehicle of the colllmn has cleared tile slowstretch in order not to extend the fixeddistances.

(2) The latter is difficult because in a long col-umni it is often impossible for the officerin the head vehicle to know when the tailvehicle has cleared the slow stretch. It isobvious that the effect varies in relation tothe size of the column. In the case of a verysmall collumn the effect is negligible. In alarge column it nmay be serious.

(3) In a fixed column vehicles are forced todrive at abnormally slow speeds over goodstretches of road for a distance equal toapproximately twice the length of the col-umn every time a'slow stretch is encoun-tered, that is, once as soon as the head ve-hicle hits the slow stretch, and again from

99

the time that the head vehicle clears theslow stretch until the last vehicle has clearedit.

(4) The length of an exact fixed column remainsconstant but the time length varies each timethe speed is changed. This is especiallytroublesome in long columns running on setschedules, and is usually undesirable exceptfor short marches over good routes and forparade formations.

66. THE SPEEDOMETER MULTIPLIER ISM)

a. The commnon method for giving drivers a prac-tical means of maintaining approximately constanttime gaps (and therefore approximately constanttime leads) at all speeds, is the use of the speedometermultiplier. The speedometer multiplier is any num-ber by which the speedometer reading in miles perhour is multiplied to determine distance in yards be-tween vehicles. It should be realized that, while theuse of a speedometer multiplier may be rather com-plex, the driver need only be able to multiply hisspeed by a small nlmber and estimate the distancein yards with reasonable accuracy.

b. AMarch commanders shllold understand how theuse of tile speedometer multiplier affects their marchcolumn and how, wlhen used, the speedometer multi-plier must be considered in computing march data.

c. MIarch unit commanders may apply the speed-ometer multiplier principle through control of thegap between vehicles by signals. As the lead vehiclereaches a slow stretch, the pace setter signals the newgap to the second vehicle, and as each succeedingt100oo

vehicle reaches the slow stretch, it relays the newgap to the vehicle behind it. Similarly, as eachvehicle reaches the place where speed can be re-sumed, the increased gap is relayed to the followingvehicle.

d. Figure 16 shows the effect of a slow stretch ofroad on a small governed coluinn.

320 - - --- -

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360 II

20 -

30240 //

60

10 …o

0 z Io 4 e 18 6 20 28 32 36 0 6 2a 6 60

Figaure IC. Effect of a slow WretcA o ( a goverl'ed columltn(speedometer mlultiplier, 2).

101

(1) A convoy consistilg of three trucks-A, B,and C- is proceeding along a route usinga speelometer lulltipler of 2.

(2) Between points I and 2, the three trucksproceed at 15 yards per second (or approxi-mately 30 miles per hour) with gaps of O60yards.

(3) At point 2, truck A arrives at a hill or slowstretch uecessitatinog a speed of 10 miles perhour. Trucks B and C do not take up theslower speed until arriving at point 2.

(4) Each truck negotiated the slow stretch at 10miles per hlonlil' closing up to an intervelli-citlar gap of 20 yards. Althoulgh gaps areless, and the column length is less, at point3 the time length (8 seconds) and the timegap (4 seconds) are tile same as at point 1.

(5) At point 4. truck A arriving at a fast stretchresumes the 30 mile per hour speed. Whiletruck B is continuing on the slow stretch for4 additional seconds, truck A gains 40 yardsadditional gal) on tliruck B. Truck C is sili-larly affected (20 yards+40 yards-60yards. This is the correct gap with SMI 2(.30 x 2=0 yards).

(6) As indicated in figure 16, the approximatedelay due to the slow stretch of road was11 seconds.

(7) It must be realized that the above effectdoes not work out exactly in each case, aschange of speed is not instantaneous anddrivers' estimates of gap are not exact;

102

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an

160

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120

100

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60 / /

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20

0 _ 16 20z 36D Z4 _ _ 56 / 60Figure 17. Effect of a slou; stretch on a fired column (inter-

vehicular distance, 60 yjaids).

however, the accordion effect is controlledwithin practicable limits.

e. Figure 17 illustrates the effect of a slow stretchof road on a fixed column.

(1) A convoy consisting of three trucks-A, B,and C-is proceeding along the same route

103

as that shown in figure 16, but in lieu of aprescribed SM, the drivers of the trucks areto maintain fixed gaps of 60 yards.

(2) At point 1, each truck is traveling at 30miles per hour, with a time gap of 4 seconds.In 8 seconds, truck A has proceeded 120yards (on the vertical scale).

(3) At point 2, truck A arrives at a hill or slowstretch and assumes a speed of 10 miles perhour. Trucks B and C must take thisslower rate to maintain a 60-yard gap.

(4) The three trucks traveling at abnormallylong gaps for the reduced speed require 24seconds to pass point 3 as compared with8 seconds with SM 2 (fig. 16).

(5) Although truck A clears the slow stretchat point 4, to maintain the fixed 60-yard gapprescribed, it must continue at a speed of10 miles per hour until both B and C clearthe slow stretch.

(6) As illustrated in figure 17 the approximatedelay due to the slow stretch of road was 27seconds--more than twice the delay of a gov-erned column over the same stretch of road.This may not be an important factor in athree-truck convoy but is an extremely im-portant one in larger movements.

67. APPLICATION OF THE SPEEDOMETER MULTIPLIER

a. Determining the Speedometer Multiplier.(1) The selection of a specific speedometer mul-

tiplier for any particular stretch of roadway

104

will ordinarily require a compromise be-tween two conflicting requirements. It isoften desirabl]e to increase intervehiculargaps so as to avoid presenting a concen-trated target to enemy aerial attack or toassure driving gaps between vehicles whichwill not only minimize the probability ofrear end collision within the column butalso permit faster-moving vehicles to enterthe column while attempting to pass if an-other vehicle approaches from the oppositedirection on a two-lane highway. On theother hand, it is often desirable to providesmall intervehicular gaps in order to fa-cilitate column control, decrease road space,or increase traffic flow.

(2) In selecting the speedometer multiplier, itis well to decide the minimum gap desiredbetween vehicles. Since gap will vary di-rectly as to speed, the stretch of road atwhich the slowest speed will occur is theone which governs insofar as assumingproper dispersion of vehicles is concerned.

(3) On the other hand, to cut the road space ofthe column to a minimulm, the speedometermultiplier should be the smallest which willallow for safe driving. SM 1 would give 20yards distance at 20 miles per hour, whichcorresponds roughly to normal civilian driv-ing. However, though used under certainmilitary circumstances, SM I is not consid-ered safe for most marches. SM 2 is usuallyconsidered the most practical for close col-

105

umn formations. SM 2 would give 60 yardsgap at 30 miles per hour or 20 yards at 10miles per hour: either of these gaps isenough to permit an overtaking vehicle topull safely into the column in case traffic inthe opposite direction is encountered whileattempting to pass the column. It is oftenadvisable to prescribe a minimum gap be-yond which vehicles will not close at thehalt or while the column is proceeding veryslowly.

b. Effect ot Tl'ime Length.(1) Subject to error in application, the time

length of a column .using a speedometermultiplier remains constant, while in a fixedcolumn, it varies. For example. if a fixedcolumn going 30 miles per hour with a gapof 60 yards between vehicles slows down to15 miles p'er hour or half the original speetl,with the same 60 yards between vehicles.road space would remain constant, but itwould take twice as long for the column topass a given point. If. however, a governedcolumn were using SM 2 at 30 miles perhour the gap between vehicles would be 60yards and when the column slowed down to15 miles per hour or half the speed, the gapbetween vehicles would be 30 yards. Hence,the governed column while going at approximately half the speed would he roughlyonly half the length and would take the sametime to pass a given point as if it had main-tained its original speed.

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(2) The speedometer multiplier used must notproduce an intervehicular time gap greaterthan that required to maintain time lengthof columns within the limit prescribed byhigher authority or to take up more roadspace than is available under orders ofhigher authority. If it becomes necessaryor desirable to reduce the time length of acolumn while it is in motion, the columncommander can indicate a smaller speed-omneter multiplier. When this is done, thehead of the column should slow down untilthe tail of the columnl has been able to closeup sufficiently to comply with the smallerspeedometer multiplier. This time shouldbe approximately equal to the desired reduc-tion in time length.

68. USE OF THE VEHICLE LENGTH IN GOVERNINGCOLUMNS

a. The effectiveness of the speedometer mulltiplieris contingent upon the driver's estimate of distances.Unless drivers are properly trained in judging dis-tances and impressed with the importance of main-tailning proper gaps, the entire system becomes oflittle value. From the standpoint of driver applica-tion, the vehicle length may be used for estimating"sight" distances.

b. It is natural for a driver to think of distance interms of the length of the vehicle hie is operating orthe other vehicles he is accustomed to in normaltraffic. Every driver must be able to judge the spacehis vehicle requires in passing another or to let an-

23s,58'-s3--S 107

other pass or pull in ahead of him. He becomes anatural judge of vehicle length which he normally"sees" as roughly 10 yards. (The average militaryvehicle is actually only about 7 yards but in driving aspace allowance of a few yards. is made becausevehicles are in motion.) Therefore, a gap of 10yards may be termed one "vehicle length" and usedas a basis for the speedometer multiplier by relating"vehicle lengths" to every 10-mile-per-hour changein speed. This may be done in such a maimer as tosimplify driver training.

(1) With SM 1 and at 10 miles per hour, the gapbetween vehicles will be one "vehicle length."This is usually regarded as a "close forma-tion" and drivel instruction for maintain-ing this formation might be briefly asfollows: "We will march in close columnformation. Stay iot qzor'e than one 'vehiclelength' from the vehicle ahead of you forevery 10 miles per hour of your speed.When you increase. your speed to 20 milesper hour stay two 'vehicelelngths' ; 30 milesper hour, three 'vehicle lengths'; and soforth."

(2) With SM 2 and at 10 miles per hour, thegap between vehicles will be two "vehiclelengths." In the absence of factors requir-ilg otherwise, this is the "normal column"and driver instruction for maintaining thisformation might be briefly as follows: "Wewill march in normal colunn formation.Stay two 'vehicle lengths' from the vehicleahead for every 10 miles per hour of speed.

108

When you increase your speed to 20 milesper hour stay four 'vehicle lengths'; 30 milesper hour, six 'vehicle lengths'; and so forth."

(3) With SM 3 and at 10 miles per hour, thegap between vehicles will be three "vehiclelengths." This, and more extended col-urmns, will be referred to as the "open columnformation" and driver instruction for main-taining this formation should be briefly asfollows: "We xvill march in open coluhmnformation. Stay at least thriee .vehiclelengths' from the vehicle ahead for every10 miles per hour of your speed. Whenyou increase your speed to 20, stay six 'vehi-cles lengths'; 30, nine 'vehicle lelgths'; andso forth."

c. After drivers have become thoroughly accus-toined to maintaining a governed flexibility withincollumns, it may be possible to drop all references tospeedometer multiple methods. The various spac-ings for open, normal, and close colllmn may becomesecond nature to the extent that designating the typeof march may be all that is necessary as priorinstruction.

69. METHODS OF ESTIMATING DISTANCE

The vehicle length is one method of judging dis-tances while driving. Some troops, especially thoseskilled in marksmanship, are able to estimate yardsdirectly and need no additional training in depth per-ception. However, most drivers need practice injudging distances and should be taught the use ofaids by taking some known space, like the distance

109

between telephone poles or a certain number of pave-ment lines so as to observe how that distance appearsunder different conditions-at night, by day, at dusk,etc. This ability is an added safety measure whichwill help in many ways.

70. MAINTAINING TIME LEAD

a. One method of mainltainigll time lead is bycounting at the rate of sixty to the minute or one persecond, as "one thousand and one, one thousand andtwo, one thousand and three, etc." If the time leadbetween vehicles has been established as 4 secondsthis means that upon completion of the above count"one thousand and four" the driver's vehicle shouldbe at the position where the vehicle ahead was whenhe started countinlg. Each count would be approxi-mately equivalent to a second's time lead.

6. If drivers are properly trained to apply it, thismethod of estimating time lead directly will pro-vide more accurate results than the speedometermultiplier.

Section II. TYPES OF MARCHES

71. GENERAL

a. Military march organization does not implythat vehicles always move in column or convoy for-mation. In many instances such movement may beimpractical in that it may not allow adequate disper-sion in tactical employment or it may hamper othertraffic over a route.

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b. At the sanme time, individual dispatch may notprovide the degree of control or te unllit integritynecessary to carrlly out a military mission. There-fore, the type of marchl used is determined by the lo-cal situation, and decision as to the method used mustbe made by the commander.

c. To assist comlnanders ill making sucll decisions,each of the various types is described and its respec-tive advaltalges aild disadvantages given.

72. THREE BASIC TYPES OF MARCHES

a. A ('7ose Colom A close corllml is one inwhich the elemenlts are formlled as conpactly as prac-ticable in order to red il rou space roand time lengthto a millilillmll. Vehicles follow0 at the least distancewhich safety, tratfic conditions, and the tactical situ-ation will permlit. A close colmiln llily be governedor fixed.

b. An Opien Coblumn. In an open column tie ele-ments are sp:ced widely as a passive defense or safetymealsure. Vehicles mainlitaill galps sulfticient to aidpassive defense by affording reasonable dispersionl.Gaps should also be adequate to permit overtalinlg ve-hicles to enter the colulmn in case traffic proceedingin tile opposite dilection is encountered. An opencolumn may be governied or tixed.

c. Iv filtration. This march is accomplished bythe dispatch of individmil vehicles or sn:all glroulpsof vehicles over a specified route giving the appear-ance of casuall traffic. Infiltration results in less dis-ruption to other traffic than does the close colunln.

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73. METHODS OF EXECUTION OF BASIC TYPES OFMARCHES

a. A Fiaed Coleln. A fixed column is one inwhich a prescribed spacing between vehicles is main-tained at all speeds.

b. A Governed Columnax. A governed column isone in which the spacing of vehicles is governed by aspeedometer multiplier or by other means in such amanner as to maintain comparatively constant timelead and time length.

c. Shuttling. A movement in which vehicles makerepeated trips to move troops or supplies is calledshuttling. For various shuttle methods for troopmovements, see paragraph 166; for supply move-merits, paragraplh 186.

d. A Double Stag qered Columni. In this typecol-umnl1, the elements travel in two parallel lanes withindividual vehicles alternating between the lanes,each marching approximately opposite the center ofthe gap between the vehicles in the opposite lane.

74. CLOSE COLUMN

a. Uses. Close colmll is used when a road netmust be used to its maxilnuml capacity. It may beused for novements through cities or other congestedareas for the purpose of better control, in which casearralgements should be made for escorts throughsuch areas. Close colilum may be useful for nightmoves under blackout conditions, particularly overpoorly marked routes, when it is essential that gapsbetween vehicles be short enough to enable drivers tomaintain contact with the vehicle ahead.

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b. Execution. Vehicles in each march llnit willfollow the vehicle ahead at a distance governed bya small speedometer multiplier (1 or 2), sufficientonly to secure safety front accident. On occasion,the casual "follow me" method of marching may beused. Wlhen this is done, drivers are instructed tofollow the vehicle ahead as closely as they think isreasonable and consistent with safe driving prac-tices. (Normally SM=2). A maximum speed(greater than the average running speed) is pre-scribed for vehicles regaining lost distances.Changes in speed are accomplished smoothly andgradually in order to insure safety and uniformityof columnt movement. The head of the columlnmaintains its position en route by use of a timeschedule or a mininimml gap fronm the rear of thepreceding unit. The at-halt gap mnay also be pre-scribed in the march order. (Unless the tacticalsituation prohibits congestion. vehicles within eachmarch unit may close up to approximately 3 yardsbetween bumpers at halts. MAarch units and serials,however, should not close on the units ahead unlessso ordered).

c. AdJantages. In a close column march, fulltraffic capacity of the road (or lane) can be utilizedas road space is reducedl to the llinillum for safedriving. Column control and intracolumn comn-munication should be better in such compact columns,and fewer guides, escorts, and markers are needed.

d. Disadvantages. The close column march doesnot provide dispersion for passive protection againstenemy observation and attack. The strength andtype of organization are readily apparent to hostile

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observation. Vehicles may arrive at terminal areasfaster than they can be handled without producingcongestion. Careful scheduling and rigid controlof traffic are required if dangerous blockings at in-tersections are to be avoided. Greater driver fatiguemay be experienced because of dust and close spac-ings. It is also more difficult for traffic to pass thecolumn from the rear.

75. OPEN COLUMN

a. Uses. Open column is particularly applicableto tactical moves which are made during daylight.Open column may be used to overcome the effects ofdusty road conditions and for moving on routesover which a moderate volume of higher or lowerspeed traffic is moving which may have to enter thecorlllln. A traffic escort is usually desirable for anopen column.

b. EKeezution.(1) An open collllml may be accomplished by

use of a large speedometer multiplier (3 ormole) and/or a prescribed minimum gapbetween vehicles. In addition, a prescribeddensity limiting the number of vehiclesover a stretch of road may be established byorders.

(2) When a speedometer multiplier is used,slow speeds may make the colulmn take onthe characteristics of a close colulmnl andhigh speeds may result in vehicular dis-tances so large as to cause the column totake on the characteristics of infiltration.

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In any event, tile distances between vehiclesof open column marches are difficult to es-timate. For this reason it may be desirableto have drivers compute appropriate head-ways by estimate methods, that is, by ca-dence count.

(3) Mininumn distances may be prescribed inopen governed columns: however, they arenot normally needed if the SM is sufficientlylarge. If for example in an area partic-ularly vulnerable to air attack large mini-mum intervehicular distances are pre-scribed, the column takes on the character-istics of a fixed distance column and losesthe flexibility necessary for the particularterrain.

c. Advantages. Open column movement providesthe best possible compromise between the conflictingrequirements of a large traffic flow (or short timelength of column) and a wide dispersion of vehicleswithin the column. Traffic interference is mini-nized, and the speed may be almost as high as infil-

tration marching. Column control, while not asgood as in close column, is superior to that obtainedby infiltration. In addition, driver fatigue and theprobability of accidents is mich less pronouncedthan in close column marching. Because time gapbetween vehicles or elements is greater than in closecolunmn, open column allows more time to direct unitsto alternate routes at the dispersal point.

d. Disadvantages. Because of the relative reglt-larity of vehicle spacing in open column, less secrecyis possible in daylight and more losses may be suf-

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fered than will be the case with an infiltrationmlarch. Vehicle distances are greater than in closecolumn, and consequently, traffic volume on a roadwill be lower.

76. INFILTRATION

a. Uses. When sufficient time and road space areavailable, this type of march is used to provide themaximum of secrecy, deception, and dispersion asa means of passive protection against enemoy observa-tion and attack. It is therefore well-suited to day-light marches. It may also be used to execute amovement along a heavily traveled route on whichit would be impracticable to impose a complete unit.As an infiltration march provides a minimum of in-terference with other traffic and permits a higheraverage rate of march, it is suitable for movementsin congested areas anld on routes which cross heavilytraveled roads.

b. Execution.(1) Vehicles are usually dispatched individ-

ually, or in small groups normally not toexceed one squad, at a rate that will keepthe average traffic density down and preventundue minassing of vehicles. Every drivermust be given detailed instructions regard-ing the route, running speeds, maximumspeed, and restrictions before leaving theunit area. The route of march should becarefully marked, and, if practicable, astrip map should be provided for eachdriver. Average distance between vehicles

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in the over-all play is determined initiallyby the rate at which vehicles are dispatched.Thereafter, speeds and distances are regu-lated by individual drivers in conformitywith operating instructions.

(2) Deception for the purpose of preventingthe disclosure of a movement to enemy ob-servers may be provided by interminglingvarious types of vehicles and by permittingpassing within the march. In order to pro-vide passive protection from enemy observa-tion and attack, vehicles should normallybe dispatched so as to produce an averagetraffic density normally not to exceed 10vehicles per mile. When more than onemovement is taking place simultaneouslyover the same route, it is desirable to coordi-nate the rates of dispatch in order to ob-tain desired dispersion. Supervision ofmovement is affected by stationing neces-sary regulation and control personnel alongthe route of march. In order to preventmassing of vehicles at or near traffic bottle-necks or the march destination, it is impor-tant that adequate guides or markers beposted so that vehicles will proceed withminimum delay.

c. Advanrtages. The infiltration type of march pro-vides the best possible passive protection from hos-tile observation and attack. Under light trafficconditions. movement of individual vehicles is notmaterially affected by other vehicles in the march,but is limited only by the march order; road capa-

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bility; vehicle mobility; and the training, experience,and physical condition of the drivers. Higher speedby individual vehicles may be obtained by this typeof movement. Since traffic density in an infiltrationmarch is normally light, cross traffic can move with-out excessive interference. A unit may be movedover a road on which the traffic is too heavy to permitthe movement of the entire unit at one time. A traf-fic escort is not normally required, although controlat intersections may be desirable.

d. Disadlvantapes. Time length of the infiltrationmarch is greater than with any other type of move-merlt. Thus, in spite of a higher rate of march, thetotal road clearance time for a march may be longer.Because of extended distances between vehicles, in-ternal control of the march is extremely 'difficult.Since drivers are usually not able to regulatte theirmovements bv the vehicle ahead, careful marking ofthe route is necessary to prevent individual vehiclesfromn getting lost. If drivers operate alone, morebriefing is required:; maintenance arrangements maybe difficult; and refueling and messing are sometimesdifficult to arrange. Since individual vehicles orsmall units operate separately and since other unitsmay move simultaneously over the same route, thereis danger that they may "bunch up" so that, while theaverage density per mile is as prescribed, there is,in effect. a close column on one section of the roadbut no vehicle on other sections. Due to relaxed con-trol, tile tactical employment of the unit may bedifficult until the march is completed.

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77. FIXED COLUMN

a. Uses. Fixed distance marching. whether inopen or close formation, is used for the following:

(1) Ceremonies, including street parades.(2) Short marches over roads with good pave-

ments having no grades, curves, or badstretches which will slow dow]n the column.

(3) Escorted movements with close fixed dis-tance through towns anmid passing inteisec-tions when the cohlnnn is given the right-of-way and it is advisable to present a solidcolllnin to cross traffic.

b. Ex.ecution. Vehicles may form at fixed dis-tance before beginning the march or may take upthe proper distance successively. The gap betweenvehicle, march units, and serials is maintained so faras possible, irrespective of speed at which the col-1111111 is noving.

e. Advantages. The fixed column presents a uni-form appearance or "parade forlmation" during aI movelellnt. The road space of each march h nit canbe accurately calculated. When sufficient gap is pre-scribed, infiltration of other traffic is possible. Whenformed with very close gaps between vehicles, thefixed column presents a wall so that cross traffic willnot attempt to cut the column.

d. Disadvantages. The fixed column type of marchis difficult to execute except over short distanlces onlevel, smooth roads. Driver fatigue is pronounced.When the speed is necessarily varied by grades,sharp curves, and stretches of bad roads, fixed gapscan be maintained only by difficult regulation of the

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speed of the pace setter. It necessitates the slowingdown of each vehicle in the column as soon as thelead vehicle hits a poor stretch of road and requiresthe lead vehicle to maintain the slow stretch speeduntil the last vehicle of the column has cleared theslow stretch. For these reasons, it delays the column.Therefore, its uses are normally confined to thoselisted above.

78. GOVERNED COLUMNS

Close and open columlns are usually understood tobe governed columns unless otherwise specified. Ifthe gaps between vehicles are governed in a manmerthat will allow for their gradual closing on a slowor uphill stretch and for gradual opening on a fastor downhill stretch the accordion action can be reg-ulated to advantage. This is accomplished by main-taining relatively constant intervehicular time leads.The nearer the approach to constant time leadsthroughout the column, the nearer will be the ap-proach to the ideal type of column movement. Timelength will remain the same throughout the move-ment, and schedules can be better met by all elementsof the column. In general there are two differentmethods of maintaining constant headways.

a. Flexible Lead. In this method, the gap (andconsequently lead) between vehicles is made to varyin proportion to the speed of the vehicles. It istermed the speedometer multiplier method (pars.66, 67).

b. Constant Time Lead. Another method is to es-timate and maintain time lead directly instead of

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estimating gaps based on speed. In this method,time lead is computed by reckoning the period oftime required for a vehicle to occupy the positionjust vacated by the preceding vehicle. It is nor-mally accomplished by a cadence count using a tele-phone pole or some other common road object as themark on which to base the position of successive ve-hicles making the count. It relates time lead (head-way) directly to lead and is perhaps the more ad-vantageous method when drivers have been-properlytrained to apply it.

79. SHUTTLING

a. Description. Shuttling is continued forwardmovement accomplished by means of repeated trillpsmade by the same vehicles between two specifiedpoints. Any of the foregoing types of march, de-pending on traffic and other conditions, may be usedfor shuttling.

b. Uses. Shuttle moves are used to perform aspecified movement when inadequate transportationfacilities preclude accomplishment of the movementin a one-time load or lift. This system is suited forboth troop and supply movements.

c. Exwecution.(1) Shuttle movements must be properly

planned to provide adequate tuln-around fa-cilities and a coordinated working schedule.The preparation of entrucking and detruck-ing (or loading and unloading) tables willeliminate delay and confusion at terminalsand the march graph will assist in schedul-ing the movement.

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(2) The "part-ride, part-walk" shuttle is anefficient method for accomplishing troopmovement when there are not enough trucksto move a unit in a single lift. This andvarious other troop shuttle and relay meth-ods are described in paragraph 166.

(3) Tractor-semitrailer shuttling is alln efficientmethod used on cargo hauls. Semitrailersmay be parked while loading and unloading,permitting the tractor to be used to towother semitrailers and thus allowing greaterutilization of the powered vehicles. Thisand various other supply shuttle methodsare described in paragraph 186.

d. Advantages. Shuttling may be the only prac-tical method of completing a movement when vehicleavailability does not allow movement of the entireload in' one lift. Since shuttling allows the vehiclesand drivers in a relay to remain closer to the unit towlfich assigned, it facilitates control, maintenance,messing, etc.

e. Disadvantages. It is often impracticable to se-cure return loads. The time required to move aspecified tonnage by shuttle, as compared to a one-liftmovement, is increased in proportion to the numberof shuttles made.

80. DOUBLE STAGGERED COLUMN

a. E:ecution.(1) A double staggered column may begin as a

close columno march, opening into two lanesas directed, upon entering the particular

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route where it is practical. In this type ofcolumn headways are based on the distancewhich each vehicle maintains from the pre-ceding vehicle in the opposite cohunn.

(2) Thus, if the speedometer multiplier were 1,each vehicle would follow the preceding ve-hicle in the opposite column at a distancein yards equal to the number of miles perhour shown by the speedometer reading.For example, with an SM of 1 and speed of30 miles per hour, the distance from the pre-ceding vehicle in the opposite lane shouldbe 30 yards. The speedometer multipliermust be applied to fix the gap between eachvehicle and the preceding vehicle in theopposite lane, otherwise the required rela-tion between vehicles in the two lanes mightbe lost and all vehicles would not be oppo-site the spaces in the other lane.

(3) It is evident that if each vehicle applies aspeedometer multiplier (for example SM 1)to its distance from the preceding vehiclein the opposite lane, its distance from thepreceding vehicle in the same lane will beapproximately twice as great. However,the same effect cannot be gained by usingSM 2 to regulate gaps between vehicles inthe same lane because the factor of humanerror in judging distance would soon throwthe columns in the respective lanes out ofbalance.

(4) When an obstacle or bottleneck, such as astalled vehicle, defile, or one-lane bridge, is

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encountered, the vehicles in one lane moveinto the space opposite them in the otherlane, and use one-half the old speedometermultiplier. This temporarily reduces gapsbetween vehicles in the same lane by aboutone-llalf with all the dangers and disad-vantages of decreased gap. Vehicles revertback to their original positions when theobstacle is passed.

b. Advantages. The double staggered columnmethod reduces column length and permits use oftwo lanes for one-way traffic.

c. Disadvantages. It is dangerous to use thedouble staggered column form of march withoutskilled drivers. Coltlrol vehicles and faster movingvehicles can pass the colllmn only with difficulty. Thecolumn is concentrated and affords a good target tothe enemy.

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PART THREE

CONDUCT OF THE MARCH

CHAPTER 6

CONTROL OF THE MARCH

Section 1. MARCH CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE

81. GENERAL

Certain internal functions of march control arethe normal responsibility of the personnel of themarching unit, while other functions of control areimposed on the unit by external authority. Thecommanders of march units should have detailedknowledge of both of these functions in order toenforce their own directives and to insure intelligentcooperation with highway regulation and traffic con-trol personnel.

82. MARCH DISCIPLINE

a. March discipline is attained through trainingand through internal control within the marchingunit. It is indispensable to the effectiveness of themarch column. The specific objective of march dis-cipline is to insure intelligent cooperation and effec-tive teamwork on the part of all march personnel.Such cooperation and teamwork can be attained onlyby thorough training, constant and thorough super-vision by every officer and noncommissioned officer,considerable practical experience in actual marching,

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and meticulous attention to details of technique listedbelow:

(1) Correct driving.(2) Immediate and effective response to all sig-

nals and orders.(3) Prompt relaying of visual signals.(4) Strict obedience to traffic regulations, rules

of the road, and instructions of highwayregulating, traffic control, and commandpersonnel.

(5) Effective use, as prescribed, of cover, con-cealment, camouflage, dispersion, radiosilence, blackout precautions, and other pro-tective measures against air, groutnd, mecha-nized, or chemical attack.

(6) Correct speeds, distances, and proper posi-tions within the column.

(7) Observance of rules of march hygiene.(8) Proper care of equipment.

b. Responsibility for good march discipline com-mences with the driver of each vehicle and increaseswith each commander charged with internal control.These duties are briefly as follows:

(1) The driver, or soldier in charge of each vehi-cle, is responsible for observing proper dis-tance and speed, for safety precautions, forgood driving, for performance of prescribedfirst echelon maintenance, and for strict ob-servance of all requirements of standingoperating procedure or specific orders gov-erning the march.

(2) The assistant driver and front seat passen-ger should be constantly on the alert for

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column signals and warnings, and for signsplaced along the road, warning the driverand transmitting them back along the col-umn when appropriate. This is particu-larly important at night or under conditionsof poor visibility. The front seat passengershould guard against the possibility of thedriver's falling asleep. He should assistthe driver in other ways including "at halt"maintenance service.

(3) Squad leaders supervise the actions of thedrivers of the vehicles composing theirsquads. They should give particular atten-tion to spacing and should correct failure ofdrivers to observe regulations includingfirst echlon maintenance and proper dis-tances between their vehicles.

(4) Section leaders supervise the actions of thesquad leaders, and give squad leaders suchinstructions as may be required to assureproper functioning of their section.

(5) The match unit leader or commander givesthe orders to halt and move, and exercisesgeneral supervision over the conduct of hisunit. He is responsible for maintaining theproper position of his march unit within alarger column and for carrying out theorders of the column commander.

(6) Higher commanders in a convoy, column,or serial are successively responsible fortheir units, the responsibility becomingbroader and more general in nature at eachhigher level of command.

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83. CONTROL IDENTIFICATION OF VEHICLES

It is often desirable to mark or otherwise designatevehicles of the column for internal, as well as ex-ternal, control Ipurposes. Such identification is sub-ject to local conditions and is usually specified instanding operating procedures. Marking should bekept to the mininulum consistent with its need incolumn control. Extra markings should be of easilyremovable nature.

a. Unit Flags and S/ymbols. Security permitting,headquarters vehicles of companies or similar unitsmay display guidons. MIessaget center vehicles of bat-talions, regiments, and similar units may be in-dicated by distinctive symbols or panels displayed onthe front, rear, top, and/or sides. When necessaryfor security reasons, guidons may be cased andsymbols or panels may be covered or removed.

b. Cloth Control Indicators. Control cars ofcolumns may be indicated by cloth or flags attachedto their front or rear. The following colors arestandard:

(1) Blue for the head of a serial or unit.(2) Yellow for the head of subunits, if any.(3) Brown for the tail of subunits, if any.(4) Green for the tail of a serial or unit.(5) Red for danger or explosives.(6) Black and white checkered for priority

movement.c. Serialization of Vehicles. Individual vehicles

within the main body of the column may be numberedserially to facilitate formation of the column andidentification of individual vehicles. Such numbersmay be drawn on the sides and bumpers of vehicles

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with soft chalk crayons or indicated by previouslyprepared signs.

84. COMMUNICATIONS CONTROL OF COLUMN

a. For practical purposes, it is desirable to keepmarch units small enough to come within the rangeof signals of the commander and in the march of alarger unit to have the column so organized as tofacilitate the relay of signals between miarch units.

b. Only brief, simple messages should be trans-mitted while a colmnn is in motion. Long messagesare best transmitted in the form of a written orderor while the column is halted. Various methods ofintracolumn communication include the following:

(1) Sign messages. Sign messages from thefront of the column may be written on aboard and posted on the driving side of theroad (or displayed by a guide) so as to bevisible to oncoming vehicles. Such mes-sages are then noted by the driver or as-sistant driver of each vehicle as they passthe signboard. Provision is made to pick upthese signboards (or guides) as the rear ofthe column passes.

(2) Written messages. Written messages di-rected to a unit or vehicle in the column maybe written on a message blank and given toa guide stationed along the route who willtransfer it to the proper vehicle. For thispurpose, the message may be affixed to alarge wire loop suspended at the end of aforked stick held or placed where it can

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easily be caught on the arm of the frontseat passenger while the vehicle continuesin motion. Otherwise the use of a shortstick with a slit at one end will normallysuffice. Tlie written message may also bedelivered by a motorcycle messenger di-rectly to the driver or front seat passenger.

(3) Two-wcay voice radio sets. When available,two-way voice radio sets may be locatedin the control cars of the commander andat the head and trail. When supplementedby receivers in other vehicles in the column,they provide the best intracolumn commu-nication and afford maximum control of acolumn. However, they may not be avail-able, or radio silence may be imposed.

(4) Whistle and other sound signals. Whistleand other sound signals (horn, bugle, etc.)constitute an elemental means of attractingattention or transmitting a command to acolumn. A single whistle code may be ar-ranged. For example, one blast on thewhistle may indicate the next action war-ranted by the circumstances; that is, thecolumn being halted, a whistle blast indi-cates that personnel should detruck; or, thepersonnel having detrucked, the next blastindicates that they reload in their vehicles.Three whistle blasts usually express analarm. Other whistle signals may be speci-fied by the local commander or they may beused with visual signals, or in any mannerthat is understood between the troops and

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the officer or noncommissioned officer givingthe command.

(5) Visual hand and arm signals. Visual handand arlm signals constitute another elementalmeans of communnication within a column.Besides the driver's signals, certain columncontrol signals may be given by arm eitherfrom the cab of a vehicle or by a personstanding on the road.

(6) Flag signals. Besides the column controlcloth and/or flag indicators, certain hand-flag signals having distinctive colors ormarkings are used in maneuver umpiringand for particular tactical purposes asspecified in orders. Such flag signals have adistinct disadvantage over other signals inthat they are seldom available to everyone.

(7) Verbal messages. Verbal messages may betransmitted from the command car or a con-trol car patrolling the column.

Section II. CONTROL PERSONNEL

85. THE COMMANDER

a. The officer or noncommissioned officer in com-mand of a convoy is responsible for all that occursin his unit. He issues the necessary orders to initiatethe march and takes whatever action he deems neces-sary to insure that instructions contained in standingoperating procedures and in march orders are ad-hered to during the preparation for, and conduct of,the march. He must be free to go wherever lie may

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be required to supervise the proper movement of hiscommand.

b. Commanders should. consider the problemswhich are likely to be met at the head of the columnand those which will develop as the column passesand may best be met at the trail. They must thenmake their own decisions as to where they will march.A competent representative is placed at the head andtrail so that the commander is free to be where heexpects trouble and to move along the column so asto observe the situation.

86. CONTROL OFFICERS OR NCO

a. Control of the column is maintained by allcolumn (serial or march unit) officers and noncom-missioned officers. In addition, personnel may beassigned specific duties in connection with columncontrol. In large columns, the second in commandor executive officer is often designated as the chiefcontrol officer. He may be given a staff which in-cludes that part of the headquarters staff not else-where employed and representatives from each ina-jor unit within the column.

b. The chief control officer may be given responsi-bility for leading the column along the designatedroute and for regulating the speed of the march.This control officer should periodically check thetime the head of the column passes specified checkpoints along the route. If the column is moving inaccordance with a march table or march graph, thisofficer will so regulate the pace that the schedule in-dicated thereby is adhered to. In the event this be-comes impossible or any other adjustment must be132

made in the march, both the column commander andtraffic personnel must be notified.

87. CONTROL PERSONNEL

Depending on the size of the column and the re-quirements of the situation, the control personnelmay include the following:

a. Guides. Guides are individuals who direct aunit or vehicles over a predetermined route or to aselected locality. They may lead a unit or directit from a stationary point. They may be membersof the escort party or members from the organiza-tion who are familiar with the route or who havebeen instructed as to the direction to be followed.

b. Traffic Fscorts. Traffic escorts may consist ofmilitary police, civilian police, or other personnelaccompanying the march and aiding the movementof the convoy or column through congested area orareas of possible traffic conflicts. Escorts may in-clude troops detailed to accompany a convoy to pre-vent interference by hostile forces or to protectvaluable loads.

c. Traffic Patrols. Traffic patrols usually consistof traffic personnel on motorcycles or in other highlymaneuverable vehicles. They are used in area controlto provide liaison between key regulation or controlposts, supervise traffic between such posts, and pro-vide frequent checking of critical points on the roadnet where traflic blocks or bottlenecks are most likelyto develop. They may precede a column and stop orotherwise direct conflicting traffic in which case theytake on the characteristics of escorts.

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(1) Traffic patrols, escorts, and guides performa traffic control rather than a highway regu:lation function. Their purpose is to fa-cilitate movements in accordance with thetraffic plan and the schedules prescribed bythe highway regulation headquarters orother higher authority. They keep trafficmoving and when necessary act in emergencyto restore a plan which has been temporarilydisrupted. In emergencies requiring im-mediate action, military police make theminimum changes in plans or schedules re-quired by the situation, and take immediatesteps to notify those responsible for suchplans of the action taken.

(2) Under organizational control, these dutiesare performed by personnel details from theunit making the move or from a highercommand. Under area control, these dutiesare usually performed by military policedetailed by headquarters responsible forhighway traffic control in the area. Theintensive specialized training and equipmentneeded for this important function are cov-ered in FMI 19-25.

d. The Advance Officer. An officer who precedesthe column by sufficient distance to give the necessaryaid in negotiating traffic hazards and to render otherassistance to the commander is called an advanceofficer. This assistance may include-

(1) Reconnaissance, including check of bypassroutes when in an emergency the column is

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required to go around unexpected roadblocks or traffic jams.

(2) Instructions to organizational traffic con-trol personnel to be posted along the routes.

(3) Posting of guides or route markers at in-tersections and at other positions along theroute where special directives to the columnmay be necessary.

(4) Notification of proper authorities of theapproach of the convoy to facilitate theclearance of the column or to obtain assist-ance throulgh congested areas.

(5) When traveling over a dispatch route,checking at highway regulation points forinstructions or changes in instructions forthe movement of the column.

(6) Commanld of a detachment sent forward forquartering arrangements, pioneer work, etc,when specifically detailed to such a duty.

(7) Close communication with the column comn-mander by radio or other means to advisehim of any unforeseen developments and toreceive orders and instructions concerningthe movement.

e. The Pace Setter. The pace setter is usually anexperienced officer or noncommissioned officer whorides in a lead vehicle of a column or element thereof.His duty is primarily to maintain the rate of marchin such a manner that the schedule is met and accor-dion action is properly controlled. He also gathersinformation and instructions concerning traffic ob-structions or bottlenecks. The chief control officermay be the pace setter in addition to his other duties.

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f. The Trail Officer. The trail officer marches atthe rear of the colullmn or an element thereof. An1 ex-perienced motor transport officer should be selected.A trail officer may perform the following duties:

(1) Checking the individual vehicles, marchunits, or serials at the point of origin or thedesignated initial point (IP).

(2) Reporting the location of trail of columnwhen requested.

(3) Preventing vehicles or other traffic whichmight interfere with the movement from en-tering or passing the column from the rear.

(4) Posting necessary guards, warning flags,caution lights, or flares to warn traffic ap-proaching from the rear when the columnhalts.

(5) Picking up and, as soon as practicable, re-turning to the head of the column all guidesand markers distributed by preceding ele-ments of the column.

(6) Observing vehicles ahead for excessive ac-cordion action, weaving of vehicles, or otherindications of lack of discipline or driverfatigue; and taking the necessary correctiveaction.

(7) Rendering first aid to the injured in theevent of an accident, summoning medicalaid if necessary, causing prescribed acci-dent reports to be made, and initiating apreliminary investigation.

(8) Responsibility for the abandonment of ve-hicles in accordance with instructions.

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g. The Trail Maintenarnce Officers. Trail mainte-nance officers, as available for each march unit or forthe column ride at the rear of their units with themaintenance personnel and equipment and take ac-tion within limits prescribed by the march order tomaintain vehicles in serviceable condition. At halts.they proceed along the columnn to inspect the vehiclesand supervise maintellnance operations. In small col-umns the duties of the trail maintenance officer areusually combined with those of the trail officer.

88. OTHER DUTIES OF SUPERVISORY PERSONNEL

a. IThe successful conduct of a march depends toa large extent upon the aggressive action taken bythe officers and noncommissioned officers of the col-untn to prevent interruption of the march and over-come emergencies as they arise.

b. Besides duties already listed in connection withthe control function, officers in the column may beassigned duties in connection with column commmni-cations, supply, inspection of vehicles at halts, recon-naissance, quartering, mess, pioneer details, defense,or other special functions as may be required.

Section III. DETACHED PARTIES

89. GENERAL

Many motor movements require no detached par-ties, as the function of such parties may not be neededor may be taken care of by area control. However,since the situation sometimes requires self-sufficiencyon the part of the marching unit, it is necessary toknow the functions of these parties and how theymay be organized and used if and when needed.

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90. ADVANCE ELEMENTS

a. Advance Parties. Advance parties are pro-vided according to the situation. They may be pro-vided by a higher headquarters for general assistanceto several columns, or they may be detailed from themarch column itself. Often it will be possible tocombine one or more of the parties indicated below.When so combined, they are collectively referred toas the advance party. (This advance party is not tobe confused with the advance party of an advanceguard.)

b. Quartering (Billeting) Party. In organizedareas, with established billeting and messin instal-lations en route, it is only necessary to establishliaison with the commanding officer of such installa-tions in order to have everything in readiness forthe reception of troops in personnel convoys ordrivers of supply convoys. In tactical situations,enemy activity may make a quartering party im-practical. The mission of a quartering party is tolocate, arrange for, and lay out bivouac areas, quar-ters or billets, loading and parking facilities, suppliesand rations, water, fuel, medical attendance, etc.,so that all are provided for before the arrival of thecolumn. On the arrival of the coliumn, the quarter-ing party may assist traffic personnel in guiding unitsto their exact areas.

c. Recomnaissance Party. A traffic reconnaissaneeshould precede a motor movement except when themarch is in an already reconnoitered area. Nor-mally, the necessary reconnaissance in rear areas isprovided by area control personnel. However, whenmovements are to be made over unknown or unpa-

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trolled routes, the column commander should detaila reconnaissance party from his own column. Itmay be practicable to assign this duty to other ad-vance elements.

d. Pioneer Party. Necessary work in preparationof the route is usually accomplished by engineertroops. However, in the absence of such troops, thisimportant work must be performed by any avail-able troops. The requirements for pioneer workvary greatly. They are negligible when moving overgood roads but become extremely heavy on bad roads,demolished routes, or cross country. It is thereforeimportant that a careful estimate be made of thepersonnel, tools, materials, and time necessary forthe elimination or reduction of obstacles to the move-ment.

91. FOLLOW-UP DETACHMENT

The follow-up detachment is designated to inspectbivouac areas and other halt sites after they arevacated by the column and to correct and report anydeficiencies observed. During operations in peace-time and in friendly countries, the follow-up partycompletes necessary paper w-ork in connection withleased camp sites or with claims arising from damageto private or public property. On the road thisparty may also pick up guides, guards, and markerswhich have been placed by the advance party, makefinal investigation of accidents when military policeare not available, provide for the disposition of deador wounded, and dispose of disabled vehicles sep-arated from the column.

238658'-53-- 10 139

92. OTHER ELEMENTS

Additional elements which make up organizedmovements may be required under various circum-stances. These include the following:

a. Traffic Escorts. Traffic escorts consist of mnili-tary police or civilian police. In the absence of suchpersonnel, details may be assigned from the columnto perform necessary traffic control functions (FM19-25).

b. Security Forces. Security forces consist of ad-vance, flank, or rear guards, either furnished byhigher headquarters or from the marching unit.

93. REPLACING GUIDES BY ROUTE MARKING

Special signs may be used to aid a specific march.Individuals should not be posted where signs can beused with equal effectiveness. It is desirable for or-ganizations to keep on hand signs which may be usedin the control of their movements. If possible, or-ganizational signs should be installed well in ad-vance of columns but not so far as to be a nuisance toother traffic. Such signs, placed to direct specificmovements, should be picked up, usually by a de-tail under the supervision of the trail officer, as themovements progress along the route. The signs maybe used repeatedly in a manner similar to that usedin the posting of guides. When the movements areto be made at night, markers should be posted duringdaylight hours If headlights are permitted, signsshould be of the reflector type.

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94. ESCORT TECHNIQUES (FM 19-25)

a. Mission. The mission of a traffic escort is toexpedite the movement of a particular column,usually by obtaining for it the right-of-way overtraffic of lesser importance or assuring that it is notunduly delayed by other traffic. However, a col-umn moving under escort does not necessarily havepriority over all other traffic. Escorted columnsmoving through territory under area control aresubject to the traffic regulation orders in effect thelein,and to the direction of the traffic control personnelenforcing them. Escort personnel must not inter-pret their duty to be the procurement of uninter-rupted movement of their counmll without regard toexisting regulations. Their mission is determinedby the plan of the march and the specific instruc-tions issued for its operation.

b. Duties.(1) Escort personnel consisting of military or

civil police, and guides or guards detailedto, or by, the marching unit, perform similarfunctions for the march column. Guidesmay ride in column control vehicles or beposted at points where directions need begiven, but where the control of other trafficis not required. Guides are normally usedat important road junctions, intersections, orcrossings to prevent interference from othertraffic or to warn the column of traffichazards.

(2) In performing their mission, escort person-nel perform some of the functions of both

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intersection and patrol duty. They moveout in advance of the column to:

(a) Provide necessary traffic control at un-guarded intersections or where existingcontrol (as by traffic signal) is inadequateor inappropriate.

(b) Advise traffic control personnel along theroute of the approach of the column.

(c) Discover any road or traffic blocks, andeither eliminate them or notify the columncommander and highway regulationpoints and control posts so that properaction may be taken.

(3) Escorts or guides are especially useful atnight, or when it is necessary for the col-unin to leave the road and travel overstretches of difficult ground, such as alonga detour or into a bivouac or assembly area.If the column is to be led through a difficultsector or is to travel at night, it is desirableto have the guide who is to lead the columngo over the entire section in advance duringdaylight.

(4) Traffic escorts may establish temporary con-trol posts successively forward of the marchat all critical points along the route. Thisprocedure is especially important beforeentry of the column on one-lane open roadswhen there is possibility of meeting anothercolumn at a location where passing isnot possible. When escort personnel aremounted on motorcycles or in light vehicles,they may be repeatedly posted forward as

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needed. Their greater speed allows theml toproceed ahead of the column to duty at otherlocations.

c. Posting Escorts. Escorts are posted at selectedpoints along the route prior to the passing of thecolumn and are picked up after the column hascleared these points. This is usually accomplishedby relaying escort personnel forward as the move-ment progresses. Each lnal is given a number ashe is posted, the numbers being assigned consecutive-ly. In this way the escort commander and his as-sistants have a means of checking whether any manhas been missed in picking up the escort. The errorwill be detected at the post following the one missed,and only a comparatively short distance will have tobe traveled to pick up the missing man. In the caseof military police or guides having their own trans-portation, a distinctive flag or sign should be placedon the trail vehicle so that members of the escortparty can easily identify the end of the column.

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CHAPTER 7

ROAD PROCEDURES AND EN ROUTETECHNIQUES

Section I. FORMATION OF THE MARCH

95. FORMATION OF MARCH COLUMNS

a. Whether a march operates under a single com-mander, as may be the case in the movement of acombat unit, or operates as a nunber of separateserials under respective conmmanders, as is normallythe case in highway transportation of supplies overlong lines of communications, it is necessary that thecolumns, or elements thereof, make formation in asystematic manner.

.b; The formation of the elements is accomplishedaccording to a plan prepared in advance.

(1) In the case of tactical troop movements, adetailed plan may require the various marchunits to form at unit areas and move suc-cessively on a iprescribed schedule to theinitial point (IP) where they join the col-umn.

(2) On the other hand, supply or administrativemovements may begin at the local dispatchoffice where individual vehicles are sent outto dump areas for loads, and the column isformed in an assembly area before the move-ment passes the IP.

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96. INITIAL POINT

a. An initial point is any designated place at whicha column or element thereof is formed by the suc-cessive arrival thereat of its various subdivisions; ora point where a convoy is "checked" onto the roadnet or route of march.

b. The schedule, recorded progress of the march,and other essential information regarding the move-ment are based on the 11P.

97. LOCATION OF IP

a. The IP should be so located that no march unitis compelled to move back in a direction opposite tothat of its destination in order to reach the IP andtake its proper place in the column. It may or maynot be a highway regulation point, but is normallylocated at an easily recognized place such as a land-mark, map reference point, road intersection, or anyother marked and designated point. This meansthat, when practicable, the IP should be forward ofall areas from which a march unit or convoy departs.

b. In the case of a motor march of a large com-mand, there may be several IPs for successivelylarger units-that is, battalions may join a regi-mental column at the regimental IP, or regimentalcombat teams may join a division at a division IP.

98. COLUMN CONTROL AT IP's

a. The IP is the most practical position for thecommander to check the movement to see that it hasdeparted on the prescribed schedule and according to

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plan. A check made here will give him an oppor-tunity to make early adjustments which might other-wise be necessary en route due to lateness of certainelements or other unforeseen factors.

b. The IP is also the position often used to checkvarious convoys onto a dispatch route. Whether ornot the highway regulation point coincides with theone used by the unit, the commander or control officermust consider it in the conduct of the march andcheck or report his movement thereat as required.

c. The odometer reading of each vehicle on passingthe IP should be noted and recorded by the driver orfront seat passenger. Trip odometers, in vehicles soequipped, should be set at zero on passing the IP(or other specially designated point). In this mlan-ner points along the route of march can be con-veniently referred to in terms of the mileage fromthe IP.

99. DRIVER ORIENTATION

Successful conduct of the march depends to a largeextent on the information available to individualdrivers and march unit commanders. Security per-mitting, drivers as well as supervisory personnelshould be instructed as to the route to be taken andthe final destination (fig. 18). Except in very rareinstances, this is the minimum information to befurnished drivers. Whenever possible they shouldbe given more complete instruction.

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ROUTE CARO

ORtGON.: ... 6...r ..... DESTINATION ....t... -iD

TOTAL MILEAGE ..... /.' .....................

ROUTE MILEAGE ROUTING SCHEOULE HALTSMiles Aecum To- Arrive Deport

Y0/O_

_.2 _' 94 -7 J

-_ - )7ct /4 l IJOM

f!! /. /00 _ -

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS

Rote of March: do 'JA

Moipu.m Speed: 3SA 4 /t

GOP: JR/e

Ereergency: i CC6, a

Figi¢re 18. Sanzple route card.

Section II. EN ROUTE TECHNIQUES

100. GENERAL

a. Driver Responsibility. The fact that organizedcolumns are controlled, in that their speed and dis-

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tance are regulated, does not lessen the need fordrivers to be elert and careful. In a march column,drivers are expected to maintain their place andstill avoid accidents. They must realize that a slightdelay is better than ia crash and an indefinitely longdelay.

b. Safety Precaution.s Most safety precautions ap-ply equally well whether driving in a convoy or not.The best way to avoid accidents in a column is toobserve every safety precaution. Special attentionshould be given to the movement of the vehicle aheadand- to the passing on of proper signals. Suddenstops should be avoided.

c. Right-of-Way. Except in special military neces-sity, each small motor march column extends theright-of-way as would an individual vehicle, unlessthe column is accompanied by a police escort to blockoff traffic. However, large march columns runningon fixed schedules might be frequently split and theirschedules disrupted if they observed all the custom-ary practices as to right-of-ivay, traffic signal lights,etc. -To keep intact and to arrive on time, a largecolumn must proceed steadily, without unscheduledinterruptions. Ample traffic escorts are required.

d. Traffic Problem of Columns. ·Prevention ofintersection collisions is accomplished by the use ofpoint control, traffic escorts, patrols, and traffic con-trol signs where applicable. Without traffic person-nel to block other traffic andti guide the columnthrough .colgested areas. all local regulations mustbe obeyed. Under such conditions, it will be difficultto keep columnls intact. It is advisable to maintaina close column through cities and other congested

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areas so as to present an almost solid column whichcannot be entered or crossed by other vehicles.

e. Other Vehicles. When an "outside" vehicle notunder control of the column commander breaks intoa column, it may lag behind and cause vehicles in thecolumni to lose distance. This may produce excessiveand ungoverned accord ion effect. It increases dangerof accident. When the highway is wide enough andthe escort is sufficient, this danger may be preventedby keeping the column in the right lane and com-pelling all other vehicles to keep out of it. However,in military operations there are usually many mili-tary vehicles, such as staff cars, jeeps, or motorcycleswhich must proceed in the same direction as the con-voy but at greater speed. If there are not enoughlanes or the escort is insufficient to keep such vehiclesin a different column, the driver should permit allsuch overtaking vehicles to pass freely. He shouldkeep well to the right and give them plenty of room topass or to enter the column if necessary.

101. SIGNALS(figs. 19-21)

Standard mounted and dismounted signals includearm and hand signals, flag signals, and light signals.Signals prescribed for use on marches are generallyof three types-those given by the driver from thecab of the vehiclecthose given from an open vehicleor turret, and those given from the ground. Somesignals are the same regardless of the point fromwhich they are given. Those signals most commonlyused by drivers and personnel controlling the marchare illustrated and described on the following pages.

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The ,following general rules govern the use of thesesignals:

a. A whistle or bugle to attract attention is blownbefore giving signal.

A. CLOSE UP(FROM CABOF CLOSEDVEHICLE)

B. OPEN UP(FROM CAB

OF CLOSEDVEHICLE)

tJC

C. PASS ANDKEEP GOING

FigUtre 19. Drivcr's haid signals.150

0* ~O~WSA ORUI T0E

~,. ATTENTION a ASSEMBEU C. UOY TO tVlt~.~L$. rU~

"""'""*' "'""''""*'"''~ ~MV?;'£r~~y

CSS ME OR i . MOVEN REIO STURRET CROONS. TAHOE ~~ UCRO

int 1,P~ 1, !~

Or R0. MItE m aEOr OR aEd. CLO aE UP PROM.

Figutre 20. Motor march 1hand antd arm signals.

151

A. START ENGINE(S) B. STOP; OR STOPENGINE (S)

C. GO; OR FORWARD; D. MOVE IN REVERSEOR MOVE OUT; OR (BLINKING LIGHT)INCREASE SPEED;OR DOUBLE TIME

E. TURN RIGHT F. TURN LEFT

Figure 21. Light signals.

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b. When signals are given to a motor column fromthe ground, the person giving the signal should, ifpossible, stand where he can be seen by all drivers.Most often this will be in a position on the oppositeside of the road from the vehicles.

c. Whenever a motor column has to be haltedon a curve, hill, or wherever some drivers cannot seethe signals, signals may be relayed along the columnor transmitted by messenger to all concerned.

d. Other signals not in conflict with those pre-scribed herein may be adapted for use in motor opera-tions. In addition, electrical and mechanical signalsand devices may be used when available.

102. PRECAUTIONS IN TRAFFIC

a. Vehicles in a march column should normallyfollow in a single lane. So far as possible all vehi-cles should remain in the lane selected by the pacesetter.

b. When any column contains vehicles of unusuallength, it may be necessary to post guards at curvesto prevent conflicts resulting from the sweep of thesevehicles.

103. KEEPING THE COLUMN INTACT

Columns may become separated and cut withoutthe head of the column being aware of it. As it isundesirable to have delayed vehicles speed exces-sively to catch up with the rest of the column, it isadvisable to set a maxilmnl speed limit. This re-quires special measures for preventing a delayedportion of a column from becoming lost when the

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preceding portion is out of sight. There is perhapsno substitute for driver information regarding theroute. It should be remembered that an escort doesnot command the column or regulate its speed, butshould make its rate of march conform to that ofthe head of the column. When an escort is guidinga column over an unfamiliar route, it may be advis-able to have some element of the escort take up thetrail of the column or to patrol the column so thatany cut will be noticed and proper action taken toclose it. The trail officer should have full instruc-tion as to action to take if column is cut. In case ofunnecessary delay, he should move forward andascertain the cause. If he finds that a cut hasoccurred, he may take up the head of the delayedsection. Before doing so, he should designate andinstruct a subordinate to act as the trail officer.These methods do not relieve the command, or thecontrol officer at the head, of responsibility for main-taining such pace and making such checks as willassure keeping the column intact.

a. If the cut has been of short duration, a drivershould proceed at the prescribed maximum speed un-til he overtakes the column or until he reaches thenext intersection. Unless he is sure of the new direc-tion; he should proceed no farther until he has con-tacted the next senior officer or noncommissionedofficer to his rear.

b. If the cut occurs on a supervised or dispatchroute, a driver should proceed at the prescribedmaximum speed until he overtakes the column oruntil he reaches a traffic control post or highwayregulation point where he can secure directions.

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c. If the cut is for a long period (5 minutes ormore) or a long delay is anticipated, a driver shouldpass the word back along the column advising thetrail officer of the cut. Normally he should not dis-mount from his vehicle or turn around. Successivedrivers should advise those behind until the infor-mation has been relayed to the trail officer.

d. If an individual vehicle becomes separated andlost and above methods are impractical, the follow-ing procedures govern. It should be understood inadvance that the driver's unit will send someone insearch for him if lie becomes lost; and if this hap-pens the driver should park and proceed no farther.To do so might cause him to become lost where hisunit could not find him. If the standing operatingprocedure of his unit does not cover such situations,the driver should use judgment as to the best actionto be taken. He may seek advice and assistance fromtraffic personnel or from other friendly forces he isable to contact.

e. If a number of vehicles are separated from theirmarch unit and become lost, they should be parkedand have the senior officer, noncommissioned officer,or driver proceed in a single vehicle in an attempt tocontact the unit or to seek or telephone the nearesthighway regulation point, traffic control post, orpatrols. He should be especially careful not to losehis direction from the lost vehicles and should seta stated time in which he expects to return. If hedoes not contact the unit or get directions within areasonable time, he should return and act in accord-ance with one of the above suggested methods.

238s58'-53. -- 1 155

104. CONVOY HALTS

a. Purpose. Halts are made for rest, personal coim-fort and relief, refueling, messing, allowing othertraffic to pass, checking equipment, etc.

b. Timge, Duration, avid Frequency.(1) Halts are usually prescribed in orders from

higher headquarters or in highway regtla-tion orders. Where the choice lies with thecolumn commander, a halt of 15 minutesshould be made at the end of the first hour.Thereafter, a halt of 10 minutes every 2hours is advisable. One-half hour to onehour is usually allowed for mess and re-fueling halts. Depending on the urgencyof the march, both the duration and fre-quency of halts may have to be reduced toshorten road time.

(2) When a halt must be made to permit pass-ing of columns, such halts should be timedto coincide with a regular mess or rest halt.

(3) In the case of long columns, it is usuallybest to prescribe halts for all elements atspecified times, rather than on a signaltransmitted from the head of the column..Unless definite halt times are specified,serials may close up on ones ahead, therebylosing their proper gaps and possibly creat-ing congestion.

c. Halting Places.(1) Halting places should be selected in ad-

vance. These selections may be prescribedby higher a uthority, made tentatively bymap reference, or made by the reconnais-

156

sauce party. On dispatch routes, highwayregulation points may include refueling sta-tions, messing facilities, temporary quarters,maintenance facilities, etc. When such fa-cilities have been provided, highway regula-tion orders or other orders from higherheadquarters, usually prescribe the placesat which halts will be made.

(2) If the halt is of only brief duration and willnot interfere with the normal traffic flow,the colunt may stop on the shoulder of theroad. It is desirable that halting places,especially off-road areas, provide turn-around facilities or circuitous exits so thecolumn may be quickly reversed or be ableto reenter the route when necessary.

(3) If crossroads, railroad crossings, and simi-lar danger points lie within the halt areaof a cohlmn, subordinate commanders willrequire vehicles to stop a reasonably safedistance from such points. No part of acolumn should stop on bridges. Halts onsteep grades and sharp curves should beavoided.

(4) Comfort of personnel alid servicing facili-ties for vehicles are important considera-tions in selecting sites for long halts. If acolumn starts from a populous area, its firsthalt should be delayed, when practicable,until the country is reached so as to facili-tate relief of personnel. For the same rea-son halts should not ordinarily be made

157

in villages or towns unless there is a specialneed therefor.

d. Precautions at Halts.(1) Columns should be halted at points provid-

ing a clear view; normally more than 200yards should be maintained to the frontand rear of the column. If road condi-tions prevent adequate site distances, stepsmust be taken to forewarn approachingtraffic.

(2) Guards, warning flags, or caution lights orflares (security permitting) should beposted in front and rear of the column andat any other points where there is a hazardto passing traffic. If the coluln blocks partof the road at the halt so that it is necessaryto operate alternating one-way traffic, au-thorized traffic movements may be alternatedby using flags transmitted alternately fromone end of the single lane to the other bythe last vehicle of each passing traffic group,or by guards to control traffic first in onedirection and then in the other.

(3) When the column halts so as to force traf-fic proceeding in the same direction to moveon the left of the center line, vehicles shouldbe parked with enough distance to permitpassing vehicles to enter the column in casetraffic in the opposite direction is encoun-tered.

(4) Unless otherwise prescribed, when trafficapproaches from the rear of a halted col-unmn and cannot clear the column before its

resumption of march, trail officers may re-quire such traffic to remain behind until itis safe to pass.

(5) All personnel other than traffic guides mustremain off the road to the right of their as-signed vehicles and keep the traveled por-tion of the roadway clear at all times.

e. Duties at Halts. In addition to rest and relief,there are certain functions which should be accom-plished during halts.

(1) Officers and noncommissioned officers shouldcheck on the welfare of personnel and thesecurity of loads and take action necessaryto correct faults.

(2) Control personnel should make checks to as-sure that vehicles are in proper position andprepared to move out on order.

(3) Drivers and assistant drivers make the at-halt preventive maintenance check.

(4) Personnel having special duties, such ascooks and medical personnel, take advantageof halts to perform such of their duties aswould be difficult during movement.

105. CHANGING DIRECTION

a. The control officer or pace setter at the headof the column should make sure that the column isin the appropriate illae some distance before reach-ing a turn in order to avoid the possibility of acci-dents or the cutting of the column. Turns shouldbe made with as little interference to other trafficas possible. On two-lane highways all turns should

159

start and end in the right lhues. On multiple-lanehighways right turns should start and end in the ex-treme right lanes; left turns should start and end inthe lane just to the right of the center line.

b. Turns should be made at speeds commensuratewith the load, road, and traffic conditions. Eachdriver should always give the appropriate signal insufficient time to afford anmple warning that a changein direction is to be'made.

106. REVERSING DIRECTION

a. General.(1) It is a simple process to reverse the direc-

tion of a single vehicle, but to reverse thedirection of a 6olumn of vehicles, whichmay include trailed loads, is another mat-ter. To reverse convoys traveling on a one-track road may at times be almost impos-sible.

(2) There are two ways of making completeturns, and two methods by which each ofthese ways may be used in reversing thedirection of a colhmn. Individual vehiclesmay make U-turns or Y-turns, and these maybe made successively or simultaneously byvehicles of the column.

b. Circling Back. This is the simplest method re-versing direction of a column. It is accomplishedby making successive U-turns or by following a cir-cuitous route. If only a short detour is involved, aloop road or sufficiently wide space is used. A looproad is not essential when a passable circuit of suf-ficient size is available off the road, or when the road

160

itself is of sufficient width. When traffic must leavethe road to circle back, it may sometimes be neces-sary to cut a gap in a fence or fill a ditch. This isoften preferable, however, to a long detour.

e. Successive Y-Trnms.(1) Successive Y-turns are executed consecu-

tively from the head of the column, or ele-ments thereof. Vehicles follow each otherthrough the turn as closely as practicableconsistent with prescribed distances. Whencompleting the turn, the leading vehiclemoves out in the new direction in the samemanner as from a halt. Other vehicles fol-low in turn, taking up their positions in col-umn in accordance with the type of marchspecified.

(2) A Y-turn differs from a U-turn or one madeby circling back in that it is necessary tooperate the vehicle in reverse at one stageof the turn. Crossroads, road forks, or afairly wide road are generally sufficient toaccommodate a Y-turn, whereas a largerarea is required for U-turns or circling back.The back movement of a Y-turn should beexecuted to the driver's left rather than tohis right, unless poor footing or some otherlocal feature makes this inadvisable. Whena Y-turn is executed in this manner, vehiclescoming out of the turn conflict least withsucceeding vehicles in the column, or withthe flow of other traffic. If the backingmovement is executed to the right on theother hand, it is necessary for vehicles leav-

161

ing the turn to cross the path of traffic or ofvehicles entering the turn.

(3) Normally, assistant drivers should dismountin order to assist their drivers in making aY-turn. When full trailed loads are beingcarried, Y-turns are very difficult and re-quire great skill on the part of drivers andassistant drivers. Full trailed loads mayhave to be uncoupled and manhandled.With full trailed loads, therefore, it isusually worth while to make a reasonabledetour in order to execute the turn.

d. Turning Simultaneovwly.(1) When vehicles turn around simultaneously,

the head of the colulm becomes the tail,and the order of the march is reversed. Noattempt is made to resume the prior order ofmarch, but elements which are required atthe head or trail may be returned to theirproper position in the column when practic-able. For example, the head of the column(or elements thereof), which will be at thetail, may pass up the main body and resumeits position. The trail party of the column,which will be at the head of the column whenthe direction has been reversed, may be di-rected to stand fast while other vehiclespass by and resume the proper position ofa trail party.

(2) When making simultaneous turns, on mostroads other traffic should be blocked off atboth ends of the column before the signalfor reversing direction is given. Even

162

though the traffic is heavy, it may be ad-visable to attempt simultaneous turns, as-suming guards can stop traffic for the shorttime necessary.

107. BACKING

a. If a road is narrow and adjacent areas areflooded, mired, or otherwise impassable, it may benecessary to reverse the entire convoy by backinguntil space for turn-around is reached. This is anabnormal condition which should not occur if properreconnaissance highway regulation, and control arepracticed. However, in an emergency, such as meet-ing another convoy head-on, or running unexpectedlyinto enenly action on a one-lane road, it may have tobe done. The assistant driver or a miember of thetroops being transported, if any, should dismount ortake a position in the rear of the vehicle so he canassist the driver in backing and guide him in such amanner as to prevent backing off the road or into thevehicle behind. As to the driver, it is advisable forhim to judge the proper distance from the left handlimit of the road and make use of his rear view mirrorrather than lean too far out of the cab or stand onthe running board. A driver should never back hisvehicle until he is certain the way is clear. Whenhis view is obstructed he should act on the directionsof an assistant on the ground. When backing un-assisted, the driver should always give warning ofthe movement vocally or by sounding his horn.

b. Considerable practice is necessary to backvehicles safely and accurately. This is particularly

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true when there are towed loads. Full trailers arevery difficult to back for any distance. Backingsemitrailers requires skillful drivers. When noother alternative is available, full trailers may beattached to the front of the vehicle to the rear andbacked in that manner, or they may be manhandled.

108. NIGHT MARCHES

a. Purpose. Round-the-clock military opera-tions require that nmarches be conducted with effec-tiveness night and day. Night marches have certainadvantages over day marches: they provide conceal-ment from hostile observation; in hot weather theymay be made to avoid excessive heat; and, undermost night conditions, casual and unorganized traf-fic is less and therefore causes less interference withorganized moves.

b. Control. Night marches must be carefullyplanned. Prior reconnaissance of routes and as-sembly areas is especially important. Special pre-cautions are taken to insure the maintenance ofdirection and contact within the column. Guidesand connecting groups are furnished when necessary.After any halt, scheduled or unscheduled, the controlpersonnel of the column must check to assure thatdrivers are awake and move out to avoid a breakin the moving column.

e. Driving Lights. Normal night driving re-quires good lights and good eyesight. A dangerousperiod of the day is twilight when the eyes of thedriver are not completely adjusted to the artificiallighting necessary at night. Therefore, if lights are

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allowed, they should be turned on early so that thedriver's eves have ample time to adjust to the change.Operations at night differ from daylight operationsonly in the measures that must be taken to overcomethe adverse influence of darkness upon ease of con-trol and avoidance of accidents. When drivinglights are permitted, care must be taken not to exceedthe speed which will permit the vehicle to be stoppedwithin the space visible by the headlights. When amovement with lights is to be continued withoutlights, a few minutes should be allowed to accustomdrivers' eyes to the changed conditions. The bestway to pass oncoming vehicles safely at night is tokeep well to the right side of the road or lane andslow down. It requires a few seconds after a vehiclepasses for the driver to accustom his eyes to the dark-ness again. These few seconds are most dangerousduring night driving and extreme caution should beexercised. Vehicles in convoy should follow the tail.light or blackout taillights of the vehicle ahead, par-ticularly in bad weather or on winding roads. Ifa convoy halts on the road at night in territory wherelights are permissible, flares should be set to the rearof the last vehicle and the front of the first vehicle,or the first vehicle should keep its low beam head-light on.

d. Mountain Driving at Night. The danger ofblackout driving in mountains must be weighedagainst the danger of enemy action, and a decisionmade as to which risk should be taken. Drivingwithout lights on narrow winding mountainous roadsshould be held to a minimum. When blackout driv-ing is necessary because of enemy observation it

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should be limited to those stretches of road estimatedto be visible to the enemy. At these points signs andguides should be posted to give special instructionto each driver as he approaches. Trucks should nor-inally be in close column. Only when the driver candefinitely see the road or the taillight of the vehiclein front is it safe to drive without an assistant driverpreceding on foot. Lead vehicles should proceedslowly. In the absence of military police, trafficcontrol must be delegated to persons within unitsmaking the march. Telephones should be installedto regulate or control traffic on stretches of one-wayroad. Traffic jams can be largely avoided if thefollowing precautions are taken: establishing a blocksystem for one-way roads; setting definite priorities,preventing turn-aroluds except at places especiallyprepared and designated for that purpose; requiringtroops to march at the side of the road when neces-sary. When trucks must pass each other on a narrowvroad, the one on the safe side should move forwardonly after the one on the more dangerous side haspulled over as far as possible and has come to a fullstop.

109. BLACKOUT RESTRICTIONSRestrictions on use of lights are required to pro-

vide secrecy and concealment at night. To preventlight from any source being observed, there must beno smoking or lighting of matches during marchesmade under blackout conditions. Flashlights, head-lights, and vehicle plarts that might reflect lightshould be covered. Special blackout lighting equip-ment on vehicles has been devised to facilitate move-

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MORE THAN 60 FEET

LESS THAN 60 FEETA. FRONT BLACKOUT LIGHTS

MORE THAN 180 FEET

BETWEEN 180 AND 60 FEET

LESS THAN 60 FEETB. REAR BLACKOUT LIGHTS

Figure 22. Blackoaut lights.167

ment under these conditions (fig. 22), but in closeproximity to the enemy use of any lights whatsoevermay be inadvisable. Blackout restrictions are usu-ally covered in the general highway traffic plan, inorders or SOP or in the traffic paragraph of theadministrative order. They may be repeated in themarch order.

SECTION 111,. COMPLETION OF THE MARCH

110. GENERAL

A unit march is completed when the unit has com-pleted its march mission and reached its new location.In the case of a supply movement, the march is notcompleted until the load is properly made availableto the receiver or until empty vehicles have reportedto their final destination.

111. RELEASE POINTS (RP)

a. A release point is a location at which specifiedelements of a column or a convoy revert to controlof their respective commanders. It is the final pointat which the march is checked upon leaving the routeof march and breaking ulp before entering bivouacsor dumps. In case of larger moves, tlwre may besuccessive release points for successively smaller ele-ments. For example, there may be a regimentalrelease point, a battalion release point, etc.

b. In many cases guides may be required at releasepoints to direct march units or individual vehicles totheir respective areas. They may be picked up atthe point and accompany the lead vehicle to the des-tination point or they may be posted so as to direct

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vehicles to bivouac or dump areas. If the marchhas been preceded by advance elements or is movingto an established area, route signs and markers maybe placed so as to direct elements from the releasepoint to their destinatiol.

112. DUTIES FOLLOWING THE MARCH

Facilities for washinug, messing, and rest should beavailable to personnel as soon as possible upon com-pletion of the march and the performance of after-operation service by vehicle crews. If the marchends in a neaw bivouac, such facilities as latrines,kitchen and shelters should be immediately set up.Sick call may be held, and the commander may con-duct an informal inspection to determine the healthand comfort of his men and the condition of hisequipment.

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CHAPTER 8

SUPPLEMENTAL ACTIVITIES ON THE MARCH

Section I. GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVEARRANGEMENTS

113. GENERAL

A military organization must be able to carry onits routine administrative functions while a move-ment is in progress. Unit headquarters, messes,supply, and attached medical personnel should beprepared for possible moves at all times and at thesame time be prepared to carry out such functions asmay be necessary during a march.

114. ROUTINE ADMINISTRATIVE REQUIREMENTS

Certain administrative matters are necessary in.connection with every march. Besides arrangementsfor messing, quartering, and medical aid, covered inlater sections, the following administrative mattersmust be considered:

a. The march plan must result in orders and in-structions to subordinates.

b. Any change in status of a unit or of personnelresulting from a move must be properly recorded inappropriate records.

c. Clearances for the move mnaet be required eitherthrough the highway regulations office or from thecivil authorities.

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d. Security of files must be maintained and pro-vision must be made for disposal of classified mate-rial in event of emergencies.

e. The commander should have up-to-the-minutedata regarding the status of personnel and equip-ment of all elements of his command. This may in-clude strength figures; rosters; reports on healthand morale of troops; equipment lists; reports oncondition of weapons, and supply of ammunition,vehicle loads, etc.

Section II. MESSING

115. GENERAL

Arrangements for messing for personnel of a con-voy or march unit depend on the situation and facil-ities available.

116. COOKING EN ROUTE

Kitchen trucks may march either in the head orthe trail of their respective units or, in long columns,halfway between head and trail. When kitchentrucks march at the head, they halt at the prescribedhour, and personnel in the rear are brought up formess. W1hen they march at therear, they may passalong the columnn and issue mess. When the kitchentruck is located at a halfway point in the column,troops may dismoult and march to it for meals. Itmay be desirable to have a schedule for messing soas to prevent crowding at the mess truck or on theside of the roadway.

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117. MESSES ALONG THE ROUTE

a. On dispatch and other regularly used routes,messes are sometimes set up by personnel stationedalong the route. Frequently, such messes are locatedat highway regulation points or other centers wherelarge nmlbers of troops pass.

b. Mess stations must be notified sufficiently inadvance, to enable them to have the required quantityof food at the scheduled hour. This form of mess isparticularly suited to convoys on a regular, estab-lished line haul.

Section III. QUARTERING

118. PLANNING

a. Regardless of the type of movement, whether itbe of supplies or personnel, it is important that plansfor quartering be made in advance.

b. In the case of large columns or convoys, thequartering arrangements are usually included in or-ders from higher authority or in standing operatingprocedures.

c. In the case of movements over dispatch routes,quarters may be provided along the route, frequentlyatkhighway regulation points. Use of these facilitiesmay be included in highway regulation orders orspecified in other directives.

d. Small units proceeding independently may haveto send advance parties to make suitable arrange-ments for quartering.

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119. BIVOUACS

N. It is important to base the selection of bivouacsites on factors other than mere map study. Un-necessary congestion has been caused by units select-ing the same bivouac area. If the area is congested,selection of bivouac sites should be coordinated byhigher command.

b. The best bivouacs are those providing conceal-ment cover and a potable water supply. Low, marshyground should be avoided. Entrance and exit roadsfor vehicles are an important consideration in select-ing this site.

c. Within metropolitan areas bivouacs may befound in large parks, fair grounds, and on or adja-cent to airports not in use. In the continental UnitedStates bivouacs must be arranged for in advance.Usually it is preferable to stay at some distance fromcities or other thickly populated areas.

d. Drivers should be bivouacked or billeted in thevicinity of the motor park where their vehicles arelocated. At some posts this may not be practicablenor necessary. However, in the field it is usuallyessential.

e. When tactical considerations govern, vehiclesmay be scattered throughout the bivouac rather thangrouped into a motor park. When this is donetroops may be allowed to sleep in empty vehicles,but they should never be allowed to sleep under themor at positions along their exit routes from thebivouac. On breaking bivouac every driver shouldcheck under his vehicle and along the route he willtake out of the bivouac to assure that he will injureno one on the ground.

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Section IV. MEDICAL

120. GENERAL

Medical service should always be available to amarch. It may be provided by the area commandthrough which a march proceeds, or it may accom-pany the march.

121. MEDICAL SERVICE ON THE MARCH

a. Elements organic to a unit should accompanythe parent organization. Medical elements in a largecolumn are dispersed throughout the columnn insmall cohnnns the medical element should be locatedat the trail. In large columns, a sufficient mnumber ofambulances shoild be made available. When onlya few vehicles are involved in a convoy, medical serv-ice may consist of first aid kits only.

b. No one should be allowed to ride in ambulancesor other medical vehicles except the assigned medicalpersonnel or men actually sick or under treatment.

c. If the march lasts more than a day, arrange-ments should be made for regular sick call during ahalt or before breaking bivouac.

d. First aid kits should be readily available at alltimes, even if a medical detachment is marching withthe convoy.

e. Every driver should know the rudiments of firstaid.

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Section V. ACCIDENTS AND PROCEDURESFOLLOWING ACCIDENTS

122. GENERAL

a. Motor vehicle accidents usually result fromcareless driving, disobedience of traffic directives, ordisregard of the rules and normal courtesies of theroad. Prevention is far more important than cor-rective action. Safe driving practices, defensivedriving, and common courtesy, instilled in Armydrivers, constitute the best insurance against mis-haps on the road (TM 21-305).

b. Because of the greater degree of supervision andcontrol, accidents are less likely in an organizedmarch. Nevertheless, when accidents occur in columnformations, they may temporarily disrupt the marchand for this reason are more serious from the stand-point of keeping the organization intact and on itsprescribed schedule.

c. Many accidents ocurring in convoy formationsmay result from faulty march planning or fromcauses other than driver neglect. Columns formedtoo compactly for-safe driving may create hazardousconditions. Improper control, especially at inter-sections and in congested areas, may be the causeof accidents and disruption of the column.

123. 'NORMAL PROCEDURE IN EVENT OF ACCIDENTWITH A MARCH COLUMN

The following procedures are those normally re-quired regardless of the location or circumstancessurrounding an accident. They may be followed inthe case of damage or casualties resulting from

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enemy action as well as in the case of damage orcasualties caused by carelessness. However, certaindeviations may be necessary, depending on circum-stances.

a. Coitomn Continues the Ml/arch. The main partof the column does not stop to render assistance.Every effort is made to clear the route and continuethe march. However, a serious accident may causepart of the convoy to be blocked, or it may make itadvisable for a small convoy to be halted. Suchhalts should be made a sufficient distance from thescene to avoid further congestion and mishap.

b. T'rail Gives A.ssistarne. Vehicles to the rearpull around the accident. If the accident blocks theroute, the occupants of vehicles in the rear mustclear the way at once, then proceed with the march.If immediate assistance is needed to aid personnelinvolved in the mishap, this may be given by thenext following vehicle. The next following officer,or noncommissiolled officer, takes control in renderingemergency aid and in directing other vehicles past,until the trail officer or medical officer arrives, oruntil other assistance is obtained. Necessary steps tocare for the injured and to salvage vehicles andcargoes are normally carried out under the directionof the trail officer, assisted by any medical, main-.tenrance, and salvage personnel which may be avail-able for the purpose.

c. Precautions Agairst Further Accident.(1) After a motor vehicle accident the vehicle

or vehicles involved are frequently indangerous locations, and sometimes a crowdcollects in the road. Another accident-per-

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haps more serious than the first-may occurwhen another vehicle crashes into the wreckor hits persons in a crowd. To prevent ad-ditional accidents, damage, or injury, thefirst thing to be done is to post guards, flaresor lights (except in blackouts), or flags towarn all other traffic to proceed with caution.If civil or military police are present, theywill usually direct traffic: otherwise soldiersmay act as traffic guards.

(2) Traffic personnel restore normal trafficmovements as soon as possible. It is de-sirable that damaged vehicles be left undis-turbed, when this does not interfere withimportant traffic, to assist the investigatingofficer in determining how the accident oc-curred. Military need permitting, witnessesshould remain at the scene of the accident toprovide information for the investigatingofficer, All others are kept away, and trafficis kept moving so far as possible.

d. Aid to Injured. Personnel injured in an acci-dent should be given immediate first aid. Unlesscompetent medical personnel are immediately avail-able, first aid should be restricted to removal fromthe vehicle if this can be done without further injuryor if there is danger of fire. (Injured should bemoved as little as possible before arrival of com-petent medical personnel.)

e. Precations Against Fire. In motor vehicleaccidents, there may be gasoline leakage. Gasolineexposed to the air creates a highly flammable vapor,which means great danger of fire. 'This should be

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lessened by cutting off engines and permitting nosmoking and no open flame near the wreck.

j. Summon the Proper Authorities.(1) Normally all accidents, however trivial,

which result in injury to an individual oranimal or damage to property, are reportedto the column commander or designatedstaff officer without delay and to the mili-tary police of the nearest military installa-tion (sec. XII, ch. 3, FM 19-25).

(2) Most civil governments require that policebe summoned in cases of motor vehicle acci-dents. The army cooperates with civil au-thorities in the United States and friendlycountries in such matters. If civil police arenot on hand, they should be notified.

Section VI. REFUELING ON THE MARCH

124. GENERAL

a. When convoys require fuel beyond the capacityof the vehicle tanks used, provision must be madefor refueling en route. It is important that refuel-ing be accomplished before there is any possibility ofexhaustion of fuel by any vehicle in the column, butvehicles should not be refueled too early, as the opera-tion must then be repeated more frequently.

b. However, advantage is taken of every opportu-nity to keep fuel tanks filled without delaying themarch. Halts made for any other purpose should beused for refueling when practicable. Close super-vision of fuel distribution is necessary to take care ofdifferences in fuel requirements of various vehicles.

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e. Every precaution should be taken against fireduring refueling. Engines should be cut off, careshould be taken to avoid spilling fuel, and there mustbe no smoking on or near vehicles at this time. Whenthe column is subject to enemy attack, refuelingshould be carried out under cover of darkness or, ifin daylight, in concealed areas.

125. METHODS

Fuel may be supplied to vehicles in column bymeans of the following:

a. Filled Contaiers Carried by the Colun. Themost rapid method of refueling is by use of filled con-tainers issued to vehicles before starting a march.If sufficient cans are available, no other method ofrefueling may be necessary for the entire march.Filled containers may be issued to each vehicle or allcans may be loaded on one particular truck of thecolulmn, which during a halt moves along the columnexchanging filled containers for empties.

b. Refueling Points Established Along the Routes.Refueling points established along the route or setup in advance by the moving unit may be of thenature of gasoline dumps or parked tank trucks. Toprevent congestion at such refueling points casualvehicles and those comprising infiltration marchesmay be refueled and dispatched as they arrive, andvehicles in column may pick up containers and moveto a less congested place beyond the point for re-fueling. When permitted by local regulations,empty containers may be left at the roadside afterrefueling to be picked up later and returned to thepoint. Care must be taken to assemble by unit and

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stack the cans neatly and in such a manner as theymay be easily observed from the road.

e. Permanent Gasoline Dispensing Units or Fill-ing Stations. Commercial filling stations may bemade available to military use or may be operatedby the military; otherwise, gasoline dispensing unitssupplied from tanks or from taps off military pipe-lines may be provided at established locations.

d. Tank 7Trucks. Tank trucks may be located atrefueling points or attached to the column, or theymay move along a route to refuel convoys at prear-ranged locations. At the halt tankers will move alongthe column filling tanks and containers, or vehiclesmay be moved past parked tankers.

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PART FOUR

HIGHWAYS AND HIGHWAY TRAFFIC

CHAPTER 9

MILITARY HIGHWAY TRAFFIC

Section I. GENERAL

126. CHARACTERISTICS OF MILITARY TRAFFIC

a. Military traffic consists largely of movementsof groups of vehicles having a common mission.Civilian traffic is usually movements of individualvehicles having limitless variations in origin anddestination. Nevertheless, there is a considerableamount of casual military movement which is simi-lar to ordinary civilian traffic. There is also, inmany cases, flow of civilian traffic, in areas of mili-tary operations, which is essential and cannot bedisregarded.

b. The flow of military traffic is subject to large,erratic, and often unpredictable changes; and thisflow may be interrupted by traffic jams and bottle-necks for short or long periods of time. Suchchanges and interruptions may occur with little orno advance warning.

127. TRAFFIC CONFLICTS

a. All traffic difficulties including accidents, de-lays, and confusion arise from the same basic cause,which is the conflict of moving traffic units, with

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each other, or with fixed objects in or adjacent to thenormally traveled roadway. Conflicts which thecolumn or march unit and the traffic engineer mustconsider are of four types:

(1) Between vehicles at intersecting courses.(2) Between vehicles meeting from opposite

directions on the samne route.(3) Between vehicles moving along a road and

other vehicles, persons, or objects at theedge of or immediately adjacent to the road.

(4) Between vehicles proceeding at differentspeeds in the same direction.

b. These conflicts may result in either congestionor collisions, due to many factors, including deficien-cies and limitations of roads, vehicles, and drivers.The approach to the problem may be facilitated by adistinction between correctable deficiencies and limi-tations which are not correctable. By correctabledeficiencies is meant those characteristics of men,vehicles, and roads which a commander can effec-tively overcome before they are allowed to seriouslyhandicap his mission; by limitations, is meant thesecharacteristics which, because of their more inherentnature, cannot be immediately overcome and towhich the commander's plans must conform. Forexample, the mechanical defects of vehicles may becorrected, however, vehicle size and capacities limitthe loads which may be transported in them. Thehighway network might be improved or extended iftime and equipment allowed; but in many cases thereis no tiule for such corrective measures, so limita-tions as to widths and clearances must be con-sidered.

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128. COORDINATION

a. Traffic difficulties can be resolved only throughthe coordinated efforts of all concerned-from thecommander and his staff to the drivers of individualvehicles and their immediate supervisors. Thisrequires a closely intergraded system of trafficmanagement.

b. For the best results it is necessary that trafficmanagement be a coordinated function under a cen-tral agency and, equally important, that the unitcommander u ndersta nd his relationslhip and responsi-bility to the over-all function of traffic management.Traffic management must provide effective correla-tion of highway transport equipment and highwayfacilities with the demands of supply and personnelmovement. It must also provide the necessary co-ordination of all traffic iloving over highways inorder to realize priorities and the demands of thetactical situation.

c. When movement mulst proceed over roads underjurisdiction of civilian authorities, appropriate co-ordination with those authorities must be effected.Generally, this will include advance notice of imili-tary movements given to civilian agencies and fullestcooperation on the part of marching personnel withcivilian traffic police.

129. HIGHWAY MOVEMENT RECONNAISSANCE

a. General. Highway movement reconnaissancemay be necessary to obtain information upon whichto base the traffic plan or to supplement or confirmavailable data. The amount and type of information

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to be obtained is dependent upon available time,personnel, equipment, and the situation.

6. Personnel. Highway movement reconnaissanceshould be made by highway traffic engineers obtain-ing specific data on a particular route. In the ab-sence of technically trained personnel reconnaissanceparties may be sent out over sections of the road netto obtain general information as to best availableroutes, etc. In established areas traffic reconnais-sance should be a continning process accomplishedby technical personnel stationed throughout the areawho furnish headquarters information on the everchanging traffic situation.

c. Sources of information. Prelimiuary informa-tion as to the location of roads, their general aline-ment, general capabilities of routes to handle requiredtraffic, and other characteristics is usually obtainedfrom a study of maps or aerial photographs and fromtraffic authorities. Even though other sources ofinformation may be available, traffic reconnaissancemay be necessary to suplplement data already ob-tained, to substantiate this information, or to bringit up to date. When sufficient data is available,reconnaissance may be negligible or even omitted.

d. Reconnaissance Equ1ipment. Equipment neededfor highway movement reconnaissance will vary withthe type of information sought. The reconnaissanceparties may have need of the following:

(1) Transportation. Sufficient light vehiclesare usually a necessity. Aircraft may alsobe used for this reconnaissance.

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(2) Contmunication. Exisiting communicationfacilities such as telephone and teletype maybe used in transmfittinlg reconmmissance data.Communication by radio mnay also be desir-able. When aircraft are being used fortraffic work, prearranged signals may beused by traffic personnel on the ground.

(3) AMap?. and aerial photoyra/p]h . Maps, par-ticularly road maps, are needed for orienta-tion and guidance. They also provide aconvenient form on which to record roaddata. Recent aerial photographs are a val-uable supplemelnt to maps, particularlywhen available maps are not. up to date.

(4) Special eguipmnent. The following equip-ment will be found useful on traffic re-connaissance:

(a) Vehicle mileage recorder for tabulatingdistance between points.

(b) Stop watch for use in timing traffic pastparticular points and in estimating trafficflow.

(c) Tally counters or trafiic recorders for esti-mating traffic volume.

(d) Tapes or calibrated rods for measuringbridges, fords, overpasses, road width,etc.

(e) Engineer sketching equipment for pre-paring sketches or overlays.

(/) Camera for photographing hazardous orother positions of interest to the planners.

(g) Binoculars.

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(h) Tool kit for hasty correction of damagedor fallen signs.

e. Infolmnation to be Furnished ReconnlaissancePersonneZ. Directives for reconnaissance should in-clude the following:

(1) Basic information.(a) Routes to be reconnoitered.(b) Extent and nature of information to be

obtained.(c) Brief statement of the situation as it af-

fects the reconnaissance.(d) Personnel, transport, and equipment

available for the task.(e) Type of report desired; time and place to

submit report.(2) More specific information which may be re-

quired by a particular reconnaissance.(a) The tactical or logistical requireinellts

directly affecting traffic over routes, in-cluding size and type of units to be moved,destination, etc.

(b) Maximum loads expected, maximum over-all lengths, widths, and heights of ve-hicles when loaded, and minimum turningrequirements.

(c) Weights of heaviest unlits to pass over theroute, destination of loads, out-sized loads,etc.

(d) Types and methods of march to be em-ployed, that is, individual dispatch, con-voy, or other.

(e) Requirements as to location of dumps andterminals, staging areas, etc.

a86

(f) Required route signing and marking to beaccomplished.

(g) Other specific questions as to informationto be obtained.

(h) Reconnaissance personnel to be furnishedall available information pertaining tothe route(s) to be reconnoitered.

f. Information to be Obtained by Traffic Recon-naissance. Following are types of information whichmay be obtained by traffic reconnaissance. Very sel-dom will all of these items be required from recon-naissance parties.

(1) General route information.(a) Location and nature of major routes.(b) Location and character of major junctions

and access or egress routes to the majorroutes being reconnoitered.

(c) Location and character of major roadblocks, contaminated areas, mines, andother potential hazards.

(d) Location and characteristics of bypassroutes or detours around congested areas,fords, and road blocks.

(e) Location and characteristics of routesthat provide maximum protection fromhostile ground or air attacks.

(f) Distance between all important points.(g) Types of surface and condition of road-

ways and shoulders.(h) Width of roadway and/or number of

traffic lanes available in each section ofroadway.

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(i) Limiting physical features (clearanceheights and widths and maximum allow-able loads) of structures such as bridges,overpasses, and culverts.

(j) Maximum gradients of steep hills.(k) Road and bridge construction required

and in progress.(2) Dump, terminal, and other facilities.

(a) Adequate sites for the location of dumps,depots, servicing stations, and other sup-ply facilities, particular attention beinggiven to their access from the majorroutes.

(b) Evacuation and hospital facilities.(c) Location and characteristics of turn-

around facilities, off-road halting places,bivouacs, etc.

(3) Traffic information.(a) Traffic density and traffic volume existing

or anticipated and by which an estimateas to military vehicle and tonnage capa-bility of the route may be made.

(b) Variations in traffic flow during particu-lar time periods over sections of routes.This information may sometimes be ob-tained from civil authorities, or by deviceswhich automatically count traffic flow inrelation to time.

(c) Location of sensitive points of high traf-fic volume, potential bottlenecks, cross-road interference, intersections needingcontrol, railroad crossings needingguards, defiles needing two-way regula-

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tion, sections of routes needing patrols,etc.

(d) Existing or needed signal communica-tion facilities.

(e) Existing or needed traffic control devicesincluding signs, route markers, etc.

(/) Traffic control techniques employed ordeemed necessary.

(4) Recommendations and conclusions.(a) A general estimate of engineer work

needed.(b) Recommendations as to traffic circulation,

possible routings, etc.(c) Estimate as to officer and noncommis-

sioned personnel required for traffic con-trol and highway regulation purposes.

(d) Summary of findings, recommendations,and conclusions.

g. Limitations. Traffic reconnaissance should befor the specific purpose of gaining information uponwhich headquarters will base the traffic plan. Forthat reason reconnaissance parties should not nor-mally be assigned tasks which would delay or other-wise handicap them in their primary assignment.

Section II. FUNDAMENTALS OF HIGHWAY TRAFFICPLANNING

130. GENERAL

a. Only with the cooperation of all elements usingthe highways may the traffic authority properly per-form its functions of regulation and control. To theaccomplishment of this end it is important that the

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individual commander of a march be familiar withthe fuldamentals of higher level traffic planing.

b. Knowing the number, nature, and capabilitiesof the highways, and the quantity and nature of thatwhich is to be moved, the highway transport officermust plan the number and type of vehicles and truckunits needed. These plans must consider whetherthe situation requires vehicles capable of negotiatingunnimproved or poorly constructed roads or of driv-ing off-road over difficult terrain. Must they becapable of cross-country movement or will the roadnet permit the use of larger vehicles capable of trans-porting big loads and thereby conserving road space,personnel, and fuel? Plans must be made for thenecessary highway transport personnel, not only forthe actual hauling but for command and staff super-vision, including highway regulation functions.

c. In planning the location of terminals, depots,and dumps, care must be taken that they conform tothe general traffic circulation plan, that it is prac-ticable for vehicles to reach the dumps, or depots,even in bad weather, and that there is sufficient hard-standing for operation within the installations.

d. Highway traffic planning is a continuing proj-ect during the course of an operation. Concurrentmovements are separated in space by assignment tononconflicting zones of movement, routes, or trafficlanes. Movements can be separated in time by sched-uling to avoid conflict. The plan must be adaptableto ready modification, expansion, or alteration.

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131. FACTORS IN HIGHWAY TRAFFIC PLANNING

Basic factors used iiin highwavy traffic planning haveto do with the number and types of vehicles whichmay either occupy or move through a segment ofroadway. Traffic density (vehicles per mile) is thespace factor and traffic volume (vehicles per hour)is the time factor. The use of these two factors isrelated to the time and distance factors used in marchplanning, and the formula by whicll they are com-pulted is somewhat similar. Traffic volume and den-sity are very important in studying highway vehicleand tonnage capability, but are omly a secondaryinterest to the march unit commander. He should,however, be familiar with them in order to fit themovement of his unit properly into the traffic pattern.

a. Traffic Volwme. Traffic volume is the number ofvehicles moving in a specified direction or directionson a given lane of roadway that pass a given pointduring a specified period of time. (Traffie flow, oftenused synonymously, implies volume of vehicles flow-ing in one direction only).

b. Traffic Density. Traffic density is the number ofvehicles occupying at unit length of roadway at agiven instant. It is usually expressed in vehiclesper mile.

132. TRAFFIC VOLUME

a. Traffic volume (or flow) is usually expressedin vehicles per hour and can be determined by thefollowing formula:

Density x speed = volume

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This may also be stated as follows:Vehicles per mile (vpm) x average miles per

hour (mph) = vehicles per hour (vph).b. For plalming purposes, when a major portion

of traffic over a route is organized military move-ment, allowance must be made for the time gapbetween march units and serials. The traffic volumeof individual march units, because of their internaldensities, will be higher than the average flow overa specified lane of the route. Therefore, the averagevolume per lane must be appropriately increased be-fore being applied to the flow of march units orcolumns. For adaptation to a specific area underfield conditions, it is necessary that time and spacestudies be conducted continuously in order to arriveat a suitable factor. This study may result in trafficvolume to which allowances for time gap betweenmarch units and serials must be added, or a trafficvolume which includes allowance for time gap be-tween march units and serials.

133. TRAFFIC DENSITY

a. Traffic density is usually expressed in vehiclesper mile and can be determined by the followingformula:

Volume - speed = densityThis may also be stated as follows:

Vehicles per hour ± rate of march in miles perhour = vehicles per mile.

b. Any traffic density desired to effect dispersionor to maintain maximum capacity of a route may bearrived at by another process as follows:

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One mile (in yards) + desired intervehicularlead (in yards) =density.

For example, if, for security reasons, it is desired todisperse vehicles every 100 yards (lead), the densityestablished would be:

1,760 yards + 100=17.6 vehicles per mile.

Section III. TRAFFIC AIDS-MAPS AND SYMBOLS

134. TRAFFIC MAPS

a. General. Traffic information presented throughuse of symbols on maps may include the followingitems:

(1) Road net; adjacent signal communicationnet; connecting or parallel rail and othertransportation nets.

(2) Designation by lettering or numbering ofspecific routes.

(3) Identification of traffic terminals, cities,towns, intersections, military establish-ments, and important terrain features.

(4) Road data, distances, limitations, etc.(5) Direction of traffic movements, lanes, etc.(6) Classification of routes.(7) Traffic volume, traffic density.

b. Strip Maps. These maps are particularly use-ful to march personnel. They give a schematic pic-ture of a route of march and information pertainingthereto. When practical, strip maps should be re-produced in quantity and supplied to all personnelconcerned, such as column commanders, control offi-cers, trail officers, serial and march unit commanders,

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PERDICARIS

RP

LEGEND

ll US ROUTE

ODaNH 8( STATE ROUTE

+ 5 + MILEAGE BETWEEN POINTS

@ PARKING AREA

ANLASY

*s5o otLUMBUS

LYNHAVEN

MCLEAN

RODMAN

IP

HAWTHORN ,%

Figure 23. Strip map.

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vehicle drivers, guides, and escort personniiel. A stripmap is especially neeeded when drivers operate in-dependently or when gaps between vehicles are solarge that individual vehicles may become separatedfrom their column. WVhen strip maIps cannot be madeavailable, march personnel should be provided witha list of places through-which they must pass, nlm-bers of highways to be used, and detailed directionsregarding turns to be made en route (fig. 23). Stripmaps need not be accurately, but should be roughly,to scale.

c. Overlays. An overlay is a transparent sheetused in connection with a map, which gives specialmilitary information not shown on the map. Whenlaid over the map on which it is based, the details onthe overlay will supplement the map. Overlays andstrip maps traced from larger maps are easily re-produced in the field and are beneficial in outliningthe route to be followed on a particular march. Theymay also give location of bivouacs, initial points,halts, etc. (fig. 24).

d. Traffic Maps. Traffic maps are used by higherheadquarters in preparing the traffic plan. Stripmaps, overlays, and circulation maps may be de-rived from traffic maps. The circulation map is atype of traffic map.

e. Circulation Maps.(1) Circulation maps are used to indicate a road

net or system of routes, and necessary in-formation and traffic restrictions pertainingthereto.

(2) The circulation map establishes one-way,two-way, and alternating routes of traffic

195

,,Jo

196

.' a + X

flow. Care is taken to assure that routesare available for a circuitous flow in the re-quired directions. A one-way route nor-mally requires a compensating route in theopposite direction for the return of vehicles,and adequate access and egress routes mustbe provided along all routes. Where the bal-ance between main routes and access-egressroutes is not maintained, the capability ofmain routes may be limited to the capabilityof the access or egress facilities.

(3) Circulation maps show such information asopen, supervised, dispatch, and reservedroutes; limit lines; area boundaries; mile-age between important points; bridge andother w-eight limitations; restrictions ondensity, speed, etc; and location of dumps,depots, highway traffic control posts, andhighway regulation points. Road informa-tion shown on circulation maps .applies

throughout the length of road betweenpoints shown by heavy dots or crossbars.

(4) Circulation maps frequently consist of astandard map plus an overlay which to-gether give the needed information. Insome cases the needed information may betoo much to get on one overlay, in whichcase separate overlays may be used to showdifferent types of information (fig. 25).

135. MAP SYMBOLS

a. General. The following symbols may be usedto present traffic information in convenient and con-

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etxnsss ,s tr (RsICLOL JreL)

Figure 25. Traffle circulation imap.

cise form on highway maps. Other map symbols are

covered in FM 21-30.b. Road Classification Symbols:

(1) In classifying a stretch of road a rating ofeither good or poor is determined independ-ently for each of the following elements of

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the road: alinement, drainage, foundation,and surface. In recording the ratings, eachelement is symbolized by the first letter ofthe word denoting it-"A" for alinement,"D" for drainage, "F" for foundation, and"S" for surface, as indicated in table I. Theclassification also includes symbols pertain-ing to the length of the stretch of road towhich the classification applies, the widthof the traveled way at its narrowest point,and the type of surface material. Table IIshows these additional symbols. All of theroad classification information is presentedin the form of a fraction. Symbols forelements rated "good" and symbols for roadwidths and surfaces are placed in the nu-merator, while symbols for elements rated"poor" and for road lengths appear in thedenominator. For example-

"good" elements, road width, surface type"poor" elements, road length (in miles)

The following:F MW20 bsADS 9.2 mi

denotes a stretch of road 9.2 miles long and20 feet wide at the narrowest point in thetraveled way, which has a good foundation,poor alinement, poor drainage, and a light-duty bitumnilnous surface in poor condition.

(2) Certain temporary or singular data such asone clogged culvert or one sharp curve in along length of road should not be the limit-ing factor for classifying the entire length,

99

Table I. Ratings of Elements Used in Road Classification

RatingElement Sym _

Good * Poor I

Alinement -- A Moderate grades, Steep grades, sharpgradual curves, curves, inade-adequate sight quate sight dis-distances.' tances.

Drainage B Adequate ditches, Inadequate ditches,crown or super- crown superele-elevation, with vation, or cul-adequate culverts; culvertsverts in good and ditchescondition, blocked or other-

wise in poor con-dition.

Foundation- F Stabilized, eom- Unstable, loose, orpact material of easily displacedgood quality. material.

Surface - S Free of potholes, Potholed, bumpy,bumps, or ruts; or rutted; pave-pavement, if ment badlypresent, free cracked.from excessivecracking.

If the rating is "good," the symbol will be placed in the numerator'of thefraction.

b If the rating is "poor," the symbol will be placed in the denominator of thefraction.

/ Moderate grades are 6 percent or less steep grades more than 6 percent.Gradual caures have 150-foot radius or more, sharp curves have less than 150 footradius.

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Table II. Symbols for Length and Width of Road and forTypes of Road Surfaces

Symbol Mcaning

LENGTH AND WIDTH

mi ._-l- Preceded by numeral indicates length of the roadin miles between two points identified by dotson the map or overlay.

W--- Followed by a nunmeral indicates width in feet ofthe traveled way at the narrowest point.

TYPE OF SURFACE

k -_._. Concrete.bt -. . .Bituminous pavement, heavy duty.-bs ..-- Bituminous surface treatment (except on concrete,

brick, or block pavement), bituminous stabilizedsand or gravel, or other bituminous type suitableonly for light duty.

br __--- Granite cube, stone block, or clay brick pavement.m ____- Crushed rock, macadam, or coral.g -_. .. Gravel.sm .---- Stabilized soil, sand-clay, shell, cinders, disin-

tegrated granite, or other select material.ea. - Earth.XX...-- Other types not itemized above. See reconnais-

sance notes for complete description.

Flexible pavement on a base course and subgrade capable of carrying contul-nous heavy-duty traffic.

b An initial course less than 1 inch thick is considered a bituminous surfacetreatment rather than a pavement.

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but should be noted in an appropriate man-ner with complete description.

c. Bridge Symbols. (See fig. 26.) Bridge in-formation is shown by a symbol such as:

W18

Clr 14 Cl

W18 Indicates the width of the bridge curbto curb-in this case 18 feet.

Clr 14 Indicates the overhead clearance of thebridge in feet-in this case 14 feet.When the clearance is unlimited, thesymbol Clr 00 is used.

40 Indicates the weight class of the bridgeCl20 and length of critical span. In this

case, the weight class is 40 tons, andthe length of the critical span is 20 feet.

d. Traffie Symbols (FM 21-30). Special trafficdata may be abbreviated on maps in such a manneras to indicate a ratio of traffic density, speed, and re-sulting traffic volume or flow (pars. 132, 133). Thiscombined symbol usually indicates the average speedand density and the resulting volume on a particularsegment of roadway. However, it may be used toprescribe rates when so explained in marginal notes.

(1) The symbol for volume of traffic on twolanes of a roadway with traffic moving inboth directions is given below:

D60 V1500S25

D60 Indicates an average density of 60vehicles per mile. (If density isprescribed, it normally indicates a

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OVERLAY FOR PORT ROYALSHEET 5160 = SWVIRGINIA 1:50,000

LEG6#D

@FEDERAL HI"Gwys

(* STATE HsIGwAYs

Figure 26. General road and bridge information whicl canbe showu by sym.bols.

minimum which must be main-tained.)

S25 Indicates an average speed of 25 milesper hour. (If speed is prescribed, itnormally indicates a maximum whichmust not be exceeded.)

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V1,500 Indicates the average traffic volumeof 1,500 vehicles per hour resultingfrom the other two factors. (Ifvolume is prescribed, it normallyindicates that an established ratioof density to speed must be main-tained.)

(2) The symbol for flow of traffic in one direc-tion on a single lane of the same roadwayis as follows:

F750S25S

D30 Note that density has been reduced byone-half so as to indicate 30 vehiclesper mile on a single lane of theroadway.

S25 The speed remains the same, regardlessof the number of lanes.

F750 Indicates an average traffic flow of 750vehicles per hour in a given direc-tion on a single lane. Note thattraffic flow on the two-lane route re-sults from dividing the volume bythe number of lanes-in this in-stance, flow is one-half the volume.

Section IV. SIGNING AND MARKING ROUTES

136. IMPORTANCE

a. Traffic signs and markings are invaluable fororderly and safe circulation in the road net. How-ever, their purpose is accomplished only if such de-vices are properly employed and uniformly under-

204

stood. Improper practices on the part of those re-sponsible for erecting signs and markers and inade-quate training of drivers in recognizing the meaningof signs defeat the intention of route signing andmarking, and hinder the flow of traffic.

b. Proper standardized traffic devices prevent in-dividual vehicles or units from getting on the wrongroute. Such devices indicate one-way routes; showspeed limits and other regulations; prevent accidentsby giving warning of conditions ahead; and mini-mize the need for guides and information stations,thereby conserving personnel.

137. EFFECTIVE USE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

The following essential factors require careful at-tention on the part of the agency erecting traffic con-trol devices:

a. Justification. Installation of signs or other de-vices must be kept at a required minimum. Excessiveuse of signs detracts from the conspicuousness of im-portant signs and often causes them to be overlooked.

b. Uniformity. To facilitate recognition, signsand markings must be of standard design. Uniform-ity involves adherence to standard size, shape, colors,wording, and symbols. Important features of theuniform standards are sign shape and color com-binations.

c. Location. Devices must be placed where theycan be observed in time to permit compliance.

d. Position. Signs should be mounted closeenough to the roadway to be conspicuous, but not soclose as to be likely to be struck by passing vehicles.

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They should be installed where they will not be ob-structed by undergrowth, branches, and buildings.At no time should unit signs be placed on the samemounting as general traffic signs. Traffic signs serv-ing the greatest number of people should be givenpreference as to location and visibility.

e. Legibility. Words and symbols should be largeenough to be read with ease. Wording should nor-mally be limited to not more than four words to as-sure ready comprehension.

f. Color. Color combination and type of paintmust be selected with care. Experience has shownthat a flat, nonglossy paint is preferred to enamel.Bright lemon yellow contrasts best with black onwarning and caution signs, and has highest visibility.

g. Accuracy. All signs and markers should beaccurate, indicating exact condition. If a sign statesthat the speed limit is 15 miles per hour, then itshould mean that a 15 mile per hour speed limit swillbe enforced. The warning "sharp curve" on a signshould indicate a sharp curve and not a gradual one.Use of signs which are not accurate causes drivers tohave little respect for the signs and to disregardthem.

h. Maintenance. Signs must be cleaned, rein-stalled, replaced, and repaired promptly whennecessary. All obsolete signs must be promptlyremoved. Provision must be made to prevent dam-aging, defacing, altering, or removing current signs.

138. SECURITY

a. It is occasionally advisable to remove all signsand markings which may aid the enemy. However,

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care should be taken that removal of signs and mark-ings does not handicap our own and allied forces toa greater extent than it does the enemy.

b. It must also be remembered that signs whichgive the location of units and installations, whilevery helpful to those who must reach that unit, mayalso be read by enemy agents. The use of such signsmust be determined by existing conditions and mustbe subject to orders of the commander concerned.

139. RESPONSIBILITY FOR POSTING OF SIGNS

The general responsibility for posting of signs andmarkings lies with the engineers, who procure orconstruct and erect all signs except those for tem-porary routes and traffic control; with the provostmarshal, who prepares and posts route markings andtraffic contrlol signs for temporary routes or use; andwith commanders concerned who always have a re-sponsibility inherent to their command functions.

140. STANDARD MILITARY SIGNS

a. Military forces normally observe and make useof existing road signs in an area, and it is importantthat military drivers be familiar with the standardtraffic devices of the United States (fig. 27) and offoreign countries (par. 146) where military opera-tions may be conducted. However, there are manyoccasions when a military force must prepare anderect its own route signs and markers.

b. The US, British, and Canadian Armies haveagreed on a standard system of military route sign-ing for use wherever the existing devices are inade-

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REGULATORY SIG

A. REGULATORY SIGNS

( also regulatory)

B. WARNING SIGNS

tRICHMOND 15

SALEM 26 -S

C GUIDE SIGNS

Figure 27. Examples of standard US signs.

quate or lacking. This system does not differ radi-cally from standard US practice; it consists ofregulatory signs (combining US regulatory andwarning signs) and guide sigJs.

(1) Regulatory signs. Regulatory signs con-trol the movement of traffic as directed by

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authority or call attention of drivers tohazardous. conditions on or adjacent to aroad. The basic sign is a yellow, diamond-shaped sign with legend or symbol stencilledin black. Some samples of regulatorysigns are given in figure 28. Special typesof regulatory signs are the "railway cross-ing stop" sign and the "stop" sign as givenin figure 29.

(~) SLOW (~LIMIT HILL

Figure 28. Joint US, British, Canadian regulatory signs.

Figure 29. US, British, Canadian special regulatory signs.

(2) Gluide signs. Guide signs direct drivers toplaces, indicate distances and directions,and furnish other type information. Thebasic sign is a white square or rectangle withlegend or symbol stencilled in black. Somesamples of guide signs are given in figure 30.An important special type of guide sign is

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the British "directional disc" which may beused in conjunction with other signs or onthe face of a "guard lahmp"' placed beside theroad. Thie arr ow mily be turnled ill differentpositions to indicate directions. For ex-amples of this type see figure 31.

/ PARIS AllIS

'_ _' ENTRY

Figure 30. US, British, Canadian guide signs.

Figure 31. British directional discs.

141. UNIT INSTALLATION SIGNS

a. A standard design for unit name signs shouldbe prescribed in all theaters or other area commandsin order to achieve uniformity and to facilitate recog-nition. Units should be forbidden to install on roadsany signs which do not conform to the prescribedstandard design.

b. Unit name signs should be installed only at thelocation of the unit and at the junction of the accessroad, if any, with the nearest main road.

c. In areas containing a number of units in bivouacor quarters, Unit name signs should be erected on signladders provided at road junctions. In the absence

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of these devices, signs should be erected in a neatmanner on existing posts, poles, etc., or on mountingsprovided by units themselves. They should not beaffixed to any special mountings provided for trafficcontrol signs, nor in such a way as to obscure suchsigns.

d. Unit commanders are responsible for the promptremoval of their signs upon changing locations.

142. UNIT GUIDE SIGNS

a. In the conduct of marches temporary unit signsmay be used in a similar manner to guides. Theyshould be posted by any advance detachment preced-ing the column and should be taken up by a trailparty immediately after the entire column has passed.

b. Similar temporary signs may be used at re-lease points to direct march units of a column intotheir respective areas or bivouacs.

143. MARKINGS

Traffic markings are devices, lines, patterns, words,or colors embedded in the surface or applied on orattached to the pavement, curbing, or adjacent ob-jects. They are officially placed for regulating,warning, or guiding traffic.

144. SIGNALS

Traffic signals are any devices having moving partsor using light which flashes or otherwise warns ordirects traffic to take some specific action.

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145. TRAFFIC ISLANDS

Traffic islands are areas within a roadwhy fromwhich vehicle traffic is intended to be excluded, aswell as areas at the approaches thereto occupied bywarning devices.

146. INTERNATIONAL SIGN SYSTEM

Foreign traffic control devices, especially signs,have been standardized to a considerable extent inmany European countries and elsewhere throughoutthe world. It is therefore desirable that militarydrivers in areas employing the international systembe familiar with its application. The internationalsystem (fig. 32) of road signing includes three classesof signs-danger signs, signs giving definite instruc-tions, and signs giving indications only. Thesecorrespond to the three types of United Statessigns-warning, regulatory, and guide, respectively.

DANGER PROHIBITED INFORMATION

AAPPROPRI ArzO

(BLACK) (RED) (BLUE OR OTHER)

GIVE RIGHT-OF-WAY DIRECTION TO FOLLOW LOCATION

V X | GENEVE|(BLACK) (BLUE) (BLUE OR OTHER):

Figure 32. Standard international sign system.

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CHAPTER 10

HIGHWAY REGULATION AND TRAFFICCONTROL

Section I. GENERAL

147. MILITARY TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

The general control of movement of military per-sonnel and supplies may be divided into separatefunctions as follows:

a. Command determination of priorities of move-ment that personnel and supplies will have over linesof communications.

b. Movement control exercised over routing andmovement of personnel, troop units, and suppliesover lines of communications. Movement controlspecifies what is to be moved, when it is to be moved,where it is to be moved, and which transport servicewill be used (water, land, or air), but not how thetransport service conducts the movement.

c. Regulation is concerned with the planning, rout-ing, scheduling, and directing of the use of travelways to utilize transport equipment and facilitiesmost effectively. The transport service specifies howthe operation will proceed.

d. Traffic control is the enforcement of rules ofthe road, traffic regulations, and road discipline, in-cluding point direction of traffic on highways. Traf-fic control is performed by military police.

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148. THE TRANSPORTATION OFFICER

The transportation officer is the staff officer re-sponsible for technical supervision of the transpor-tation service required by the command.

149. REGULATION AND CONTROL OF HIGHWAYTRAFFIC

a. Two forms of control, organizational and area,are exercised to insure that highways are used mosteffectively and efficiently.

(1) Organizational control is exercised by thecommander of the unit passing over theroad to insure that rules of the road andtraffic and other regulations as prescribedby higher headquarters are followed. With-in limitations prescribed by higher head-quarters, this control includes fixing thespeed, spacing, and routing; adhering toschedules; enforcing discipline, local secu-rity, etc.

(2) Area control is exercised over highwaytraffic moving within or through a givenarea and consists of those laws, ordinancesand regulations established over a road netwhich are external to the control of theorganization moving over the routes. Di-rectives of the area must conform to thoseof higher authority and, in the case of dis-patch or reserved routes passing through anarea, control is vested in the command em-bracing the entire route.

214

b. Successful highway movement requires closecooperation and integration of the following activi-ties:

(1) Highway regulation is a TransportatiollCorps responsibility, except when there isno transportation section of the staff inwhich case it is the responsibility of theofficer- charged with staff supervision oftransportation matters (i. e., G4, S4). It ismainly concerned with making fullest useof available highway facilities and the trans-port conveyances moving over highways.

(2) Military traffic control, a Military PoliceCorps responsibility, is primarily concernedwith the control of vehicular, animal, andfoot movements over roadways, or in areaswhere vehicles move, to facilitate the safeand continuous flow of traffic in conformitywith military requirements, including thehighway regulation plan.

(3) Road maintenanlce and construction is theresponsibility of the Corps of Engineers,which effects the necessary road and bridgereconnaissance and classification; preparesroad maps; and performs necessary con-struction, repair, and maintenance of roadsand bridges.

(4) Signal communication is the responsibilityof the Signal Corps, which provides theessential communication services (by tele-phone, teletype, radio, etc.) necessary forefficient centralized management of high-way traffic.

215

(5) Automotive maintenance support is the re-sponsibility of the Ordnance Corps, whichprovides third and higher echelon serviceand repair in support of the operating units.

(6) Provision of fuel, oil, and lubricants neces-sary for the operation of vehicles is a re-sponsibility of the Quartermaster Corps.

(7) Other technical services play a part by pro-viding personnel, supplies, and facilities.

150. CONTROL CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS

Highway routes are classified in accordance withthe degree of highway regulation and/or controlthat may be necessary.

a. Open Routes. An open route is a roadway overwhich only a minimum of supervision is exercised.Ordinarily, supervision on an open route is limitedto control of traffic at intersections, and to the pro-vision of necessary traffic signs and markings. Con-trol on such a route is similar to civilian control overlocal country roads carrying a small traffic flow.

b. Supervised Routes. A supervised route is aroadway over which limited control (by means oftraffic posts, traffic patrols, or both) is exercised bymilitary police. Small units are ordinarily allowedto use a supervised route without prior correlationof individual march schedules, but time of access tothe route may be regulated at control posts in con-formity with the traffic situation. Control on asupervised route is somewhat similar to the civiliancontrol normally exercised over primary highways.

c. Dispatch Routes. A dispatch route is a road-way over which full control, both as to priorities of

216

use and the scheduled movement of traffic in time andspace, is exercised. Both highway regulation andhighway traffic control are exercised on dispatchroutes. The operation of such a route is somewhatsimilar to that of a railroad.

d. Reserved Routes. A reserved route is one that isset aside for the exclusive use of a designated unit orspecified type of traffic, or for other specific pur-poses. When reserved for a specific unit, the com-mander of that unit decides the degree of regula-tion and control which will be exercised. It may ormay not be operated as a dispatch route.

Section II. HIGHWAY REGULATION151. GENERAL

(FM 100-10)a. The rapidity with which tactical situations

change in war makes it necessary to keep all con-voys in hand so that the routes, schedules, and des-tinations may be changed at any time to meet newsituations. It is evident that exact routing andscheduling cannot be maintained over convoys iftroops, civilians, refugees, and other casuals arepermitted to occupy road space on the same routes atwill. Therefore, to prevent conflict and confusion,it is necessary that movements over highways beregulated by one agency, or that the actions of agen-cies concerned be well coordinated.

b. Highway regulation is the planning, rototing,scheduling, and directing of the actual use of high-ways by vehicles, personnel afoot (including troops,refugees, and other civilians), and animals, so as tomeet operational requirements. This function in-cludes:

217

(1) Preparing highway regulation standingoperating procedures (SOP) and/or trafficplans.

(2) Selecting routes necessary to implementsuch plans.

(3) Planning the nature and size of convoys.(4) Making march graphs from which to de-

velop and follow schedules covering all con-voys or other units moving over dispatchroutes.

(5) Keeping every serial constantly in handthrough a system of highway regulationpoints (HRP) located strategically alongthe route.

(6) Recording the actual progress of each serialon graphs or otherwise.

(7) Revising schedules and routes to meetchanges in priorities or destinations madenecessary by orders, changes in tactical sit-uation, failure to adhere to schedule, enemyaction, etc.

(8) Regulating highway traffic over routes un-der supervision, as may be required.

c. Highway regulation is essential for three rea-sons: to implement the movement control program;to avoid congestion and conflict of traffic; and tokeep serials constantly in hand so that their ordersmay be changed at any time to conform to changesin the tactical situation with consequent changes indestination, routing, and priorities. Highway regu-lation is applied only to the degree which will assurean orderly and effective flow of supply and personnel,and in such a way as to aid the movement control

216

program and meet the priorities established by theresponsible commlanler.

152. ORGANIZATION FOR HIGHWAY REGULATION

a. Highway regulation on a given route or net-work must be a centralized function. A highwayregulation office is normally established within thecommand as part of the highway section of the trans-portation staff. This office is a staff agency of thecommander concerned and works in close coopera-tion with other agencies of the staff to effect the willof the collllnder.

b. However, there are important exceptions to theabove practice. They are as follows:

(1) When the communications zone is notdivided into sections and the respectivechiefs of service are charged with the con-duct of all operations of their servicesthroughout the communications zone (par.22b, FM 100-10), the communications zonechief of transportation exercises highwayregulation for the communications zonecommander.

(2) When an intersectional highway service iscreated (par. 23, FM 100-10), the com-munications zone chief of transportationexercises highway regulation through thecommander of that service.

(3) When a route is reserved for the use of asingle unit, such as a division, corps, orarmy, or for an express operation by a high-way transport service, the commander ofthe operating unit exercises such regula-

219

tion as lie deems necessary. He decides onthe nature and degree of supervision overthe assigned route, and exercises that super-vision.

(4) When highway transport units of the corm-munications zone deliver supplies to in-stallations in army rear areas, highways usedfor such purposes are regulated as orderedby the theater commander, or in the absenceof such direction, as agreed between thearmy and communications zone com-manders. Responsibility for regulation onsuch highways may be given to the com-mander of the communications zone, or ad-vance section, or of the highway transportunit operating the haul.

153. HIGHWAY REGULATION POINTS

Highway regulation points are set up along dis-patch routes to transmit orders and report progressof serials. The number of points required on a routedepends upon the road net, the situation, the volumeof traffic, and/or the degree of regulation necessary.Personnel of highway regulation points work inconjunction with military police manning traffic con-trol posts. As each convoy or other scheduled move-ment passes a highway regulation point, the infor-mation is telephoned, radioed, or teletyped to thehighway regulation office where the actual progress isplotted. However, when security or overloading ofcommunication facilities makes it advisable, the reg-ulation points may report only those serials which are

220

off schedule, and it may be assumed that those not re-ported are on schedule. The first method is surer andis preferable, but in either case the highway regula-tion officer knows where each serial is and has theover-all picture of traffic moving over the supervisednetwork. If a serial is late, headquarters issues neworders to prevent it from jamming up the entireschedule. If the tactical situation changes so as torequire some diversion of serials or changes in pri-orities, the highway regulation office knows just wherethe serials can be intercepted so that new instructionsreach them through the regulation points withoutdelay. Thus, the entire movement is kept constantlyin hand.

154. STANDING OPERATING PROCEDURES ANDHIGHWAY REGULATION ORDERS

a. General. Motor marches and convoys over dis-p1 atch routes normally move under orders of superiorauthority and are governed thereby. Details whichconcern one unit only, such as its time schedule, areincluded in orders issued to that unit. Standing op-erating procedures which apply to all units areattached.

b. Standing Operating Procedure. Standing op-erating procedures are orders which govern the rou-tine procedure to be followed. Standing operatingprocedure governing highway regulation must bebased upon the current features of operation thecommander desires invoked. It must be flexible:must provide for operational requirements; must becapable of implementation; and must conform to the

221

general traffic affecting the area in which the routeconcerned is included. It includes particulars ap-plicable to all movements made over the dispatchroute. For example, it may include information con-cerning the following:

(1) Route or routes.(a) Description and general limitations of

the route with references to applicabletraffic plan.

(b) Location of highway regulation pointsand military police traffic control posts.

(c) Location of terminals, transfer points,depots, dumps, etc.

(2) Organization of serials.(a) Type of march (open or close column,

etc.).(b) Intervehicular gapls, leads, or speed-

ometer multiplier.(c) Interserial time leads.(d) Control measures required (use of

guides, flags, marlkings, etc.).(3) Rates and speeds.

(a) Rate of march.(6b) Maximum permissible speed.

(4) Convoy operation.(a) Checking in at highway regulation point.(b) Frequency and dluration of halts.(c) March discipline.(d) Special rules of the road (if any), such

as passing of convoys.(e) Driver relief.

(5) Seceurity.

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(a) Passive security measures (camouflage,minimllm gaps, restrictions on use of ra-dios, lights, etc.).

(b) Action in case of air or other attack.(a) Prevention of pilferage.

(6) SC(pp7ies and rnaijntenance.(a) 3Maintenance, i iclulding emergency repair.(b) Disabled vehicles.(c) Fuel and oil.(d) Rations and messing.(e) Casualties.

(7) Other.(a) Communications.(6b) Reports and reporting procedure.

c. /liyghcay Reg'dation. Orders. Highway regilla-tion orders emanate from and are issued in the nameof the responsible commander. Highway regulationorders allocate road space, prescribe routes, and givetime schedules and special instructions to each serialoperating over dispatch routes. They may includestanding operating procedure but it is more practicaland economical to give the details which are peculiarto each serial in a separate highway regulation order,and to attach the applicable published SOP. Theseorders cover all marches over dispatch routes in ac-cordance with priorities established by the command.For example, a troop movement may be ordered overa dispatch route supervised by a highway regulationoffice. Such a troop movement is given the priorityordered by the appropriate commanding general andis routed and scheduled accordingly. The highwayregulation office must adjust other routings andschedules to meet that priority.

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d. March Orders. March orders are those ordersissued by the commander of the unit making a marchand giving only the details of the march of his unit.They may or may not be required to supplement high-way regulation ordeis. See paragraphs 177-180 re-garding march orders and march tables.

155. HIGHWAY PRIORITIES

a. Priorities for use of the highways establish, inorder of time, the precedence of troop movementsand movements of cargo. The fixing of priority isa command function based upon tactical and admin-istrative requirements.

b. Highway movements in progress at a particulartime may or may not correspond to the establishedpriorities. There may, for example, be opportunityto send out a convoy ahead of a priority movementwhich has been delayed. However, if the prioritymove catches up, the other convoy may have to beheld en route to let it pass. Priorities may be revisedat any time, and movements in progress may havetheir orders changed to effect new priorities.

c. It is impossible to standardize priorities whichapply in all situations. For example, it may be moreurgent to supply ammunition or gasoline to forcesactively engaged than to give them reinforcements.With this qualification, the following general prior-ities for highway regulation are normally applicable:

(1) Equipment proceeding to remove a trafficobstruction.

(2) Tactical movement of troops.(3) Ambulances.(4) Wire patrols and construction crews.

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(5) Supply convoys.(6) Casual administrative traffic.

d. Isolated vehicles of troop commanders, staff offi-cers, and messengers are normally allowed freedomof movement.

156. HIGHWAY REGULATION SCHEDULES

a. IHighway regulation schedules are the means ofassigning routes, making a time apportionment ofroadway use, meeting priorities, coordinating arrivaland departure, preventing traffic congestion, control-ling average speed, and limiting densities.

b. Schedules are of several types as follows:(1) Infiltration. A vehicular dispatch rate as-

signed to a unit for use during a specifiedperiod by which vehicles of the unit, eithersingly or in small groups, are permitted toproceed to their destination at prescribedtime periods is an infiltration schedule. Ex-ample: Two vehicles are dispatched every5 minutes for the first hour and three every10 minutes the second hour.

(2) Location. The apportionment of time todifferent movements at a location, such asan initial point, an intersection, terminal, ortraffic bottleneck is a location schedule. Ex-ample: Northbound movements proceedthrough a defile every even hour and south-bound every odd hour.

(3) Column. The designation of successive ar-rival and/or clearance times for successivecolumns or serials at a specific point on aroute is a column schedule. Example:

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Schedule of serials past Point "X" (timecleared)-Serial A, 0819; Serial B, 0923;Serial C, 1057.

(4) Route. Tile apportionment of time to dif-ferent movements along a given route is aroute schedule. Example: Schedule ofSerial A along a route (arrivals)--Point X,1325; Point Y, 1403; Point Z, 1752; etc.Route schedule combined with columnschedule ((3) above) is usually used in regu-lating movements over dispatch routes.

(5) System. A composite schedule for timeand space control of all important move-ments on a given road net is a system sched-ule. Table III illustrates such a schedule.

e. The need for detailed scheduling by the unitconducting the march is indicated in pertinent or-ders. When time limits for completion of the marchare the only instructions in such orders, units pre-pare their own detailed schedules within these timelimits.

157. CLEARANCE FOR DISPATCH ROUTES

a. Movements over dispatch routes may be givenclearances by the appropriate highway regulationoffice. Normally the clearance will have been ar-ranged by headquarters ordering the movement, andno action by the unit conducting the march will berequired. However, smaller movements and thosemade independently of the higher command may re-ceive clearances by furnishing the highway regula-tion office the necessary information, which may in-clude the followinlg:

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Table III. System Schedule, a Comlposite Schedule for aRoad Net

SCHEDULE I17 -- NORTH SOUTH ROUTES(Correspoads to Schedul 179 .East-West Routes)

ROUTE A ROUTE ROTE C INTERSECTIONTIM 6 ies Hill toRac Mt Er to Ljune Nobbs to Eggest ROUTE A .ad C

DISPATCh[ S eaonas$un¢%ctn

0600 Reserved Supply Serl Closed lo O0to It 6. Div. # IZ rp

0659

0700 Resro ed Supply sc I Ope Ate.t

0759 U pnpCe0759. It Id.r6~ D~iv ~ N~ .n M~AP pters io

0660 Re setved Sppml Sial- Open Dti

'l rd000 Nortb trafic Itrnesctbs ResertdOp tenfin

to oi ll.o Id. Iil. I# . 6 ? j1519 See ede 079 - bf7tssMP er sos

OtOO leash teII Suptly sersitn R$spreed d open

M59 MolP . le [9 10 t D i .iv

1600 Open PrIacity move Resefred ypen

1i59 29t Arty I arioS t t I* d Div.

r. 05-IS

(1) Headquarters requesting clearance.(2) Name of convoy commander.(3) Unit to move.

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(4) Authority to move.(5) Total number of vehicles.(6) Size and number of march units.(7) Size and number of serials (if applicable).(8) Gross weight of heaviest vehicle in column.(9) Location of unit.

(10) Destination.(11) Time and date of movement.(12) Route desired.(13) Speed at which the element can move.

b. The clearance for a specific move may be theinclusion of that unit in the schedule for the particu-lar dispatch route. A copy of this schedule accom-panying the unit's orders will be the unit command-er's authority to use the route at the time and withinthe limits specified; the unit's schedule will be ex-tracted from the general schedule.

Section III. HIGHWAY TRAFFIC CONTROL

158. GENERAL

a. Traffic control personlnel keep traffic moving inconformity with the traffic plan. Under organiza-tional control, these personnel normally consist ofdetails from the organization involved.

b. The training and equipment needed for trafficcontrol are covered in detail in FM 19-5, FM 19-10,and FM 19 25. All drivers should be familiar withthe signals employed by military police as describedin FM 19-25. Paragraphs 159 and 160 discuss someof the more important aspects of traffic control appli-cable to the proper conduct of motor marches andconvoys.

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159. CIVIL LAWS AND ORDINANCES

Except when military necessity requires contraryaction, it is general policy to conform to all laws andordinances when in the continental United States orin territory of friendly nations. However, this doesnot prevent arrangements being made with civilauthorities which pernhit motor march units and con-voys to run through red lights, or otherwise disre-gard usual civilian law and regulation when ade-quate safeguards, such as police escorts, have beenprovided.

160. AUTHORITY OF MILITARY POLICE

a. The provost marshal exercises highway trafficcontrol through military police, whose specific func-tions include the following:

(1) Enforcing applicable rules for safe driving,speed, spacings, blackout measures, localrules of the road, etc.

(2) Point control at road intersections, defiles,bottlenecks, etc.

(3) Keeping unauthorized traffic off dispatchor reserved routes.

(4) Reducing traffic conflicts which may occureven on dispatch routes.

(5) Effecting emergency adjustments to thetraffic circulation and control plans and at-tempting to restore the schedules with theleast delay.

(6) Preventing pilferage, straggling, and otherinfractions of discipline.

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(7) Providing road patrols and escorts.(8) Giving information, local directions, etc.

b. Military police are empowered to take such ac-tion in traffic matters as may be necessary to enforceexisting orders and regulations. They are em-powered to direct traffic in emergencies and in theabsence of specific regulation, but the action of mili-tary police must normally be designed to restore andmaintain an orderly traffic flow in accordance withprescribed schedules and routes. Routing and sched-uling on dispatch routes are functions of the high-way regulation office of the appropriate commander.The military police function is to aid in carrying outhighway schedules and routings; rerouting and re-scheduling will be done only in emergencies and willbe followed by a report to higher headquarters indi-cating the emergency faced, the action taken, andrequesting further instructions.

c. While it is of the utmost importance that eachcolumn, serial, convoy, or march unit commander ob-serve all orders issued as part of the necessary ex-ternal control, it is equally important that such com-manders realize their respective responsibilities andthat they do not permit unauthorized persons tochange the schedules or routings prescribed by higherauthority. The convoy or march unit commander isresponsible for adherence to his prescribed routingand schedule. On the other hand, military policemust take action required to meet unexpected emer-gencies. If the military police issue instructions con-trary to the prescribed routing and schedule it shouldbe done so far as practicable, in coordination withthe appropriate highway regulation office.

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d. On dispatch routes, any emergency action takenshould be referred to the nearest highway regula-tion point in order that the point may acquaint thehighway regulation office with the situation, andenable that office to revise the existing plans so as tomeet the situation and keep the organized traffic planin effect.

161. TECHNIQUES OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

The three control techniques are point control,patrols, and escort. A combination of point controland patrols is normally used in area control. Escortsare used in both area control and in conjunction withorganizational control. Point control makes use offixed traffic control posts at road intersections, de-files, and other bottlenecks. Traffic control by patrolmakes use of motorized personnel who travel theroads between traffic control posts. Traffic controlby escort makes use of motorized personnel whoprecede and/or accompany the march and regulatetraffic at successive points of conflict.

162. COLUMN PASSAGE

a. Traffic rules regarding overtaking and passingof vehicles apply generally to colunns. However,where priorities and schedules are in effect only acolumn of higher priority will pass another. Priorarrangements should be made for all passing opera-tions. Coordination with the commalnder of theovertaken column should be effected before passing isbegun. Control personnel at the head and trail ofthe slower or halted columnl act to facilitate the pass-

231

ing operation, or to prevent it, when passing is un-safe. \\When the lane to be used for passing is knownto be clear, or when conflicting traffic has been heldback by a guard, the trail officer of the slower orhalted column signals the faster column to moveby. When the last element of the faster column hascleared the head of the column being passed, normaloperations are resumed. Passage of columns shouldbe made at suitable prearranged locations and, when-ever practicable, during a scheduled halt of theslower column.

b. On roads of two lanes with traffic in oppositedirections, control personnel of the passing columnare responsible that all vehicles are cleared from thecounterflow lane before passing is begun, regardlessof whether assistance is obtained from the columnbeing passed.

c. AWdhen any column contains vehicles of unusuallength, it may be necessary to post guards at curvesto prevent conflicts resulting from the rear sweepof these vehicles during the passing operation.

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PART FIVE

CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONNEL ANDSUPPLY MOVEMENTS

CHAPTER 1 1

PERSONNEL MOVEMENTS

Section I. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

163. GENERAL

a. Since it is normally desirable that troop unitsbe kept together, motor columns transporting per-sonnel are often larger than supply convoys, whichmay more readily operate as smlall march units orserials. However, while columns of a tactical troopmovement are often much longer than those ofsupply convoys, they are nevertheless broken downinto march units corresponding as closely as prac-ticable to the smaller. units making up the trooporganization.

b. Two units-the unit being transported and thetruck unit furnishing the transportation-are fre-quently involved. It is therefore essential that thefunctions of and the restrictions on each be clearlydelineated and that command responsibilities be un-derstood and observed.

c. Where personilel are being transported, someof them may be detailed to guide, guard, reconnais-sance or security duties. This presents a command

233

problem in the delineation of responsibility for con-duct of the movement (par. 164).

d. It is of utmost importance that officers of alltroops have knowledge of the general principles ofhighway transport movement. Movement by high-way, like that by rail, must operate under a thor-oughly coordinated system. The effectiveness oftroops depends not only on their own movement butalso on the movement of supplies.

164. COMMANDa. Personnel movements require close coordination

between those in command of the transportation andthose in command of the troops being transported.

b. Personnel movements by motor vehicles in-clude:

(1) Those using vehicles which are organic tothe unit being transported.

(2) Those made by means of truck units at-tached or assigned to the unit being trans-ported.

(3) Those made by means of TransportationCorps (TC) truck units, operating as partof the general hauling service provided byhighway transport service and not assignedor attached to the unit being transported.

c. When a unit is being transported by its organicvehicles, the troop commander has full command ofboth the personnel being transported and those op-erating the vehicles.

234

d. The commanding officer of a unit to which atruck unit has been assigned or attached by properauthority, exercises command over the unit throughits commanding officer.

e. When a truck unit is not assigned or attachedto the unit which it is transporting but is merelyproviding the transportation service required, com-mand of the convoy and of each serial or march unitthereof remains with the truck unit commander andhis officers and noncommissioned officers at their re-spective levels. In such case the commanding officerof the troops being transported (troop commander)retains full command of his troops and issues suchorders as may be necessary to conform to those issuedby the convoy commander as to schedules, march dis-cipline, and operation of the convoy. The troopcommanlder should no more interfere with the opera-tion of the convoy than he would with the operationof a troop ship or railroad train by which his troopswere being moved. However, should a tactical emer-gency so require, the commander of troops beingtransported, regardless of rank, may assume com-mand of the convoy and issue such orders as may benecessary to meet the emergency. In so doing, thetroop commander should realize that the convoy com-manlllder may be proceeding under orders which arepart of a closely integrated schedule and that un-necessary changes in any part of the schedule mayseriously impair the plan. The troop commandermust accept fill responsibility for any action whichunnecessarily interferes with the over-all highwayschedules.

235

165. COMMAND DURING THE MOVEMENT

a. The senior officer or noncommissioned officer ofthe troops in each truck commands the personneltransported in that truck. He is responsible fortheir discipline and for making sure that they com-ply with the existing convoy regulations.

b. The driver of a vehicle. or the senior officer ornoncommissioned officer of the personnel operatinga group of vehicles, is responsible for compliancewith his schedule and instructions. He is respon-sible for safe operation of the vehicle, and is ie-quired to make sure that personnel being transportedobserve safety, sanitary, and other regulations. Re-gardless of rank, he will give the senior officer or non-commissioned officer of the troops being transportednecessary instructions.

c. While the senior officer or noncommissionedofficer of troops being transported should not inter-fere with the operation of the vehicle, and shouldconform to all proper instructions of the vehicleoperating personnel. it is his duty to report to theappropriate superior any derelictions on the part ofvehicle-operating personnel.

d. At the lower levels of command, these prin-ciples apply whether the movement is by organicvehicles, by attached TC truck units, or by inde-pendently operated TC units. In each case, certainpersonnel are charged with responsibility for themovement. They operate under definite plans, andofficers and noncommissioned officers of troops beingtransported should conform to the orders issuedunder those plans.

236

e. In singly dispatched vehicles (for example, pas-senger sedans), the senior passenger is responsiblefor seeing that the driver obeys laws, regulations,etc., which are usually set forth on a card carried inthe passenger vehicle.

Section II. METHODS AND PROCEDURES

166. GENERAL

There are four general methods for accomplishingpersonnel movements. These may be adapted totactical or administrative troop movements undervarious conditions.

a. Full Lift. When sufficient truck units are avail-able or the troop unit is completely motorized, theentire movement may be accomplished in one lift.

b. Point-to-Point Shuttle. Truck units may shut-tle back and forth from point to point, taking a por-tion of the troops on each trip. until the movementis complete. Unless the situation is well in hand orcan be met by the first troops transported, thismethod is not usually suited to tactical movementsin which the troops may be required to go into im-mediate action.

c. Leapfrog Shuttle (fig. 33). Leapfrog shuttleis perhaps best applicable to tactical troops whilemaking advance or retrograde moves in combat orwhile in close support of combat operations. It is avariation of the point-to-point shuttle and may bevaried to meet the situation. It may be demonstratedby the movement of two units of a single command.From one position, a unit moves and establishes andholds another position. When this position has been

237

established, the vehicles return for the second unit.Instead of taking them to the position established bythe first, they carry them past, where they establisha third position. Then the vehicles return for thefirst unit and carry it past the new position estab-lished by the second. This is repeated any numberof times, depending on the length of the movements,whether or not the enemy is contacted, etc. The leap-frog method allows the movement to continue unin-terrupted while adequate positions are maintained.It may also be used to advantage in support of tac-tical forces.

d. Part-Ride, Part-WValk Shuttle (fig. 34). Troopmovements may be made by a type of shuttle move-

A A A A A k

Figure 83. Leapfrog shuttling.

MOINI-tO11 . Si#'l$IUmN

aaa a a IirlrelAZ. rellrT-L Nr$uttUMl

Figure 34. Troop shuttling.238

ment, klnow as part-ride, part-walk. Some of thetroops are transported by truck, while the remaindermarch on foot. At a designated point the troops, firsttransported by truck, detruck and march on foot theremainder of the way, and the trucks return and pickup those which started out on foot.

167. TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

a. During Nwar troops being transported by high-way should habitually be ready to go into action.Regardless of where a movement takes place, there isno absolute guarantee that there may not be someform of attack. In rear areas there may be the possi-bility of a parachute or fifth column attack or of anambush by infiltrated forces of the enemy. Even inthe zone of interior, where attack may be unlikely,it is good practice to remain alert from the stand-point of training and conditioning for future combatand as an insurance against surprise attack, which,in future war, may strike anywhere. Therefore, un-less the requirements for speed and vehicle utiliza-tion outweigh the requirements for security, those incharge of highway movements must make planswhich perimit the troops being transported to carrythe arms and ammunition necessary to enable themto go into action.

b. When there is anlly probability of encounteringthe enemy, marches should be made in organizedtactical teamns and troops should be loaded in sucha manner that they can quickly detruck and go intoaction. In such case this requirement normallytakes priority over getting the maximum troop trans-portation with minimum vehicle requirement.

239

c. Vehicles which contain essential equipment orsupplies (such as ammunition) in immediate supportof troops are formed in combat trains which accom-pany their respective units. Impedimenta whichare not essential to the troops during immediateaction are normally transported in field trains whichmay move independently of the troops but closelyenough to rejoin them when conditions permit.The movement of trains is similar to that of supplyconvoys, and impedimenta must be loaded and un-loaded in the same manner as prescribed for supplyconvoys (pars. 181-201).

168. ADMINISTRATIVE CONSIDERATIONS

a. Tactical loading of troops alnl tactical forma-tions of columns, desirable when the enemy may beencountered, are not always the most efficient meth-ods from the standpoint of comfort to personnel andof complete utilization of transport space. Peace-time movements and some movements made undercomplete security in wartime, may be more effectivelyaccomplished by certain administrative considera-tions. Under these circumstances troops may beloaded to the maximum capacity of the vehicles, con-sistent with personal comfort and without regard totactical organization.

b. Movements of this nature may be of short dura-tion, that is, transporting troops to field showers orto consolidated messes, or for social purposes inwhich no appreciable equipment would accompanythem. Or they may be of greater duration, in whicha large force of reserves is being built up in a rear

240

area or in which a casual body of troops is beingtransferred to another station. In the latter casesupplies and equipment can often be transportedmore efficiently by loading in separate vehicles or ina separate convoy or convoys preceding or followingthe personnel convoy. Small trailers (11/2 ton) aremost useful in personnel convoys made in mediumtrucks.

169. LOGISTICS FOR PERSONNEL MOVEMENT

a. March Day. During peacetime, and during warwhen tactical considerations do not interfere, the fol-lowing may be used as a guide in planning an aver-age day's motor march:

(1) Preparation for the march-1 hour-in-cludes time for breakfast, inspection of ve-hicles, and breaking camp.

(2) Running time-7 to 8 hours-includes allhalts except noon halt.

(3) Halt for lunch and refueling of vehicles-1 hour. (This halt may be shortened underwartime conditions.)

(4) Inspection and servicing of vehicles afterarrival at camp-1 hour.

b. Forced March. A forced march may be ex-tended to 24 hours, in which case the running time isapproximately doubled.

c. Rate of March and Distances. Rates of marchto be adopted and the daily distance that can be cov-ered will vary according to conditions encountereden route. Table XI, appendix II, can be used as aguide for motor marches.

241

d. Troop-Capacity of Vehicles.(1) The troop-carrying capacity of common

presently existing types of motor vehicles(troops carrying only individual arms andequipment) is as follows:

PerlOns

Trucks, '4-ton__… ______________._ 2Trucks, i2-ton…- ___.______.____ 5Trucks, %/4-ton .............________ 10Trucks, 1'/2 -ton __ ___._________. 15Trucks, 21/-ton, SW-B ...----___--- ISTrucks, 21-ton, LWB ______--- -_- 20Trucks, 2/%-toln, cab over engine

(COE) .-____-------------------- 25Semitrailer, 10-ton ____..______ 40

(2) Loads listed are in addition to driver andone man on the front seat. For distancesgreater than 75 miles, the above figuresshould be reduced.

e. Troop Loads.(1) In loading for personnel movement the

following must be taken into consideration:(a) Uvnderloading. If vehicles arenotloaded

to their practicable capacity, it may beimpossible to transport the required num-ber of troops on the trip.

(b) Overloading. If vehicles are overcrowd-ed, especially for long trips, the troopswill become overfatigued, and, in case ofpossible contact with the enemy, will notbe at their peak efficiency for battle.

(c) Improper loading-distribution. If troopsare loaded in the same vehicles with sup-plies and equipment they may becomecramped with resulting loss of efficiency.

242

Or, if loads are not properly secured theymay shift and injure troops.

(d) Improper loading---mission or destina-tion. If, in loading, troops are separatedfrom the equipment needed to accomplishan immediate or possible emergency mis-sion! the accomplishment of that missionmaly be retarded or prevented.

(2) For successful troop movements and efficientutilization of equipment each vehicle should,so far as practicable, contain loads-

(a) Which will comfortably fill the carry-ing capacity of the vehicle without un-necessary cramping.

(6) Made up of troops of a single unit, that is,squad, section, or platoon, so far as pos-sible and consistent with the circumstancesand possible emergency mission.

(c) With only the necessary equipment forthe personal or emergency use of troopsbeing transported, consistent with existingor expected conditions.

f. Compltintg Truck A'vailability and Repqire-inents. Computations as to truck requirementsshould be made first on the basis of organic vehiclesavai]able to the command and next on the basis ofrequirements for movement of troops and equipmentover and above those which can be transported inorganic vehicles. Table IV may be used in com-puting organic truck availability, and additional re-quirements which must be requested of higher head-qaarters may be computed as in table V.

243

oku -k g g o

0 >

a a>, X

244

e· a aa

g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' m

"~~ se 5 :E

d~

r ~~~~~~~253

g. Entruckbig and Detbwcking/. For entruckingand detrucking plannling factors, see paragraph 176.

Section III. ENTRUCKING AND DETRUCKING

170. RESPONSIBILITIES

a. In the case of motor marches made by a unit'sown or attached transportation, the commllding of-ficer of a unit prepares the entrucking and detruck-ing plans.

b. When a unit is to be moved by truck units, whichare not under command of the troop commander, it isimportant that there be a thorough understandillgbetween the convoy conlmander and the troop conm-mander as to place, time, and method of entruckingand detrucking. This is usually determined throughorders and/or standing operating procedure issuedby a common superior, but it may be by agreementbetween the convoy commander and the troop com-mander. In the absence of orders prescribing de-tails, it becomes the duty of the convoy and troopcommanders to arrange the schedules and methodsto be used.

171. ENTRUCKING POINT

a. An entrucking point is a location where a con-voy or column, or element thereof, halts for theboarding of personnel.

b. Normally, it is easier to move trucks than troopsand their impedimenta. Hence an entrucking pointshould be selected which, Mwhi le not presenting undueobstacles to the movement of the vehicles, will never-

246

theless require a minimum of foot marching by thetroops.

c. The entrucking point should afford a suitablearea for the method of entrucking selected. It shouldbe a point affording ready access to.the route whichthe motor column will take.

172. METHODS OF ENTRUCKING

a. There are two methods of entrucking, either ofwhich may be effective under certain conditions.

b. When time and space allow, the troop com-mander may ascertain the exact make-up of themotor column which will transport his unit, theexact number of troops which can be transported ineach vehicle, and the exact distances between vehicleswhen they halt for entrucking. (For personnel ca-pacities of vehicles, see par. 169d.) The troop com-mander then forms his command into parties cor-responding to the formation and capacities of eachvehicle. At the prescribed hour, the troop com-mander forms his unit in line or line of columns,along the line of march of the vehicles, with inter-vals corresponding to the gaps with which the ve-hicles will halt. The vehicles pull up opposite thetroops they will transport. At command, all troopsentruck simultaneously, using their assigned vehicle.This is by far the quickest method of entrucking, butit requires careful planning and sufficient space forthe troop formation and for the column of trucks.

c. When time for planning is insufficient or theavailable space is unsuited for the above method, thetrucks may be parked and the troops marched along-side in columns of ones, twos, or threes, and counted

247

off into vehicle parties. Each party is then led to itsproper vehicle. This method is slower than that de-scribed in subparagraph b above but is the easiestand most practicable method under many circum-stances.

d. A combination of the two methods of entruck-ing may also be used for general troop loadings byassigning each section, platoon, or company to a se-lected number of trucks. Tl'hen upon the proper com-mand, all units are marched simultaneously along-side their assigned trucks, and each platoon or sec-tion leader counts off his men into parties as theyboard the assigned vehicles.

173. DUFFEL BAGS AND PACKS AND OTHER INDI-VIDUAL EQUIPMENT

a. Duffel bags may be loaded on the same vehiclewith the men to whom they belong. This ma-terially reduces the number of men who may occupya vehicle with comfort, but lessens the probability ofloss of equipment.

b. 'Packs present a problem in that troops carryingthem cannot sit comfortably in most miilitary ve-hicles. Usually, it is desirable-to have troops boardthe vehicles with packs on and then take them offand stack them on the floor between or under seats.However, combat packs may be worn in relative com-fort during the march.

c. Duffel bags, bedding rolls, cargo packs, and otheritems not needed during the march may be loaded inseparate trucks or in trailers. When this is done theyshould be loaded by troops detailed for the purposein advance of entrucking. This method relieves the

248

troops of responsibility for their individual bagsand is less fatiguing, but there is greater probabilityof loss. If contact with the enemy is probable, it isdesirable that troops should not be burdened withresponsibility for duffel bags, and that they haveonly that equipment with them to meet the possibleemergencies.

174. LOADING ARMS

a. Individual arms should remain with the in-dividual soldier.

b. They are, however, likely to cause accidents ifthe soldier tries to carry his arms while boarding thetruck. Therefore, troop commanders should in-struct their troops in the proper manner of boardingwith arms. After the first man has boarded. eachman in turn may pass his weapon up to the manahead of him, securing it again before taking hisseat.

175. DETRUCKING

a. In general, methods of detrucking involve thesame factors of planning, orderly execution, andprovision for safety as are involved in entrucking.

b. Training should include practice in detruckingin the quickest possible time. This method of de-truckifig requires jumping out over sides of thevehicle, or any other way that is quickest, withweapons in hand and ready for use. It should takeonly a fraction of a minute.

c. However, such emergency detrucking is likelyto cause sprained or broken ankles or other injury.

249

Training must be designed to avoid casualties, andtroops should be instructed in such malller that theywill not take unnecessary risks. In no case shouldtroops be allowed to detruck before vehicles stop.

d. Detrucking requires less planning than en-trucking, but it does require a plan to assure its beingdone in an orderly manner which keeps the troopsin hand, permits prompt formation, and preventsinjuries.

e. Troops should not detruck until an order or sig-nal is given by the appropriate commander. Exceptin emergency, that order should not be given untildrivers have lowered tailgates so as to decrease theprobability of injuries in detrucking.

/. As in entrucking, the method of detrucki.ugmust be governed by the available area.

(1) When sufficient area is available. thecolumn may be halted in close formationand all troops detrucked simultaneously.This method is quick but may requiretroops in the rear to march the length of thecolumn in assembling or in reaching theirimmediate destination.

(2) A second method is to have successivetrucks, or truck squads, sections, or pla-toons, pull up to a given detrucking point,at which the troops detruck and assembleor march to a designated area.

(3) When troops are going into billet orbivouac, a satisfactory method is to desig-nate a dispersal point, from which guidesconduct sections of the truck column to thevicinity of the place of bivouac or billet of

250

the troops being transported. The troopsthen detruck near their bivouac or billet.

176. ENTRUCKING AND DETRUCKING PLANNINGFACTORS

a. Troop entrucking and detrucking time. Withtroops properly disposed at loading site, averagetime required to entruck and detruck personnel andto load and unload their individual equipment intoand out of military trucks is as follows:

A4rcrge time required(minutes) IDay Night

To entruck personnel ---.... _..... 10 20To detruck and re-form foot troops -.------- 5 10

b. Entrucking and Detrucking Tables. Computa-tions necessary to entruck and detruck personnelshould be made on tables as exemplified in tables VIand VII. These tables may be published as an an-nex to the march order.

Section IV. MARCH ORDERS AND MARCH TABLES

177. ORDERS(FM 101-5)

Warning orders and march orders, which may beroutine or combat, are of primary concern to thoseresponsible for motor marches. Standing operatingprocedure may also contain information vital to theconduct of motor movements.

Well trained ttroo, proopslerly organized and prepared, can loadand unload in much less time under good conditions.

25i

Table VI. Work Slcets for l'repsnration of Entrucking (tldDctriecking Tables

A. ENTRUCKING WORK SHEET

Moermet froeeUeif or Aossembly Marob to Hard

poitt arriv0sOrder of unot arer poit tolP at IP

Time Time Time T Tim ie TieTi Ti Tmebeun allowed beru allo.4d begun allowed begt etooed

/ 091.J .20 09(1 /02 040, Ž~0 0427 ,5 0720

2 olr/ :20 ar/ 2:0 0 ;20 adS' </0 07r#/

t 0002 :0d 0 92 :20 or eo

B. DETRUCKING WO[IR SHEET

Unit or

Orde of P tru Assembly

Tim Time Tme Time Time ime me Timeco-- Tz T-

alloted cte lfe alte- pitm- allooed comt

/ /t 2 :r 10 OhV . 12 0 e :L d '0 20

2 23 .0 .'0/ :,0 j 7 / :2 .200

7./ : 33 J :rIG OR 0 E/3

178. WARNING ORDER(fig. 35)

a. This is an order issued by a commander to informa unit or units of his comlmand of a planned action.

b6. A warning order is of value in alerting troopsand preparing them for a march before receipt of the

252

Table VII. EB rckiingll antd Detruocking Tables

A. ENTRUCKING TABLE a/

Unit or Movement ironAssembly March to EntruckingEntruc~ieg Head

Order of pont Entrucking t arrivesarrival Unit Area point Begins to IP t P

at IPei Begins

/ alJ4 2 OV45 04 67 O(27 0727

2 03s/ Y// o,// oa4/ 07*1

3 orp/7 J032 070D2 72.2 DJ

7 0602 0422 og22 OOl 0F1

B. DETRUCKlNG TABLE _/

Unit or Movement from March to AssemblSerial Tail RP To Detrucking inOrder of clears Detrucking Completed Area Unit AreClearance RP point

of RP Completed

/ /2f;7 20/ .2027 2/27 2/f7

a 2 D31 ./0/ .//// t/S/ / .27 243/ /0 2/ z,/ 220/

3 .2/0 .2.2 323. 232 2 3Y/

a22/I .2303 2 /3 .Jzj3 0,13

a/ Information extrted from work sheets (Table IV)

detailed march order. A warning order may beissued orally, or in the case of a large unit, may be inwriting.

253

tIM, r.LEo I MS. .EN No.. HOW .NT

No.X A_ Z DATE ?-leo Ae .To ,ro n C'",A~

/o/q.0 9 c-c .,4 c, OS,

Figure 35. ealmple of a waarning order.

179. MARCH ORDER(fig. 36)

a. Definition. A march order is an operation orderfor movement of personnel and prescribed equip-ment from one location to another within a statedperiod of time. These orders are issued by the au-thority having jurisdiction over the personnel in-volved in the order. See FM 101-5 for examples ofmarch order for larger units.

b. General. The march order should be issued insufficient time to allow subordinates to make theirplans, issue their orders, and complete their prepara-tions for the march. The amount of detail given in

254

march orders depends on the tactical and traffic situ-ation, the state of training of the command,and the degree of adherence to a standing operatingprocedure.

c. Form. Fragmentary orders may be used; butwhen time.permits, a detailed march order is issuedin the form of a five-paragraph operational orderaccompanied by appropriate annexes. Annexes tothe march order may include one or more of thefollowing: march table (par. 180), strip map (par.134b), entrucking and detrucking tables (par. 176),and administrative annex. When administrative de-tails are too voluminous for convenient inclusion inthe march order, it is customary to issue an admin-istrative order or an administrative annex to themarch order. Any of the following information isamong that which may be included in the adminis-trative annex:

(1) Supply. Methods of supplying food, water,fuel, ammunition, vehicle parts, etc. Spe-cial instructions with reference to local pur-chase of supplies and services.

(2) Evacuation. Details with reference to evac-uation of casualties, burial, salvage of dis-abled vehicles and'their cargoes, dispositionof captured material, and handling of pris-oners of war. Special instructions withreference to use of civilian hospitals for mil-itary casualties.

(3) Traffic. Necessary general instructions asto relief of drivers, blackout restrictions,marking of vehicles, marking of routes,maximum speeds, traffic regulations, etc.

255

lot In DiriAE, f.rSBU100800 Dec'

OPn 0 10

Hapt JAPa, s1250,000, UAOSHIMH.-0BEOXL

1. . Annex 1, pn Overlay.g. I Corp. oves to d.etki .area. vie SKABO-TAdA

-- AIIJTA Road prep to seizing BAYASHI--IATA.

2. . 1.t InD Div moes 10110o Doe to detntcking areas SE ofSESO-LhTUA Road; prep to aik Ns on div 0.

J. Alne 2, earch Table.

3. a. cr 1:b. CT 2s. (1) CT 3 (-):

(2) One t. 3d In (Rein): Paol lit ReCou Co.Ser. di, Nd are'.

d. I.t .& AA RA (-): Protect Dil Tns e- rote...· let Reoon Co: Move 100930 Dec. Recon ro.tes Rd ad

Dlun. Maintain In 201.t Ard Car.1. Div Irp:. Dil Tns:. (1) Annex 3, Veh Aeg Table

(2) 21: Ihat are loc. str, type dl1, mine fid andnatural terrain barrlers let In Dlv zone of action?

4. Adi 0 7.

5. a. Indre 7 SOI. ad silene until tseminated IV dlv O._b. CP:

(1) lst Inl Dir; Heed .erial 4.(2) Others Rapt locD. Dlv urch ctl pt: rIYaxJO.

nnexe: 1 - o Overlay (itted)2 - March Table (itted)3 - V h sg Table (itt.d)

Distr: A

OFL:// Smith

Figure 36. March order.

(4) Personnel. Uniform to be worn and equip-ment to be carried by personnel, method ofhandling mail, instructions to quartering.and clean-up parties, details as to camp siteroutine, hygiene and sanitation, etc.

256

(5) Maintenance. Instructions relative to ve-hicle maintenance and special types of re-pairs authorized or prohibited.

(6) A!iscellaneous. Any necessary administra-tive instructions not otherwise covered.

180. MARCH TABLE(table VIII)

The march order may be accompanied by a marchtable. This march table is normally derived from themarch graph and affords a convenient means of trans-mitting to subordinates their schedule and otherdetails pertaining to the march. Frequently timemay be saved if the march graph is reproduced anddistributed in lieu of the march table. The inclu-sion of this information in the body of the marchorder would tend to complicate it or make it undulylengthy.

257

E gmil;t i i: e aY nr:

9qa u41-

-it %5:�-�8��-`d��C

�S: -- -'---I lr "�"4 _�114 -4�S�I·"

1. -

� c s ICj� E �"9 �'?Fi�-(i C UU9 uun UUY, UV� d

1�/" e� " Idl ;f �: .E r�s rdJL

;Y4

WI" -B � · sF� a$ s E� j"� P� �"" 14 ir EJII , - -� " "

g �`I" .S �U-9 % Bii "-.�; o"" a� * ��Fj_ n O 4 i:a aa�zss

CHAPTER 12

SUPPLY MOVEMENTS

Section I. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

181. GENERAL

a. As most supply convoys operate in the com-munications zone or in rear areas of the combat zone,they normally require no advance, rear, or flankguard. Since supply movements are normally madeby truck companies with personnel sufficient onlyfor the actual conduct of the convoy, there is nopersonnel available to provide security or for exten-sive reconlaissance. MWhen supply convoys requiresuch safeguards, they usually must be provided byother troops.

b. Supply convoys should be of such size andformation as to assure the most effective flow oftraffic over the supply routes. Experience indicatesthat, in operation of supply convoys, the best resultsare normally obtained through small groups of ve-hicles. March units of a supply movement normallyshoud not exceed one truck platoon; serials shouldnot exceed one truck company.

c. Small convoys may or may not constitute aserial. For example, if an entire truck company isproceeding on a mission, its platoons may be sepa-rately constituted as serials, each platoon being givena separate time schedule; or the entire company, withplatoons operating as march units, may constitute

259

a single serial under one order and one marchschedule.

d. Large serials are cumbersome. While it is easierto use large serials in planning a movement, lessdetailed information is possible as to progress andthe movement is more likely to get out of hand. Withsmall serials, more detailed information is availablefor the purpose of highway regulation, and the move-ment can 'be kept under closer supervision and inbetter control in case the situation requires a changein orders; but small serials involve much more staffwork in planning and in recording the progress ofmovement.

182. MAKE-UP OF SUPPLY SERIALS

So far as practicable, each serial should containsupplies of a generally similar nature, so that, if itbecomes necessary to divert a certain type of sup-plies, the diversion order may be issued to a par-ticular serial. It is not practicable to make rigidspecifications as to how the supplies should determinethe division between serials. However, in general,vehicles transporting gasoline, ammunition, rations,or other different types of supply, should constitutedifferent serials, so that, if necessary, diversions canbe made according to the class of supply being trans-ported. This does not preclude the possibility offormation of a serial of several kinds of supplyneeded by a certain unit or installation. However,when supply serials are formed for the needs of acertain element, it must be realized that while they

260

may meet the demands of that specific element, theymay not be suited for diversion to other elements.Serials formed with several kinds of supply for asingle element make the highway transport systemless flexible. Nevertheless, such serials may be usedwhen other conditions outweigh the loss in flexibility.Under such conditions if each unit or vehicle isloaded with the same kind of cargo and there existsgood highway regulation, serials consisting of a num-ber of vehicles and transporting various kinds ofsupplies can be intercepted at a highway regulationpoint, reorganized, rerouted, and rescheduled to meeta change in the requirements. However, the extrawork, delay, and increased possibilities of error indi-cate the advisability of avoiding such situations.When the individual vehicles carry mixed loads suchchanges are almost impossible.

183. COMMAND

a. Generally, convoys of motor vehicles haulingsupplies are commanded by the senior officer or non-commissioned officer of the unit whose trucks make upthe convoy.

b. However, command of supply movements maydepend on the assignment of the vehicles being used.

(1) Supply movements made by a unit to trans-port its own supplies in its own organicallyassigned vehicles are under command of theappropriate officer or noncommissioned offi-cer of the unit.

(2) Supply movements made in vehicles of as-signed or attached truck units are undercommand of the appropriate officer or non-

261

commissioned officer of the truck nllit, who,in turn, is under command of the appropri-ate officer of the organization to which thevehicles or truck unit are assigned or at-tached.

(3) Supply movements made by truck unit op-erating as part of the general hauling serv-ice provided by highway transport serviceare under the command of the senior high-way transport officer of the convoy.

c. In cases where the tactical situation requires anarmed escort to protect the supply convoy, the seniorofficer of the protecting troops may be placed in com-mand. Under such circumistances, the iughway trans-port officer will act as his technical adviser. Forexample, assume that a truck platoon is carryingemergency supplies of small arlms anllnlllnition forthe direct support of anll infantry division in thecombat zone. The highway transport officer incharge of the vehicles has complete command of hisconvoy from the time it leaves the rear dumps untildelivery of the supplies and return to his base. If,because of enemy infiltration, an escort from thedivision troops is sent to accompany and protect theconvoy while in the danger area, the escort com-mander may issue such orders as are necessary to as-sure its safe arrival. The officer in charge of thevehicles continues to exercise command over the per-sonnel of the convoy though he gives complete co-operation to the tactical commander; and the tacti-cal commander should, insofar as possible, conformto established routes and schedules.

262

d. Supply convoys consisting of vehicles organicto a unit carrying their own equipment and suppliesand furnishing, when necessary, their own protection,operate under the command of the senior officer ornoncommissioned officer with the convoy.

Section II. TYPES AND METHODS OF SUPPLYOPERATION

184. HIGHWAY TRANSPORT HAULS

a. Highway transportation may be employed inany variety and combination of ways to accomplishspecific transportation missions. Types of opera-tions in which trucks are used are determined bythe task to be accomplished, whether it be for thepurpose of clearing a congested area, connectingother modes of transportation, adjusting the distri-bution of supplies wvithin a depot, or supportingtroops in combat.

b. Hauls may be described as "short" or "long"depending on the comparative distances or ratios oftime involved: or they may be described as "local"or "line" hauls depending on whether they are per-formled within the immediate vicinity of their baseor over the roads that connect terminal points.

c. Local or short hauls are characterized by lowrunning time in relation to loading and unloadingtime. They normally involve a number of trips perday and are evaluated on the basis of tons moved dur-ing the operational period.

d. Line or long hauls are characterized by highrunning time in relaition to loading and unloadingtime. They normally involve one or a portion of a

263

trip per day and are evaluated on the basis of ton-miles accomplished during the operational period.

185. HIGHWAY TRANSPORT OPERATIONS

The types of logistical support operations in whichmotor transport is employed, over varying distances,may include the following:

a. Port and Reach Clearance. Port and beachclearance is discussed in paragraph 187.

b. Truck Termilnal Operations. Truck terminalsare normally located on the extremities of line haulsand form the connecting link between local hauls andexpress services. Their function is that of an as-sembly point for highway transport equipment. Attimes they may be utilized for in-transit storage, butthey normally operate as marshalling yards for linehauls. In a typical operation loaded semitrailers arepicked up by terminal tractors at depots or dumpsnear the forwarding terminal, moved to the mar-shalling yard, and formed into convoys and serials.Incoming long-halul tractors drop their empty semi-trailers and, after any scheduled maintenance, arecoupled to the loaded semitrailers and moved out inconvoy formation for the express haul.

c. Tr'an sfer or Conecting, Operations. Railhead,air terminals, and transfer points are installationswhere supplies are unloaded and issued or distributedusually by other means of transportation. Trucktransport often forms the connecting link betweenthese forms of transportation or between these serv-ices and the using troops. Such operations usuallyrequire that motor transport meet the schedules and

264

requirements of the connecting carriers or the troopsserved.

d. Express Operations. Highway express opera-tions are long distance haulls over main supply routes.They are often movements extending through thecommunications zone and into the army service area,operated with railway precision, and supplementingor replacing railway service. Express services areusually intersectional and come under the commanderat a level which embraces the entire length of thehaul. They may be given specific missions to supporta field army, or other large unit, or to move a desig-nated tonnage or type of supply within a specificperiod.

e. Direct Support of Combat Units. Highwaytransport operations in direct support of combatunits are discussed in paragraph 188.

f. Motor Pool Operations. See paragraphs 21-29.

186. METHODS OF OPERATION

There are three general methods employed to ac-complish the trallsl)ortation mission of hauling sup-plies by highway. These may be classified as direct,shuttle, and relay.

a. Direct Hauling. This is the simple method of asingle hauling job accomplished in one trip, involv-iug no transfer of supplies or exchange of equipment.It is normally limited to local hauls during the initialstages of an operation before transfer or exchangepoints have been set up and when it may be desirableto expedite forward movements. As a line of com-mullmication haul method, it greatly taxes drivers and

265

equipment and often results in loss of control by theunit.

b. Shuttle. The simple shuttle is accomplished bymeans of repeated trips made by the same vehiclesbetween two specified points. The continued move-ment forward is accomplished by a repetition of thisoperation by vehicles operating successive legs ofthe over-all distance.

e. Relay. This is the continuous movement ofsupplies or troops over successive segments of a routewithout transfer of load. It is accomlplished bychange of drivers and/or powered vehicles for eachsegment. In tractor-semitrailer operations, relayimplies the through movement of semitrailers byshuttle tractors operating over segments of the route.

187. PORT AND BEACH CLEARANCE

a. Port clearance, as it pertains to highway oper-ations, is the clearing of cargo from the immedi-ate vicinity of port operations to permit continuousunloading of ships that would otherwise be hamperedby backlogs of supplies within the port area.

b. Beach clearance is the clearing of cargo fromthe immediate vicinity of beach operations. A suc-cessful operation of this type must be speedily exe-cuted in spite of poor roads and unloading facilitiesof a temporary nature.

G. So that ports or beaches may be cleared prompt-ly, depots or dumps are usually located nearby.Since operations at a beach or port of debarkationare irregular (great activity coincident with arrivalof ship convoys and little or no activity for intervalsbetween ship convoys) and since highway transport

266

is usually in short supply, it is wasteful and impracti-cal to permit permanlet assignment of vehicles to aport or beach in sufficient quantity for its peak re-quirements. Therefore, the practice is for the move-ment control staff to determine the quantity of cargoto be cleared by highway. With these requirementsin mind the appropriate highway staff allocates thenecessary truck units, which, upon colempletirng eachclearance mission, return to the highway transportservice pool and tire available for other tasks.

d. Port or beach clearance is chiefly a problem ofcontrol of vehicles so as to get the cargo to the co'-rect depot or dump without congestion or delay. Thetruck units allocated to the port or beach clearancejob establish a temporary pool near the loading areafrom which vehicles are dispatched as needed. Whenloaded, they prloceed to the proper dump or depot.When the port or bench area is widely distributed,several temporary pools or subpools ols y be estab-lished. The shuttle system is generally used and ve-hicles are dispatched individually or in small groups.Multiple waybills given to the driver normally showwhat cargo is on the truck and give its destinationand roulting. They serve as tally sheets and receipts.

188. OPERATIONS IN TACTICAL SUPPORT

Hallls by truck units may be made in direct sup-port of tactical troops. Armies, corps, or divisionsmay utilize organic or attached motor transport asa pooled service to be allocated when and whereneeded to meet the changing tactical situation. Or,at tinles, the theater or communications zone high-way transport service may be extended into the arny

267

service area and even up to division dumps. Meth-ods of operating highway transport in support oftactical forces are similar to line or local haul opera-tions except as altered by proximity to the enemyand demands for increased security measures.Equipment adapted for off-road operation may berequired in most tactical support operations.

189. LOGISTICAL -FACTORS-..

Logistical factors are used to determine the abilityof available highway transportation to move requiredtonnage over a specified distance within a statedperiod of time.

a. Availability. In higwllay transportation,availability means the number, or percentage, of ve-hicles in a unit that can be operated at a given time.In advance planning, for example, complete avail-ability per the present truck company (T/O & E55-17) would be 48 vehicles: under normal condi-tions with proper provision for scheduled mainte-nance, it would be approximately 40 vehicles percompany; and under adverse conditions, averagesover extended periods might be 36 trucks or less.

b. Load and Li/t. For planning purposes, thepay load tonnage that can be carried by a singlevehicle (load) or by the available vehicles of a unit(lift) at one time is as follows:

(1) Load. The phlauliing factor load for one21x,-ton track is 4 tons, but under conditionsrequiring off-road hauling, this may fallbelow the 21/-ton rated capacity of the vehi-cle. The planning factor load for the 10-ton semitrailer is 8 tons.

268

(2) Lift. The lift capability of a truck unit isthe suim of the loads of the available vehi-cles of the unit. For example, a truck com-pany operating under conditions which al-low it to average 4 tons per vehicle, and witha vehicle availability of 40, cali move 160tons in a single lift (40 vehicles x 4 tonsper vehicle = 160 tons).

c. Miles Forward. This is the one-way distancefrom origin to destination or one-half the round-tripdistance.

d. Turn-Around Time. This is the time requiredto comnplete a single trip from origin to destinationand return to origin. It incluldes loading time (orcoupling time) plus forward haul plus unloadingtime (or uncoupling time) plus return trip. Turn-arolund time is determined by combining loading-unloading time (or couplinlg-unlcoupling time) andrunning time.

(1) Loading-unloadintg time. This is the com-bined loading and unloading time and isusually estimated as 2 or 21/_ hours pertrip-that is, approximately 1 hour loadingand 1 hour unloading. (Coupling-uncou-Pling time is the combined coupling and un-coupling time required by tractor-semi-trailers in shuttle or relay operations. Asthis time is negligible, it is seldom figuredin turn-arounds. )

(2) Running tine. The combined going andreturn travel time, known as running time,depends on a ratio of the rate of march andthe two-way distance between origin and

269

destination. In planning, 10 to 15 milesin the hour are used as the rate of march.This figure allows for short rest halts, re-fueling, and delays, anld is therefore lessthan might normally be the actual speed of20 to 35 miles pe1 hour. Rate of march isdivided into round-trip distance to deter-mine runling time. For example, at 15miles in the hour. 4 hours would be requiredfor a 60-mile round trip (30 miles forwardand 30 miles return.) Adding the 4 hoursof running time to 2 hours of loading-un-loading time results in an estimated 6 hoursof turn-around time.

Section III. LOADS AND LOADING

190. GENERAL

a. Correct loading of cargo is essential to securingreasonable vehicle life and full utilization of vehicles.Full utilization of the vehicle carrying capacity isessential to efficient handling of the transportationload.

b. In loading for supply movement the followingmust be taken into consideration:

(1) Undet)loadling. If vehicles are loaded withless than their capacities for the existingconditions, more vehicles will be required toperform a given job. For example, if 21/2-ton, 6 x 6 trucks are loaded with only 21/2tons when the condition of the vehicles andthe road permit 5 tons, twice as nmanyvehicles and twice as many drivers as arenecessary will be required.

270

(2) Overloading. If vehicles are loaded withmore than their capacities for the existingconditions, damage to vehicles may resultand mobility may be impaired. For ex-ample, if 21/,-ton, 6 x 6 trucks are loaded to5 tons, when the road or offroad conditionsof operation make such weight an overload,the progress of the movement may be im-peded and damage to springs or other partsmay result in excessive vehicle deadlining.

(3) Improper load distribution. If vehicles areimproperly loaded with uneven or top-heavy distribution of weight, an unduestrain may be placed on one part of thevehicle and loads may shift or fall off result-ing in damage to the cargo. In additionthere is possibility that the vehicle mayoverturn or be otherwise damaged, with aresulting delay of the movement.

191. WEIGHT OF LOAD AND DISTRIBUTION(fig. 37)

a. In many cases neither scales nor loading refer-ence data giving weight of certain quantities of dif-ferent types of cargo will be available. Under suchcircullstances it is necessary to estimate the weightof the cargo loaded.

b. When no indication of weight of cargo is avail-able, overloading may often be avoided by roughestimates based on the position of the springs. Witha known full load the position of the springs is notedand loads which further depress the springs areavoided. While this method is better than none, at

271

best it is inaccurate and it must be remembered thatsprings tend to weaken with use.

c. The distribution of weight on a motor vehiclehas a very definite bearing on the life of the tires,

- Cct-feer-ffnikne ccnenanonob -

30 C E rcA 70% 207% 80%

Tires, oales trome, ec, ore designed to corry o lod distlibuled Os Obovae.

1Q,45% 55% 20% 407% 40%

0mstrmbue trailer coads equolly between I he b e1t he s nd th fifth sheet Thistronsters the lNod to the roctor.

WRONG RIGHTThis wll bend - he trome, overload Place heorty prl of Iood neerIronl tires, o he steering horder rer o xle for proper tire looding ond

to oeep froime from bending

WRONG RIGHT

This kind of welghl djstribution bends St o concentrtoed lood just oheodth.e rome, ovelrods roar ilres, ,od ol the rear onle _ith, if possibl,mokes sleering lmost imp ossible the longest side on the loor.

Figure 37. Holi to load a truck.

272

axles, frame, and other parts. The fact that a truckis not loaded beyond its rated total gross weightcapacity does' not necessarily mean that the individ-ual tires and axles may not be overloaded. Over-

WRONG RIGHT

The eight vehile for the right .ob

WRONG WRONG RIGHTThis overloads trailer rear wheels, This oerlods oe Nothing overloodedbeakes wont broke properly, rub- spring ond st o ires frame wont twist andber scufs away Oirstbule the Brakesoci on the iht l oosen cross memberlod over the full trailer 11Ior side coause sidsd rivets

WRONG RIGHTThis overlodds ond shortens bire life, bends the t ruck rear- xle housing ADpplying the 1ro ler dbra may lack the wheel, cuas 1l1 t sp15 ond skidding.

WRONGIf you ore not careful, this will happen.

Figure S37 Continu ed.273

loading may be due to improper distribution ofheavy materials, so that the load is excessive over onerear tire or on the rear axle or so far forward in thebody that the front axle and tires are overloaded; orloads such as structural steel, iron pipe, and lumbermay project far out beyond the rear axle therebyoverloading the rear axle and tires and tending tolift the front wheels, reduce front-wheel tractiol,and make steel;ing difficult.

192. HIGHWAY LOADING

a. Military cargo vehicles of the tactical type havebeen developed to give satisfactory performance whenoperating under off-road conditions and are poweredto negotiate unusually steep grades. Thus, given asmooth hard-surfaced highway, a tactical type ve-hicle can be expected to carry more than its off-roadrated capacity.

b. Under certain conditions regulations authorizeloads greater than the rated capacity. On good roadstactical general purpose cargo trucks are now permmitted to carry loads up to 1]OQ% over their ratedcapacity. Trucks towing trailers are limited to a 60percent overload, and rated trailer loads may not beexceeded, except under certain emergency conditions.However, only in case of emergency and upon properauthority will vehicles operating cross-country, oron anything less than smooth hard-surfaced high-ways, be loaded above rated capacity.

c. While carrying more than the rated load has, bycommon usage, come to be called overloading itshould be realized that it is not in fact an overload,but a calculated safe load under favorable conditions.274

However. those responsible for automotive equip-inent must realize that much of the safety marginbuilt into a vehicle disappears under overloading, anddrivers must be instructed to exercise caution whentheir vehicles are loaded to maximum highway ca-pacity. A well-trained or experienced driver willhave no trouble, a less experienced or less carefuldriver might.

d. The advantages of maxi.mum calculated safeloads are many, especially when the transportationload is high in) comparison to vehicle availability,but the dangers of overloading can not be overenm-phasized. The safety margin built into trucks isreduced in either case. To the driver this means thatthe same hole in the road he hit with 2J1/, tons with-out doing any immediate damage to the truck maynow with 5 tons result in a broken spring or ruinedshock absorber. The element of greater shock loadsenters the picture. Twice as much load comes downon the frame, wheels, and body. Bolts loosen or shearmore easily. Even smooth hard-surfaced highwayscan be expected to develop some chuck holes underheavy traffic-the driver must learn to avoid roughspots or take them slowly.

e. Heavier loads require more gear shifting. Thedriver must be careful in picking up the load withthe clutch. Up hills, the engine will be workingharder at pulling the load-proper gear ratios nmstbe strictly observed.

j. Running over highways often means running atsustained and relatively high speeds. The "lube" inthe gear boxes must be checked more often and ventsmust be kept open. For highway operations heavier

275

loads make it more important to stay out of frontwheel drive when it is not needed, because the extraweight causes the difference in travel between thefront and rear wheels to scuff off more rubber.

g. It is not necessary to carry higher tire pressuresince the tires normally carry approximately inaxi-mum desirable pressure. It is, however, more im-portant to keep tires up to regulation pressure sinceheavier loads will flex low tires and cause them towear and rupture.

A. A heavily loaded vehicle requires more timeand distailce to stop from a given speed than avehicle carrying its normal load. The driver must beconstantly mindful of this in maintaining inter-vehicular distance and especially when operating onsuIrfaces affording low traction.

193. RULES FOR LOADING

a. Responsibility. The driver is not normally re-quired to handle cargo during the loading and un-loading operations, but he is responsible for hisvehicle's being properly loaded.

b. Rules for Loading. Efficient loading assuresmaximum use of cargo-carrying capacity and safetyin transit. One loose piece of cargo may release anentire load; and if the load is unbalanced, the vehicleis difficult to handle, is in danger of overturning,and is a menace to traffic. The following principlessummarize the rules that should be observed for cor-rect loading:

(1) Heavy supplies should be placed at the bot-tom of the load and properly distributed.

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(2) In building up the load, cargo should beplaced carefully to avoid shifting and todistribute the weight equally.

(3) Loosely distributed oidads should not bebuilt up too high. High, loose loads causeswaying, make the vehicle difficult tohandle, and increase danger of cargo lossor overturning of vehicle.

(4) If the truck is not a covered vehicle, a tar-paulin should, when practicable, be placedover the cargo as a protection against sun,dust, or rain.

(5) Barrels and drums should be loaded ontheir sides, parallel with the length of thetruck, braced and pyramided, or they maybe stood upl)ight.

(6) Boxed, crated, and packaged cargo shouldbe combined, so far as possible, with likeitems or items of combining shapes.

(7) Sacked cargo should be loaded separatelyor out of danger from puncture by odd-shaped or sharp-edged items, and should bestacked in overlapping layers to preventshifting.

c. Protruding Loads. Whenever practicable,loads which extend beyond the tail of the truckshould be avoided, and no load should extend overthe driver's seat. Loads which extend over the side,so that the vehicle requires a wider lane than usual,are especially dangerous. If a load unavoidablyextends more than 2 or 3 feet beyond the rear of thetruck, it should be marked on the end so that otherswill plainly see it. In daylight a red cloth at least

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12 inches square is preferable; at night, securitypermitting, a lighted red llntern.

d. Securing Loads. The safety of loads on cargovehicles is dependent upon the protection offered bythe stakes or sides, the tailgate, and the tarpaulin incombination with its rear and front curtains. Loadsconsisting of objects which are longel or higher thanthe body of an open cargo truck should be lashed.Two 60-foot ropes are suitable for lashing. Lashhooks or rings are provided on the bodies of mostcargo vehicles. Lashing may be accomplished asfollows:

(1) Fasten the end of one rope to one of thefront lash hooks or rings.

(2) Pass the rope diagonally across the top ofthe load through or under the second ropesuppoit on the other side, and pull the ropetight.

(3) Pass the rope diagonally back across thetop of the load to the first side through orunder the third rope support on the sideand pull the rope tight.

(4) Continue the process until the rear of thetruck is reached, and then fasten the end ofthe rope securely.

(5) Using the second rope, start at the otherfront corner of the truck and repeat the pro-cedure using alternate lash hooks or rings.

e. Towed Loads. Towed loads (other than semi-trailer) are attached to their prime movers or towingvehicles by means of the lunette of the towed loadplaced in a pintle on the towing vehicle. The pintlelatch must be closed and secured before the load is

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moved. Safety chains, when available, should beused. Care should be taken in regard to hooking upthe electrical connection for lights and brakes ontrailers.

Section IV. CARGO LOSSES

194. GENERAL

Cargo losses are sustained in transit primarily bydanllge resulting from careless handling, sabotage,or neglect of protection a'g1ainst the elements, and pil-ferage-which is often the great cause of cargo losses.The loss of military supplies caln usually be attrib-uted to laxity in fixing responsibility for cargo be-tween the time it leaves the shipper and is receivedby the user. The prinmary preventive of such wasteis the elimination of weak or missing links in thechain of in-transit resjonnsibility. Drivers of motorvehicles. noncommissioned officers, and the com-manders of match units and convoys are importantlinks in that chain of responsibility. Contrary topopular belief, the weak links are seldom well-trained drivers. AMore often, the real neglect lieswith those responsible for properly loading and doc-mlnenting the load, training and disciplining drivers,and guarding and caring for loads in transit.

195. PREVENTIVE MEASURES

a. Proper packaging, prompt cooperage of dam-aged packages, correct preparation and usage ofdocuments in transferring responsibility, closely su-pervised dispatch, well-controlled movement, and athoroughly organized system of cargo handling are

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the major preventive nieasures. Guards are also im-portant in preventing cargo losses, but need forguards, is lessened if other measures are adequatelyimposed.

b. Unit commanders should impress drivers withtheir responsibility for the supplies carried in tlheirvehicles. This responsibility includes that of pro-tecting themselves by assuring that their loads areproperly listed at point of origin. that discrepanciesare noted, and that receipt is obtained for the fullload at destination. This responsibility further in-cludes loading properly, securing load, and caring forload during the haul.

Section V. HANDLING EXPLOSIVES ANDINFLAMMABLE LIOUIDS

196. DISPERSION

Explosives and inflammable liquids (FiM 5-25 andTM 9-2900) should be stored, handled, and trans-ported with care; when practicable, they should besufficiently separated from each other so that if anexplosion or a fire involves one it will not involveanother. This is particularly important when it isnecessary to transport explosives and inflammableliquids over important bridges or through congestedareas, tunnels, or other vulnerable locations.

197. SEGREGATION OF CAPS

Separately packaged detonating caps should neverbe transported in a vehicle carrying other explosivesor inflammable materials. With the exception ofcompletely factory-loaded items, such as small arms

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ammunition and hand grenades, explosives shouldnot be fuzed until they are ready to be used, andwhen applicable, fuzes should be removed by Ord-nance before such explosive materials are acceptedfor transport to a new location.

198. PROTECTION FROM SPARKS AND FIRES

a. Static Electricity. Ground conductors shouldbe provided to neutralize charges of static electricitybefore and during transfer of inflammable liquids.When transferring inflammable liquids from onecontainer to another, the two containers should bebolded by an electric. conductor. Bonding can beaffected by touching the metal of the two containerstogether. In fueling vehicles from drums or cans.the flexible nozzle of the can should be brought intosolid contact with the filler opening. When fillingdrluls or vehicles from a hose of a dispenser, thenozzle should always be brought solidly against themetal of the drum or tank. Special bonding arrange-ments may be needed in filling tank trucks.

b. Eawhaust Gases and ignlition Sparks. As a pre-caution against accidental fire or explosion causedby hot exhaust gases or sparks from a vehicle igni-tion system, vehicle ignitions should be cut off whenloading explosives or inflammnable liquids.

c. Spavrks from. Metal. To avoid the possibilityof sparks, nonmetallic tools, if available, should beused for handling explosives or inflammable liquids.When practicable, the interiors of truck bodies usedfor transporting explosive and packaged inflammableliquids are normally lined with wood or other non-sparking material.

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d. Open Flames. Lighting matches and smokingshould be prohibited when in the vicinity of explo-sives or inflammable liquids, particularly when suchmaterials are being loaded or unloaded. Electriclights only should be used for illumination. Inflam-mables and explosives carried in open trucks shouldbe well covered with a tarpaulin to protect theload from cigarettes carelessly thrown from othervehicles. Vehicles carrying explosives or inflam-mables should always maintain a safe distance fromopen fires.

e. Fire-Fighting Equipnlent. Effective fire ex-tinguishers (SR 385-155-1). should be carried byvehicles transporting inflllanmable or explosive mate-rials. In areas where considerable quantities of suchmaterials are being handled, special apparatus forfighting large-scale fires should be available.

199. GENTLE HANDLING

Jars or shocks must be avoided in handling explo-sives. This is particularly essential in carrying sen-sitive explosives used in detonators. Containerspacked with explosives should never be carelesslyrolled, thrown, or dropped. All reasonable precau-tiolns, such as stopping the engine and placing thevehicle in gear, setting the hand brake, and blocking

-wheels, should be taken to prevent accidental move-ment of vehicles when they are parked. Explosivematerials should be securely loaded inside the vehiclein which they are being transported so as to reducethe possibility of their shifting or falling out. Ex-plosives should never be carried on a tailgate or onthe outside of a truck body. Unless there is need for

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secrecy, vehicles carrying explosives should be clearlyidentified. Whenever vehicles are halted on theroad, guards should be provided or signs should beconspicuously posted to warn approaching traffic ofthe danger of collision. Speeds of such vehiclesshould be moderate to avoid jars to loads and col-lision with other vehicles.

200. LEAKAGE OF INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

If a vehicle transporting inflamm;able liquids de-velops leakage en route, further movement should belimited to the minimum distance necessary to disposeof the load safely. When leakage is of such a naturethat further transportation is unsafe, the vehicleshould immediately move off the traveled portion ofthe road. Trenches may be dug to prevent the liq-uid's being spread over a wide area. If possible,the liquid should be kept away from streams andsewers. Spectators should not be permitted to con-gregate, and lighting fires or smoking in the vicinitymust be prevented. Guards should be stationed ormarkers posted to outline the area involved and towarn all concerned against the danger of sparks,open flames, or smoking.

201. REGULATIONS CONCERNING SHIPMENT OF EX-PLOSIVES AND GASOLINE BY TRUCK

a. The Interstate Commerce Commission regula-tions applicable in the United States are good guidesfor safety measures for shipment of explosives andinflamnmables by military forces. Methods of han-dling such cargoes overseas depend on the circum-

283

stances and the urgency of military necessity. Inheavily populated areas in allied and liberated coun-tries, regulations for handling dangerous cargo arearrived at by joint agreement between representativesof United States Armed Forces and the authoritiesof the government concerned. In occupied enemyterritory, the safety regulations that apply are thoseprovided in local army directives. It is essential thatall personnel be constantly reminded of the safetyrules governing the movement of dangerous cargobecause the slightest carelessness may have fatal re-suits. Officers and enlisted men charged with suchmovements will not only instruct their men thor-oughly on safety rules but will also constantly con-duct informal inspections to insure that safety meas-ures are followed. All personnel are required tobring the attention of the person concerned to anyviolation of safety rules.

b. The following safety rules will be observed byall personnel moving gasoline or explosives:

(1) Rule 1. To prevent fire, the following meas-ires will be constantly enforced:

(a) Smoking is forbidden within 100 feet ofany truck loaded with explosives or gaso-lile.

(b) Open flames such as those produced bystriking matches, use of cigarette lighters,torches, etc., are prohibited within 100feet of any motor vehicle loaded withexplosives or gasoline.

(c) Two fire extinguishers properly filled, oneinside the cab and one outside on thedriver's side, are recommended on each

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truck haulilng explosives and inflam-mnables (par. 103b (5), Ordnance SafetyManual 00 Form No. 7224).

(d) All personnel will be instructed in theproper use of fire extinguishers, and wherepracticable, the instructions will be sup-plemented by demonstration.

(e) If a truck catches fire, all trucks will bemoved away from the vicinity of the fireand all traffic stopped. Every practicableeffort will be made to warn inhabitantsliving in the vicinity of the danger.

(f) When loading or unloading trucks, ex-plosives will not be placed in the vicinityof the exhaust.

(g) Ignition and lighting systems will beproperly insulated and frequently in-spected to insure that danger from shortcircuits is eliminated.

(h) Every effort will be made to prevent leaksin gasoline tanks, fuel lines, and carbure-tors. When a leak is discovered, the truckwill be unloaded and moved to a safe dis-tance before repairs are made.

(i) Oil and grease thrown from moving partswill not be allowed to accumulate on thetruck body, engine, or other places wherea fire hazard will result.

(j) Motor vehicles transporting explosives orgasoline will not be driven past fires ofany kind until it has been ascertained thatthe fire can be passed with safety.

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(2) Rule 2. Advance reconnaissance and con-tact with state and local officials are essen-tial. Routes selected should avoid heavytraffic and large cities if possible.

(3) Rule 3. Loitering will not be permitted inthe vicinity of the convoy.

(4) Rule 4. When a truck breaks down, it willbe moved as far to the side of the road as pos-sible and, pending the arrival of an emptytruck or repair party. the truck will be leftin charge of a gunard.

(5) Rule 5. Fuzes and detonating devices willnot be carried in the same truck with otherexplosives (fixed ammunition an exception).

(6) Rule 6. The interior of the truck body vwillbe lined so that every portion of the liiningwith whiclh a container mayi come in contactshall be of wood or other nouspalkingmaterial.

(7) Rule 7. Loads will be braced and stayed toprevent shifting.

(8) Rule 8. Trucks loaded with explosives orgasoline wvill never be towed or pushed byanother truck except to move a disabledtruck to the side of the road.

(9) Rule 9. Hlourly halts vill be made to in-spect loads and vehicles.

(10) Rule 10. Motor vehicles transporting ex-plosives on public roads or highlways willbe marked with pllacarlls bearing the word"Explosives" in letters at least 3 inches high.The placards will be prominently located

286

on each side and on the front and rear ofthe truck.

(11) Rule 11. No motor vehicle transportingexplosives or gasoline will be left unattendedupon any public street or highway.

(12) Rlde 12. The motor will be stopped whenloading or unloading a truck hauling ex-plosives or gasoline.

(13) Rule 13. ~Where trucks are of the openbody type, a tarpaulin will be used to pro-tect the cargo from rain or the direct rays ofthe suln.

(14) Rule 14. The entire cargo of explosivesoramllunition shall be contained within thebody of the truck. Truck tailboard or tail-gate shall be closed effectively and secured.

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PART SIX

CONDITIONS OF OPERATION

CHAPTER 13

MILITARY HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATIONWITHIN THE UNITED STATES

202. CLEARANCES FROM CIVILIAN AUTHORITIES

a. To assure compliance with state and local laws,to safeguard highway facilities, and to avoid delaysand accidents, movement within the continentalUnited States and territories or possessions of theUnited States will be coordinated with state or localhighway traffic authorities concerned and other ap-propriate civilian agencies. For example, the move-ment of ten or more vehicles organized to operate asa column or the dispatching of ten or more vehiclesper hour to the same destination over the same routeor of military vehicles of sizes or weights unusualfor ordinary highway travel should be cleared withcivil authorities. All necessary permits, clearances,escorts, and guides prescribed by civil authoritieswill be secured as far in advance as practicable and inno case, except in an emergency, less than 24 hoursin advance of the movement.

b. In the case of an intrastate movement by high-way, civilian assistance in planning the movement isobtained by the local installation or unit transporta-tion officer, who makes the necessary arrangements

288

with the highway traffic authorities of the state con-cerned and other appropriate civilian agencies.

e. In the case of interstate movements within thearea, the matter should be referred to the area trans-portation officer, who coordinates the movement withthe authorities of the various states concerned.

d. TWhen the movemlent passes out of the continen-tal Army area in which it originates, the transporta-tion officer of that area coordinates the movementwith the transportation officers of all areas throughwhich it passes, and the transportation officer of eachsuch area coordinates the inovemllet with the propercivilian authorities within his area.

e. Civilian authorities will be furnished with anyinformation (except data classified above restricted)which they may request. The data which may begiven to civilian authorities concerned is governedby regulations and directives existing at the time ofthe movement. For example, during peacetime theidentity of troops being moved is normally not con-cealed, but in the case of war or imminent war, iden-tities of units are usually secret.

i. The following example illustrates informationwhich civilian authorities may desire:

(1) Origin and destination of movement.(2) Desire to enter state at (hour) on

(highway number or name) at(point).

(3) Desire to leave state at - (hour) on(highway number or name) at(point).

(4) Designation of column.(5) Officer in command.

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(6) Number of vehicles.(7) Personnel strength.(8) Necessary halts.(9) Column does (does not) have explosives.

If so, their nature.(10) March characteristics of column.

(a) Speed.(b) Type of column, that is, whether infiltra-

tion, open, close, or fixed. (Explainmeaning of terms rather than merely usethe term.)

(c) Distances between vehicles, speedometermultiplier (SM). (Explain SM.)

(11) List of overweight or oversize vehicles, ifany, and characteristics of weight of each.

(12) Other data (for example, whether black-ont will be maintained).

g. Civilian authorities may, in return, be of ma-terial assistance to military authorities by furnishingadvice as to:

(1) Most practicable route(s) to be used, identi-fying route markings.

(2) Alternate route(s), identifying routemarkings.

(3) Points where it may be advisable to dividecolumlns and use two or more routes to al-leviate congestion or road wear.

(4) Time when it is best to pass through areasof traffic congestion or traffic defiles.

(5) Vehicle spacing and speeds most desirablefor coordination with other traffic.

(6) Location and nature of any unusual roadconditions.

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(7) Highway repair work which may be en-countered or required.

(8) Information on weight limitations ofbridges and clearances in height and widthalong the route.

(9) Location of facilities for service and sup-plies.

(10) State and city police escorts to assist thecolulmn.

(11) Availability of police communications sys-temt for emergency messages, including pos-sibility of tuning column radios into policenet.

(12) Location of hospitals avlilable in case ofemergency.

(13) Procurement of dependable road maps.h. Wlhenlever unforeseen circumstances dictate a

change in the plans for the movement, the civilianagency concerned will be notified promptly of thechange.

i. Information in a through ih above does not pre-clude the establishment of standing operating pro-cedure with the proper state or local authorities forthe coordination local, routine, or regional move-nients in the vicinity of or between installations.

j. So far as the civilian practice permits, contactwith civilian authorities should be informal and,

lwhen practicable, should be established by personalconference between civil authorities and the appro-priate coimnillldel or his reprlesentative. When timewill not permit personal conference, liaison shouldbe established by telephone, telegraph, or radio, in

291

which event sufficient information will be furnishedto permit intelligent planning.

203. TRAFFIC ESCORTS

a. Normally, miiilitary police will provide trafficescorts as needed: however, civil autholrities mayprovide the escorts necessary in assisting a movementthrough congested areas.

b. A city, county, or state police force or state high-way patrol may furnish a traffic escort for the lengthof the movement within the boundaries of the city,county, or state concerned, but such police unitsnormally leave no jurisdiction beyolid their respec-tive.areas. Hence arratgemlents should be made foranother traffic escort: when needed, to meet the col-finumn at- the point where the column leaves one areaand enters another.

c. Civilian police escorts may be provided to aidthe military police. Whell military police are notavailable, civil police may furnish the entire escort.

(1) In the absence of both civilian and militarypolice, such traffic escorts as may be neces-sary are furnished from the column.

(2) It should be kept in mind that militarypolice or escorts furnishled by the column donot have the same authority as civilians (ex-cept in case of nmartial law). In practice,military police will usually be obeyed, butsoldiers used as traffic escorts should becarefully selected and well-instructed to re-duce the probability of antagonizing civil-i;ans encountered in the course of their duty.

292

204. TOLLS AND FERRIES

a. Normally, there is an arrangement between theArmy and authorities controlling a toll route orferry under which tickets are provided or slips signedto cover the passage of Army vehicles.

b. Commanding officers of columns should ascer-tain in advance whether there are any toll bridges,tunnels, or ferries on their routes, and they shouldmake sure that they are prepared to comply with theprescribed procedure.

205. RECONNAISSANCE WITHIN THE UNITED STATES

Main roads within the continental United Statesare generally good, lacking in prohibitive grades,and of high capability. Moreover, they are wellsigned and marked. Good up-to-date road maps arereadily available, and informiation concerning roadsunder repair, unusual conditions, bridge capacities,detours, etc., is readily available through the civilauthorities. It is therefore seldom necessary to makea detailed reconnaissance before the movement of acolumn over the main roads of the United States.H:owever, during maneuvers, simulllated reconnais-sance is frequently practiced and, for marches offmain roads, it may be advisable in any case.

206. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Civilian safety precautions for movements in theUnited States are fully applicable to military move-ments. So far as consistent with military necessity,it is the policy of the Army to conform to all inter-state commerce and local safety regulations.

293

207. PROCEDURES IN CASE OF ACCIDENT(pars. 122, 123)

Accident; procedures as prescribed herein are de-signed to meet normal conditions and are applicablein the continental United States.

208. ADVANCE PARTIES(par. 90)

Advance details (nontactical) should be sent outwhen it is necessary to rent ground to establish biv-ouacs and to arrange for rations.

209. FOLLOW-UP PARTIES(par. 91)

The functions of a nontactical follow-up party areespecially applicable in the continental United States,where it is important that property used for bivouacor quarters should be left as nearly as possible in thesame, or better, condition than before occupancy bytroops.

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CHAPTER 14

MOVEMENT OF CONVOYS IN COMBAT AREAS

Section I. GENERAL

210. ENEMY CAPABILITIES

Motor columns are a prime target for attack byair from infiltrating enemy forces, guerillas, orparachutists. They are particularly vulnerable tosuch attack if countermeasures are not planned andexecuted, especially where terrain features tend toproduce congestion. AWhenl convoys must passtl'olghll areas where anllbus is a possibility, respon-sible comlmanders must furnish security detachmentscapable of clearing the route of effective resistance.

211. SELECTION OF THE INITIAL POINT

The initial point selected should be inconspicuousto hostile observation. but it must be easily identi-fiable to those in the colnlmn. The column comII-mander normally checks his units here. Whenseveral elements from different routes converge on asingle road, their arrival must be so timed that therewill be no congestion or interference between col-umns.

212. RECONNAISSANCE

Advance reconnaissance in the direction of marchis best provided by organic or improvised recon-naissance units that operate well ahead of the col-umn and cover the main routes and important in-

295

tersecting routes in the direction of march. Advancereconnaissance elements send out small patrols as re-quired. Each patrol should have at least two vehiclesin addition to any vehicles required for messengers.Promptness and speed may contribute nmore to thesafety of a moving column than deliberate and de-tailed security measures.

213. PROTECTION FROM MINES

a. Detection. Antitank and antipersonnel minesand booby traps are likely to be encountered whenentering areas recently occupied by the enemy.Newly mined areas can sometimes be discovered froma study of aerial photographs. Soil from mineburial, patterns of mine field, tracks, paths, and othersigns of activity may help to betray the presence ofconcealed mines. Dead cattle along the route or in,the area to be traversed may indicate that mines arelocated there; straying cattle may indicate that thearea is clear. However, mines may be detonatedalong a route that has been previously traveled; forexample, when ruts wear deep enough to allow themto be detonated. Electric or magnetic mine detec-tors, if available, are useful for locating individualmines. Forks, sticks, grapnel lines, probes, and sim-ilar equipment are used by mine clearing parties(FM 5-31).

b. Precautions. Despite the possibility of rutswearing deep enough to detonate mines, it is alwaysa good precautionary measure to follow the tracks ofvehicles ahead. In areas heavily mined, sandbagsplaced on the floodboards of vehicles are beneficial inpreventing casualties in the event a mine is exploded.296

Vehicles moving through a doubtful sector shouldproceed slowly and at widely spaced distances.

e. Removal. Engineers or pioneer parties shouldbe specially trained to discover and remove minesfrom the roadway. Cleared paths or roadwaysshould be marked with tape on either side of thecleared area. Inexperienced personnel who locate amine should not disturb it, except in an emergency,but should post a sentry or sign to warn passingtraffic until trained persomlel are available to re-move the mine or destroy it. Special mine sweep-ers, such as tanks with special detonating attach-ments, provide a method for destroying antitankmines. Bangalore torpedoes and detonating netsmade of detonating cord can be used as a rapid meansof clearing a path through mine fields (FM 5-31).Fuzes of mines should be removed only by competentpersonnel. If it is impossible to clear the entireroad of mines, one lane should be cleared and theother well-mlarked. Holes caused by removal ofmines should be refilled to restore the road surfaceto proper condition for vehicular use.

214. AIRCRAFT WARNING

Speed of air operations makes it desirable to ob-tain adequate warning of the approach of hostileaircraft. When practicable the column commandershould have a radio tuned to the area anti-aircraftartillery intelligence dissemination frequency. Heshould be able to determine the approach of hostileaircraft in time to give adequate warning to thecolumn. Sufficient warning is needed to conform to

297

existing orders for such situations, for example, toallow the column to leave the road and disperse.

Section II. GENERAL SECURITY MEASURES

215. DEFENSE OF MOTOR TRANSPORT

When convoys must pass through areas where am-bush is a possibility, it is the duty of the responsi-ble commander to furnish security detachments capa-ble of clearing the route of effective resistance. Thesedetachments may precede, accompany, or follow con-voys or may occupy successive positions along theroute. Convoys traveling alone are subject to am-bush attacks. Where contact with the enemy is pos-sible, both active and passive defense measuresshould be utilized. Active measures to be takennormally require a knowledge of the immediatetactical situation; passive measures should besecond-nature to well-trained and disciplined troopsand effected whenever there is evei a remote pos-sibility of attack.

216. CAMOUFLAGE(figs. 38, 39, 40, and 41)

a. General. Camouflage can be accomplished byhiding, blending, or deceiving (FM 5 20 series).

b. Stationary Vehicles,(1) Vehicles can best be camouflaged when sta-

tionary. However, when stationary theyare not performing their function of mov-ing troops and cargo. While security is ofthe utmost importance. it should be realized

298

that it is secondary to accomplishing a mili-tary mission.

(2) Stationary vehicles can best be camouflagedby placing them under natural vegetationin such a way as to break up the regularpattern of shadows produced by vehicles andby covering all parts likely to cast a ndtice-able reflection of light. When natural con-cealment is not available, some protectioncan be obtained by using fish nets or chickenwire properly garnished with artificial ma-terial of natural vegetation. Care must betaken, however, that color and texture blendwith the surrounding area (FM 5-20B).

C. Movivng Vehicles. NMoving vehicles cannot besuccessfully camouflaged artificially. However,movements may often be routed over roads which areconcealed by natural vegetation. If dusty roads areavoided, the chance of the enemy's detecting a motormovement will be lessened. In a stabilized situation,artificial road screens may be of some value in concealing the nature and extent of road movementsfrom hostile ground observers. Such screens are.however, seldom very effective against aerial ob-servers. Unless the concealed road is new and noton published maps, attempts to camouflage may bean indication to the enemy of a heavy trafficflow overthe sector.

d. Bivouac or Terminal Areas.(1) Strict camouflage discipline must be main-

tained to prevent the formation of tracksor paths indicating the location of camou-flaged vehicles and terminal installations.

299

Existing paths should be marked to preventchanges that would be readily apparent toenemy observation. Tracks made by ve-hicles which cannot otherwise be concealedshould be continued beyond the plannedposition of the vehicles so as not to endabruptly and thus call attention to the pres-

RIGHT: SHADOWS HELP HIDE THE TRUCK.

*-tt

WRONG: THE TRUCK SHOULD BE MOVED AS SHADOWS LIFT,

Figure 38. Use of shadows.300

ence of the vehicles. Any tendency towardformation of geometric patterns in the park-ing of vehicles should be avoided. It is help-ful if all visible movement can be stopped

WRONG: NUMEROUS TRACKS ARE LIKE ROAD SIGNS.

RIGHT: DRIVE INTO CONCEALMENT FROM ONE SPOT.

Figure 39. Tracks entering concealment.

301

when enemly aircraft are in the vicinity.However, when aerial attack is from a flankor perpendicular to the column it may be de-

s L. 'sre''''

WRONG: HALF CONCEALMENT.

/

RIGHT: INDIVIDUAL CONCEALMENT DOES THE TRICK.

F'igiure A0. Partial and flll coccalcenrt.302

WRONG: OUTLINE OF TRUCK ISN'T BROKEN UP.

_ ,,,^& ,

RIGHT: BREAK UP OUTLINE AND SHADOW.

Fiqupre /1, Outline ald shadow.

303

sirable to keel ) the convoy moving-until theaircraft has completed its pass.

(2) When snow is on the ground, white sheetsmay be of some value for camouflage pur-poses. Their use is effective, however. onlywhen strict canmouflage discipline is en-forced, since wheel tracks, paths, and dis-coloration show up very readily on snow.

217. CONTROL' OF COMMUNICATIONS

a. Enforcement of strict radio silence may often be.necessary in order to prevent hostile radio interceptservice from locating motor transport movements.Even when strict radio silence is not essential, careshould be taken that- radios do not provide importantinformation.to the enemy. Communication by wireis likewise often subject to enenly.interception, espe-cially when enenmy mechanized units or undercoveragents are known to be operating in the area. Whenthe urgency of the sitnation does not require other-wise, it is desirable to use code in transmitting infor-mation of traffic movements.

218. DEMOLITION-OF VEHICLES TO PREVENT ENEMYUSE

a. When necessary to prevent the enemy from usingor salvaging automotive equipment, comnmandersshould destroy or damage beyond repair all partsessential to the operation of the vehicle, includingessential spare parts. They should select a locationfor destruction that will cause greatest obstruction toenemy movement and observe appropriate safetyprecautions.

304

b. Methods of destruction employed are:(1) Smnashing. Use sledges, axes, handaxes,

pickaxes, hammers, crowbars, or heavy tools.(2) Cutting. Use axes, handaxes, or machetes.(3) Burning. Use gasoline, kerosene, oil, flame

throwers, or incendiaries.(4) Explosives. Use firearms, grenades, or other

explosives.(5) Disposal. Bury parts in slit trenches, fox-

holes, or other holes. Throw in streams.Scatter.

c. Three methods of destroying the vehicle are out-lined below in the order of their effectiveness.Whichever method is used, the sequence outlined willbe followed to assure uniformity of destructionamong a group of similar vehicles.

(1) Method No. 1.(a) Puncture fuel tanks. Remove and empty

fire extinguishers.(b) Using an ax, pick, sledge, or any other

heavy object, slmash all vital elements,such as distributor, carburetor, air cleaner,generator, ignition coil, fuel pump, sparkplugs, lights, instruments, and controls.If time permits and a sufficiently heavyobject is available, smash the engine cylin-der block and head, crankcase, transmis-sion, and axles. Slash and destroy tires.

(a) Pour gasoline or oil over entire vehicleand ignite.

(2) Method No. 2.(a) Puncture fuel tanks. Remove and empty

fire extinguishers.

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(b) Use tallks, artillery, antitank rockets, orgrenades to fire on the vehicle. Aim atthe engine compartment, axles and wheels.If a good fire is started, the vehicle maybe considered destroyed.

(3) lethod No. 3.(a) Puncture fuel tanks. Remove and empty

fire extinguishers.(b) Prepare charges of explosive with a non-

electric blasting cap and appropriatelength of safety fuze for each charge.Place one charge on top of the clutch hbus-ing and one as low as possible on eitherside of the engine. The second chargeslould be placed to insure destruction ofthe engine block and crankcase.

Caution: If charges are prepared be-forehand and carried in the vehicle,keep the blasting caps and safety fuzesseparated from charges until they areto be used.

(c) Ignite the charges and take cover. Thedanger zone is applroximately 200 yards.The fuze will burn approximately 1 min-ute for each 2 feet of fuze.

d. Destruction of pneumatic tires, including thespare, must always be accomplished, even if time willnot permit destruction of any other part of the ve-hicle. The following methods may be used.

(1) Incendiary grenades may be employed todestroy tires. Ignite one grenade under eachtire. When this method is combined withthe destruction of the vehicle by other ex-

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plosives the incendiary fires must be wellstarted before the charge is detonated.

(2) An axe, pick, or machine-gun fire may beused to damage tires. They should be de-flated first, if possible. Gasoline may bepoured on the tires and then ignited.

219. GUERILLA ACTIVITIES

a. A guerilla attack on a supply convoy may resultin a disrupted line of communications and a shortageof supplies. Such an attack may also yield suppliesto the enemy.

b. The column commander must instill a courage-ous attitude among his drivers so that column per-sonnel, alert to the situation confronting them, willact promptly. Though the enelny may act on groundof his own selection, lie may be deprived of some ofthe advantages of surprise attack if alert personnelare ready to enforce countermeasures.

c. The scheduled route of march and any changethereto must be scrutinized for possible guerilla ac-tivity attempting to lead the convoy into ambush.Guerillas may alter directional signs, impart mis-leading information, construct road blocks, and mineroad and shoulder areas so as to delay and harassthe mission.

d. Convoy personnel must be alert for ambush ifthe lead vehicle should become immobile as the resultof a mine or other action. The column's defense maypossibly be best accomplished by continuance of themarch.

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e. Enemy action is likely to occur in defiles orheavily wooded areas or while fording streams orcrossing bridges. Strict march discipline is enforcedso that continued movement of the column may bemaintained when possible. The unity of the columnis especially important in supply columns where aminimum of personnel is available.

i. Sentries and outguards must be maintained atmotor parks and bivouacs, and they should be in,spected continually to insure a state of alertness(FM 31-20).

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CHAPTER 15

EFFECTS OF TERRAIN AND CLIMATE

Section I. OPERATIONS UNDER DIFFICULTCONDITIONS

220. EFFECTS OF TERRAIN AND CLIMATE

a. Proper Use of Vehicles. The fact that tacticalvehicles are usually designed with all-wheel driveand have low and powerful gear ratios does not war-rant abuse through excessive wear and tear imposedby operations over rough or hazardous terrain whenit can reasonably be avoided.

b. Operating Over tMinor Roads. The danger ofa driver losing his way is increased on minor roadswhich are unmapped and unmarked. If a convoy islost in strange colntry and the location cannot beestablished by other means, time and effort will oftenbe saved by having the main body halt while a recon-naissance party is dispatched to determine where awrong turning was made or where the route beingfollowed leads.

221. OFF-ROAD OPERATIONS

When moving off the road, under difficult condi-tions, the following precautions should be taken:

a. The leading vehicle should have a selecteddriver. He should be the best driver available.

b. The front axle drive should be engaged beforeleaving a hard surface road.

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c. Guides on foot may be dispatched in advanceand personnel may be dropped to caution drivers inthe rear concerning particularly difficult places.

d. When a vehicle is stalled, the driver should begiven advice and help. A decision is required at onceas to whether the stalled vehicle can be moved underits own power, by the next vehicle, or by men athand. If the vehicle cannot be moved without hold-ing up the column, it is left for the trail party. Sofar as practicable, the column should be kept movingand a detour route should be started.

Section II. STEEP GRADES, CURVES-MOUNTAINOPERATIONS

222. GENERAL

This section deals with the effects of topographicalfeatures such as sharp curves, steep grades, andother conditions normally encountered in hilly ormountainous regions.

223. NEGOTIATING TURNS WITH A TOWED LOAD

In making a curve with a towed load the tendencyof the trailer is to "jack-knife" unless the reductionin speed is very gradual. When the towed vehiclehas brakes, trailer brakes should be applied first.Sudden stops should be avoided. If a curve is toosharp for a truck and towed load, it is usually pos-sible to uncouple the truck, drive it around the turn,and then manhandle the towed load or pull it aroundthe turn by use of a tow rope or block and tackle.When tractor-semitrailer combination cannot nego-tiate a turn, "dolly-converters" may be stationed at

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sharp curves, with a tractor crew to pull the con-verted semitrailer around the curve.

224. ASCENDING STEEP SLOPES

a. Incereasing or Decrea-sing Load. If power failsat the lowest gear ratio, the load may have to be de-creased. However, if failure to make ascent is dueto loss of traction, causing the vehicle to slip,sufficient traction may sometimes be gained by in-creasing the load. This may be done by loading menover the driving axle or axles. This solution isfrequently successful on vehicles with two-wheeldrive, and on empty vehicles moving heavy towedloads. On nontowing vehicles having front-wheeldrives, the addition of more than the normal load isseldom advisable, because these vehicles usually havesufficient traction to pull to the limit of their power.

b. YTolcitg and Pu/,¥ilny. Towing may be the mostexpeditious method of getting over a difficult ascentif the vehicle cannot negotiate the hill on its ownpower. If the grade is not too steel), the use of man-power either towing or poshing may be the quickestand most practical method. If pushing is resortedto, precautions should be taken against the vehicle'srolling back. Chocks should be placed under thewheels and moved forward with the vehicle. Winch-ing or towing by another vehicle may have to beresorted to. If a winch truck is available it should,if possible, make the ascent first. This may requirewinlching of the vehicle with its own gear, perhapseven by steps, using block-and-tackle and deadmanmethods. After the first vehicle has cleared thecritical ascent it may assist in towinlg or wvinching

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other vehicles up the grade. Or each vehicle inturn may be connected with tow rope or cable to assistvehicles following. In the case of truck-traileroperations, towed loads may be disconnected andpulled up separately. If necessary, several vehiclesmay be connected in tandem to pull up a towed load.

225. DESCENDING STEEP SLOPES

a. Choosing Descent. If there is a choice of de-scents the one which allows the best traction and themost graduated slope should be selected. Otherwise,steep slopes should be descended straight down, sothat in case sliding occurs the vehicle may be broughtunder control more quickly without danger of over-turning. Before descent of dangerous slopes all per-sonnel except the driver should be dismounted.

b. Assistance. Wlliell necessary, outside assistanceshould be given to vehicles descending very steepslopes. It may be applied as follows:

(1) By manpower through the use of tow ropes,or block and tackle to prevent too suddendescent. A tree or post may be used forsnubbing the rope and to allow personnelto gain a new hold or to let the weight downgradually.

(2) By use of another vehicle connected bychain, cable, or rope to the vehicle descend-ing, both descending in low gear. This isaccomplished best when the rear vehicle hasa more gradual descent or can obtain bettertraction. It may also be accomplished byconnecting vehicles in series or in relays.

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(3) By use of the winch oh assisting vehicle,the cable being attached to the descendingvehicle and run out in gear, the descendingtruck operating in the lowest gear.

(4) By setting brakes on towed loads of thedescending vehicle and attaching a safetyrope or tackle between the vehicle and itstowed load. Weight of the braked traileris used to retard the descent of both units.When necessary, towed loads should be dis-connected and let down separately.

226. MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS

a. Motor Operations in 1Voulntainolus Terrain.(1) The rules for ascent and descent of steep

slopes obviously apply in mountain opera-tionls.

(2) General recoinaissance of the available roadnet will usually determine the type and thenumber of trucks that can profitably be em-ployed in a nlountain operation. Mountainroads or trails often are unimproved.Bridges are often narrow and of a flimsycoustruction and require reinforcement be-fore they are adequate for military traffic.

(3) Motor transportation in mountainous ter-rain may have to be drastically reduced ordispensed with. Some areas may be acces-sible only to pack trains in which casetrucks may be halted at a designated truck-head and loads transferred. When trucksmay proceed only with great caution it maybe advisable to establish marshalling yards

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so as to hold some and allow high priorityshipments to move first. As the congestionis relaxed or as the road net branches out asa result of combat successes, the convoy heldcan be moved forward.

(4) Nevertheless, full advantage must be takenof motor transportation to move supplies asfar forward as practicable in order to re-duce the handicap imposed by pack trainsand portage.

b. Tra/ic Control. Because of narrow one-wayroadways and other hazards often encountered inmountainous areas traffic control must be rigidlyenforced in order to prevent congestion and delay.Wherever possible alternate routes should be avail-able for ascents and descents, otherwise regulatorymeasures should be employed which allow alter-nating flow of traffic.

c. ilIountain Daylight Driving. In daytime driv-ing on mountain roads vehicles should maintaingreater than normal distances. If traveling in agoverned column a speedometer multiplier should bespecified which is large enough to require safe dis-tances and yet not cause vehicles to straggle or be-come lost (normally SM 3 to 5). In addition, mini-mum distances (gaps) may have to be specified.Extreme care must be exercised on mountain roadsbecause of the many sharp, blind curves and steepgrades. All curves must be taken at a speed whichwill enable the driver to halt the vehicle in less thanthe visible space ahead. Either up or downhillgrades should be taken in a gear ratio that will en-able the vehicle to take the entire hill without shift-

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ing. Caution must be exercised to see that the speedof the vehicle does not exceed the speed (listed onthe plate in the cab of the vehicle) for that particulargear ratio. Hills should be descended with a com-bination of breaking by brakes and engine. Neithershould be used alone in driving a vehicle downhill.Sufficient personnel and pioneer equipment shouldprecede the column in order to meet emergencies suchas landslides, overturned vehicles, etc. Guides shouldbe posted at dangerous places, especially when back-ing and turning are required, to give directions toeach driver before he Starts to negotiate the difficultsection.

d. Maintenance. The normal illaintenance ofmotor transportation assumes extra imlportance inmountain operations. Before and during operationsin steep terrain, the safety devices of all vehiclesshould be checked continually, since failure on thepart of any may have disastrous results. Proper ad-justment of brakes is especially imlportant. Theemergency brake must be adjusted so that it is capableof holding the vehicle on slopes without the aid ofgears or foot brakes. One failure which is extremelydangerous when vehicles are descending steep slopesand depending on the braking power of the engineis slipping out of gear. Winches should be carefullychecked for proper lubrication and proper adjust-ment of the automatic brake.

e. Winching Operations in. llountainous T'errain.Grades should be negotiated, as far as practicable, bydriving; winching should be considered a last resort.Chains are frequently necessary because of the pres-ence of snow or mud on the road surface. Short,

23865S8--53-21 315

steep slopes may be climbed by building up as muchmomentum as possible with a slow, steady pull inlow gear. When this procedure is followed, thevehicle will normally go higher before traction failsand Nwinching must be resorted to. When winchingis necessary, the route selected should provide fre-quent anchor points in the form of trees or rocks.The more frequent the anchor points, the greater themechanical advantage that call be obtained by theuse of snatch blocks. When trees or other anchorageis not available, the deadnan can be used. At eachpoint where winching is necessary, the use of onevehicle to winch other vehicles in turn as they arriveat that position is recommended. When guns arebeing winched up or down, the trails of the weaponsshould be downhill. When winchlling on steep slopes,every effort should be made to keep the cable tautand to avoid sudden jerks which may break the shearpins. Care must be taken at all times to clear ob-structions from the route in front of the wheels.

Section iii. MUD, SWAMPY GROUND, GUMBO

227. MUDDY ROADSThe usual muddy road is soft and slippery on the

surface, but underneath it may be hard or may packsufficiently to support a vehicle. Soft spots willallow spinning wheels to dig in quickly. The follow-ing suggestions are applicable to negotiating thistype of muddy going:

a. Traction Aids. Skid chains usually give aid totraction and reduce skidding.

b. Gear. In general, the highest gear that willgive sufficient torque is selected. As the loss of316

momentumn and the sudden aplication of increasedpower at a critical point starts the wheels to spin,the need for a gear reduction must be anticipated.

c. Momentum. Momentum should be maintainedacross slippery places and up grades by keeping thevehicle moving until stalled or until slipping occurs.Usually when slipping occurs, the speed should im-mediately be decreased so that the wheels can takehold.

d. Choice of Track. Old ruts are the hardestpacked and should generally be followed. This prin-ciple usually holds for all vehicles of the same axlewidth following the first, except in grassy areaswhich may give way after the first vehicle has passed.Where road centers are high or ruts are too deep tobe cleared by the vehicle body, ruts should be strad-dled, or a new track should be noade.

e. Procedure on Becoming llired. Once a ve-hicle has come to a complete stall in mud, the clutchshould be disengaged at once. No new attempt tomove forward should be made until an outside check-up is made. Proper proceduire for quickly extricatinga mired vehicle is dependent upon judgment and ex-perience. The following possibilities are offered:

(1) Selecting best way out. Often a vehicle canbe moved backward for a new trial moreeasily than it can be moved forward. Hardground may be gained by turning to oneside or the other.

(2) Dismouanting personnel. If personnel arecarried, they should dismount and try topush the vehicle out with the aid of the en-gine. Often the lightened load and applied

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powet of the men will be sufficient. In mak-ing a try with outside aid, the driver shouldapply power to the wheels gradually by eas-ing in the clutch and slow acceleration.This trial should not be continued to suchan extent that the wheels dig in.

(3) Use of lanloiwer. If sufficient men areavailable, anl immediate attempt should bemade to move the vehicle by manpowereither by pushing or towing. Personllnelshould be careful to avoid positions in whichthey may slip and fall under the wheels.Because of the danger of vehicle overturn-lug, personnel should be cautioned againstpushing on the side of a moving vehiclethat has slipped into a ditch from a highclown road, or a vehicle that is off balancein deep ruts.

(4) Applying nearest suitable tow. If a lighttow will probably succeed, the next suitablevehicle, ahead or behind, may be used.Often the next vehicle canl be detoured andused for a tow. Where the vehicle hasskidded off a highly crowned road, men withtow ropes attached to the sides of the ve-hicle may assist in helping the vehicle backinto the road.

f. Extracting Stalled Vehicle. Where the aboveexpedients will not suffice and towing assistance fromanother vehicle is not available, the driver and anypersonnel that may be with him may attempt oneof the following methods of extricating it:

(1) I'mproving traction. Additional tractiondevices, such as wheel nmats or skid chains,

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may be applied. Often drive wheels may bejacked up (sufficient base being availablefor the jack) and traction and flotation in-creased by placing brush, boards, rocks, orsimilar material under the wheels. If apole is available, it may be used as a leverand inserted under the hub or axle in orderto raise the wheels.

(2) Digging out. Ditches dug in the directionthat the wheels are expected to move mayaid in moving the vehicle out. When wheelsare in deep ruts, ditches dug at an angle tothe ruts may be necessary in order to makeit easier to get the wheels back to a straddleposition over the rut. In this case the rutsshould be filled.

228. SWAMPY OR BOGGY GROUND

Where water has been standing for a considerabletime and swamp grass has grown, a surface crust willusually have formed over acceumulated dead vegeta-tiou. Certain variations in principles and procedureapply in this type of muddy going.

a. Alvoid ,Swomps if Possible. Boggy or swampysoil may be avoided. Every effort should be madeto move over the highest ground available.

b. Unload Per'sonnel. Personnel should dismountand assist with tow ropes at critical points.

c. jlaintain MVomedntum. The main requirementin moving over a boggy piece of ground is to moveover the soft spots rapidly if possible. Wheel spin-ning should be kept at a minimum.

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d. Follow Separate Tracks. The grassy crustmay carry one vehicle but may not support anotherin the same track. Therefore, each vehicle shouldfollow a separate track. A guide should precedeeach vehicle on foot, locating the hard ground andguiding the driver carefully over the best route.

e. Stalling. When a vehicle comes to a stall, theclutch should be disengaged at once to avoid "dig-ging in" of the wheels. No attempt should be madeto move it without outside power.

f. Deflating Tires. Flotation may be increasedby deflating tires.

229. GUMBO AND OTHER STICKY SOILS

Gumbo and other sticky soils present a problemsimilar to that of boggy ground. In addition, thesesoils give little traction and stick to the tires andwheels in great masses. Boards, shovels, knives, andthe like may be fastened to the truck body to scrapethe mud from the wheels. Whenever possible, old,hard-packed roads should be selected through theseareas.

Section IV. CROSSING DITCHES, STREAMS, ANDOTHER EXISTING OBSTACLES

230. GENERAL

a. This section deals with measures taken to nego-tiate natural and other existing obstacles such asdefiles, ditches, streams, rivers, etc.

b. Special precautions are taken to avoid conges-tion and delay during the passage of obstacles anddefiles. The massing of troops in the vicinity of an

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obstacle or defile, is especially hazardous in combatareas and must be avoided.

c. Provisions are made in advance to avoid con-fusion at crossings or detours around obstacles. Theseprovisions include adequate measures for traffic con-trol and security. Where practicable obstacles willbe avoided by the preparation of turn-outs and de-tours or their hindrance may be lessened by the selec-tion and preparation of additional crossings. Thelimits of a hazardous crossing and the road leadingto or around it are approximately marked or warn-ings are placed at dangerous points.

d. Major obstacles such as rivers may act to pre-vent or retard movements. They may require thetemporary breaking up and rerouting of columns orthe holding and rescheduling of vehicles and otherelements. Troops may have to be detrucked or sup-plies unloaded at crossings. Traffic conditions or thetactical situation usually requires that troops orvehicles delayed by such obstacles be moved offthe road and into concealed areas until called forthto make the crossing. See paragraphs 158-160 forcontrol measures required by these conditions.

231. CROSSING DITCHES

a. Narrow or ,hallow Ditches. Ditches with widthapproximating the diameter of the wheel should betraversed diagonally by two-wheel drive vehicles sothat the drive dwheel on one side will take hold of thefar edge of the ditch at the same time that the op-posite wheel is going into it. As this angle of cross-ing is a strain on the frame, springs, and drivingmechanism, the ditch should be crossed slowly.

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Front and rear drive vehicles can usually crossditches at a right angle without unnecessary strainon the frame and body.

b. Wide Ditches or Ravines. When a ditch iswvider than the diameter of the wheel and has slopesdeeper than the running board or undercarriageclearance, no attempt should be made to pass it untilthe banks are cut down or the bottom filled with solidmaterial. Such ditches should be crossed at rightangles. If they are wet, they should be approachedslowly and the vehicle speeded up, but without caus-ing wheel slipping, just as the front wheels cross thelowest point.

232. FORDING SHALLOW STREAMS

Fordings should be attempted only after carefulreconnaissance. Maximum fordable depths are givenin paragraph 233 below. The following pointsshould be observed when fording a shallow stream:

a. Cross Slowly. As a rule nothing is to be gainedby attempting to use momentum in crossing streamsbecause the force of the water may stall the vehicleor the water may drown the engine. Streams shouldbe crossed slowly in a low gear.

b. Disconnect Fan. If there is any danger of thewater's surging into and being splashed by the fan,the fan should be disconnected for the crossing.

c. Dry Brakes. After crossing a stream brakesshould be applied intermittently to make sure theywill hold and will not grip.

d. Cheek Ltbriecation. At the first opportmunity,wheels, crankcase, universal joint, differential, trans-

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mission, and subtransmission should be checked forproper lubrication and evidences of water or rust.

e. Exhaust Mlfanijfod. If streams are wide, dis-connect the exhaust manifold. See paragraph 233and TM 9-2853 regarding waterproofing methods.

233. FORDABLE DEPTHS FOR VEHICLES

When it is necessary to ford streams, the follow-ing data on fordable depths of vehicles are generallyapplicable for unwaterproofed vehicles when mod-erate current and hard bottom exist:

Depth in feet Unit4 to 6-------- Heavy tanks and tractors3 to 5-------- Pack transportation2 to 4----M--- .ledium tanks and tractors2 to 4-------- Trucks and trucks with towed loads1 to 3- ------ Light tanks and tractors

234. DEEP STREAM CROSSING (TOWING)

When the situation demands that streams too deepfor fording be crossed and bridges or other facili-ties are not available in the vicinity, the first con-sideration should be to obtain or improvise bridges,ferries, or rafts. However, even if none of these canbe made available, it is possible to tow vehicles acrossstreams of almost any depth without serious damageprovided suitable limited waterproofing is accomp-lislied. The tackle and tow indicated in figure 42 areused. The vehicle must be properly prepared forsubmersion (but not for running under water) byclosing appropriate openings and removing suchparts as will be seriously harmed or rendered inop-erative by moisture (TMl 9-2853). After crossing,

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the vehicle should be thoroughly serviced and allwater removed.

ANCHOR

/ CURRENT

TOWING |ENCLEL

ANCHOR ~ TOWED VEHICLE

Figure 42. Tackle for deep streanm crossing.

235. BRIDGES

a. Weakened or damaged bridges may present amajor obstacle to a movement or a bottleneck tohighway traffic. Speed, caution, and bridge capacitysigns should be carefully observed.

b. The capacity of bridges can be estimated onlyby competent engineers. An engineer officer incharge of any bridge is responsible for its structuraladequacy and the safety measures to be taken in pass-ing over the bridge. Instructions issued by the engi-neer officer and the bridge guards relative to the useof the bridge are strictly obeyed. March command-ers are responsible for seeing that vehicles exceedingthe maximum load capacity of the bridge are re-

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moved from the columni for crossing at some otherpoint or in a manner which will not endanger othervehicles.

c. The tactical situation or other emergency mayrequire that bridges be used by vehicles which exceedthe bridge capacity or before safe capacity can bedetermined. In such cases, when the capacity is indoubt, bridges should be tested by a single vehicle ofmedium weight. Then, after a successful crossing,other vehicles of progressively greater weight shouldproceed in turn after the vehicle ahead has clearedthe critical span. When the capacity of a bridge isnot believed sufficient to carry both the power unitand towed load, the towed load may be uncoupledand pulled across by a tow lille longer than the dan-gerous span of the bridge.

d. In crossing a dangerous bridge, motor vehiclestravel slowly, holding to the center of the bridge andmaintaininfg the distance essential to prevent over-loading. Track-laying vehicles should be startedacross a bridge so that they will not have to beturned on the approach or on the bridge, becauseturning them places a severe strain on the bridge.

Section V. FOREST, BRUSH-JUNGLE OPERATIONS

236. GENERAL

a. Obstruction to military movement due to vege-tational growth may exist in combination with otherterrain barriers. In temperate climates forests withheavy overhead growth and lesser underbrush offerless handicap generally than the dense tropicalgrowth of jungles. Motor transport cannot operate

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in heavy brush or jungles unless roads exist or arecleared by bulldozers. It cannot operate efficientlyunless the cleared roads are improved.

b. Overhead foliage often affords iany advan-tages to military operations because of the conceal-ment afforded. Many troops may be bivouacked inwooded areas without disclosing their presence tothe enemy. Overhead foliage maly occasionally coil-ceal roads which are wide enough to permit move-inent. Furthermore, if underbrush in a forest islight, limited cross-country vehicle operations mayoften be made to advantage. Such imovemlentsusually require close reconnaissance on foot andshould be made only when the area is well knownand return exits are available.

c. Where swamps and rugged terrain exist alongwith dense vegetation, consideration must be givento the combined effect of such conditions.

237. JUNGLE TRANSPORTATION

(FM 72-20) '

a. The basic means of jungle transport is portage(hand carry); also pack animals are frequentlyemployed.

b. Wheeled transportation is generally inprac-ticable except on roads, or in the dry seasons on widetrails, and in areas where the jungle growth is lightand free of intertwined vines and large trees. Iow-ever, engineer or pioneer troops using bulldozers fre-quently can improve trails sufficiently to permitmovement of light trucks and trailers. Trails suit-able for pack animals frequently are also suitablefor operation of %1/-ton trucks. Track-laying vehicles

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can sometimes be used in jungle operations and mayfurnish one means of logistic support.

o. Operations of larger wheeled vehicles are, forthe most part, restricted to coastal regions andaround plantations or settlements where adequateroads and wider trails are available.

238. JUNGLE MARCHES

a. Even when motor vehicles can be used jungletrails usually restrict the formation of an organizedcolumn. To facilitate control, to improve securitymeasures, and as an aid to rapid movement, marchunits should normally move as compactly as possible.Close column formations permit easier following oftrail breaks; however, in tactical situations such for-mations increase the danger of ambush. Open col-umn or other extended formations (that is, infiltra-tion) lessen the danger of a general amlbush but in-crease the possibility of an element's becoming sepa-rated or cut off and ambushed. The type of formationselected should be based on a careful evaluation ofthe existing conditions. Prescribed distances shouldbe maintained at the cost of reduced speed. Closeliaison between elements of the march should bemaintained at all times.

b. AMovement over unmlarked and uncharted jungletrails may have to be made with the aid of compass,and reconnlissance elements far in advance of themain body. Lateral trails should be recollnoiteredfor possible alternate routes; in tactical situationsthese should be covered by patrols until the columnhas cleared.

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c. March discipline is particularly important injungle operations. Alertness is essential. At. halts,men relax but adequate outguards must remain alert.

d. Whenever practicable bivouac sites should beon high ground, should be defensible, and should benear fresh water. A native village should never beselected as a bivouac site or motor park.

239. SUPPLY AND EVACUATION

a. Because of limited'facilities normally availablein jungle operations, the transportation and evacua-tion functiolis must be closely planned, supervised,and integrated. Requirements must be anticipatedwell in advance of actual needs.

b. Special provision must be made to protect sup-plies against spoilage caused by climatic conditions.Additional tarpaulins, or other coverage, may benecessary for vehicles in order to provide protectionfrom heavy rains and hot, tropical sunshine.

c. Standard ambulances may not be practicable onjungle trails. For this reason, other types of vehiclesmay be used for transportation of the sick orwounded. Empty supply vehicles returning to therear must be utilized for evacuation purposes.

d. Supply and evacuation movements in the junglerequire more than normal assistance and protection.Tactical troops may have to be committed for thispurpose.

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Section VI. HEAT AND SAND-DESERT OPERATIONS

240. GENERAL

a. The terrain in deserts is not always flat. Thereare hills and valleys, mountains, sand dunes, shale,and salt marshes as well as great expanses of sand.

b. Extreme heat, dryness and dust resulting in lackof vegetation, and the sandy or rocky barrenness ofdeserts are conditions which may or may not existin combination. Each condition requires specialmeasures to maintain efficiency of troops and equip-ment, and in some desert-type operations a combina-tion of measures is required for military success.When properly modified and provided with specialequipment, almost every type of military vehicle canbe used in desert operations.

241. DIFFICULTIES TO BE ENCOUNTERED

The heat, sand, and rough surfaces encountered inarid regions all combine to shorten the life of motorvehicles and increase the need for skilled operationand thorough maintenance. Some of the more fre-quent motor transport difficulties experienced in thedesert are mentioned below. By foresight and care-ful driver and mechanic training many of these difli-culties can be prevented, overcome, or reduced.

a. Overheating. Overheating may often resultfrom driving in the heat of the day, in lower gears,or from loss of water through evaporation and steam-ing; and if not corrected at once, it may cause seriousdamage and disable the vehicle. Cracked blocks willoccur much more frequently in desert operationsthan under normal conditions.

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b. Erceswsiuve Wear Die to Dust and Sand. Thereis always some dust and sand in the desert air, moreis stirred up by the passage of vehicles, and duringa sandstorm the amount may be such as to prohibitmovement. Without adequate protective measuresthe sand will choke carburetors, plug feed lines, scorethe cylinders, damage the distributor, and increasethe wear on all bearings.

c. Damage Resulting from, Shock and Vibration.The constant shock and vibration caused by passageover unstable ground frequently causes damage totires, body, and electrical systems. The rough goingencountered in many deserts is very hard on springsand they may be broken by overloading, improperdistribution of load, or shifting of load while mov-ing.

d. Operational Difliculties. The actual operationof a vehicle in this terrain requires extra physicalexertion and mental concentration with resultantfatigue. The lack of water and the constant dangerof becoming stranded or lost in desert regions makevehicle failure a threat to the lives of all personnelwith the vehicle. Under combat conditions super-vision of maintenance and other functions may bedifficult, as vehicles cannot as readily be broughtclose together for inspections and other checks.

242. DESERT DRIVING

a. General. Desert driving calls for high skilland requires a high degree of individual effort. Itwill take a great deal of experience to develop thequick eye necessary to select the best ground and theproper gear, the skill required to make maxinum330

use of momentum and to shift gears rapidly, and thecare to avoid sudden driving or breaking thrust.Even with the most skilled driving, vehicles willfrequently be stuck in the sand. Practice in drivingthrough stretches of soft sand and among sand dunesis necessary for all vehicle operators.

b. Driving in Sand. Usually sand will support avehicle moving at a moderately rapid speed. How-ever, traction is limited because the loose granularmaterial tends to slip beneath the wheels. As soon asdrive wheels begin to spin they dig in quickly. Thedriver must be taught to give up all efforts to get outof the sand by means of his motor the instant thevehicle has ceased to move. Otherwise, the drivingwheels will merely sink deeper into the sand andextrication will be made more difficult.

c. Overcoming Traction Failures. The followingexpedients may be used in overcoming traction fail-ures in sand:

(1) Avoid changing gears. As it is imperativethat momentum be maintained need forchanging of gears must be avoided by selec-tion of proper gear before passing over thesand.

(2) Keep moving. Flotation of some sandstends to increase below the surface. Whenthe sand is compacted below the surface, thewheels may spin but the vehiclescontinues tocreep. As long as the vehicle continues tomove, the wheels may be kept slowly spin-ning, allowing the vehicle to dig itself out.

(3) Choose firm, tracks. In order to reduceslipping vehicles should follow compacted

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tracks of the vehicle ahead. If tracks areworn so deep that underparts of the vehiclewill scrape the ground between them, it maypossible to ride one rut to gain traction andform a new track with the wheels on theopposite side of the vehicle. However, theremay be cases when the surface sand providesbetter ground than worn tracks. Only withexperience can the driver gain the necessaryskill in selecting the proper course for sanddriving.

(4) Increase tire surface. Air pressure in thetires may be decreased to increase flotation.Certain vehicles are equipped so that thedriver may change air pressure from the cab.

(5) Improve surface. Chicken wire fencingnets or heavy burlap staked down on thesurface of sand will usually make a tempo-rarily satisfactory surface for movement ofmotor vehicles. For heavy traffic more thanone thickness may be used.

d. Extracting Vehicle fromn Sand. When a vehicleis stuck the driver or one of the crew must recon-noiter the ground both ahead and to the flanks forthe nearest patch of firm surface. While this is beingdone, mats or other devices and shovels availablefor such pulrposes should be unloaded (par. 244).Based on careful reconnaissance, a decision must bemade whether to go ahead or to back out. Adequateexcavations should be made in front (or, if backingout, in rear) of the wheels so that the near ends ofthe mats are on a level with the bottom of the tiretread. If this is not done the engine will be unable

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to set the vehicle in motion up the initial slope soas to enable the wheels to begin to drive against thefirm surface of the extricating equipment. Once inmotion, the vehicle should be driven to firm groundor stopped headed down a slope to avoid gettingstuck again.

243. MAINTENANCE IN THE DESERT

a. General(1) Maintenance as prescribed in present man-

uals will keep vehicles il condition to op-erate in the desert. The importance ofmaintenance must be impressed on all con-cerned, with special empnlhasis placed on firstand second echelon maintenance. Driversmust be impressed with the importance oftaking every opportunity to inspect the ve-hicle, to follow prescribed "during opera-tion" and "at halt" maintenance proceduresand to assure themselves after every opera-tion that the vehicle is ready to move againat a moment's notice.

(2) Regardless of who performs preventivemaintenance services, emphasis should beplaced on overcoming or reducing thosedifficulties resulting from overheating, ex-cessive wear due to dust, and damage fromshock and vibration.

b'. Overcozin.g Difficulties Due to Heat. In pre-venting overheating the following items should beobserved:

(1) Hood. The hood should be kept closedwhile the vehicle is in operation in order

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that the efficiency of the fan and coolingsystem is not reduced.

(2) Fan belt. Fan belts must be examined fre-quently to be sure that the fan is operatingproperly with the belt at proper tension-not too loose and not too tight. If the fanbelt shows wear, it should be replaced im-mediately, otherwise it may break and causeserious overheating.

(3) Radiator. Special care must be taken to besure that radiators are kept clean and freeof bugs, grass, leaves or anything else thatclogs the air spaces and reduces ventilation.Anlly obstruction which cuts off air and keepsthe radiator from cooling effectively shouldbe removed.

(4) Water. Water should be checked fre-quently. Provisions of water for coolingsystems should be considered in estimatingover-all water requirements for a movement.The drain cock of the cooling system shouldbe replaced with a screw cap, flush with theend of the pipe. It will seldom be necessaryto drain the radiator, and there is seriousdanger of the drain cock being knocked off bystones thrown up by the wheels and all thewater being lost, a real calamity in the des-ert. Drivers must be trained to watch theammeter carefully since overcharging al-ways results in loss of battery water, whichis particularly difficult to obtain in thedesert. Drivers must be warned that the

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high salinity of water issued for drinkingand for radiators forbids its use in batteries.

(5) Oil and lubricants. Engine oil should be ofthe proper viscosity for hot weather driving.Oil level should be checked often. Stand-ard lubricants for all-weather use may beused.

(6) Engine. Should serious overheating occur,the vehicle should be stopped as soon aspossible and allowed to cool. When cool,the engine should be kept running whileradiator is refilled.

a. Overcoming Di'ficulties Due to Sand and Dust.In preventing excessive wear due to excessive dustand sand in the desert air, the following measuresshould be taken:

(1) Air filterCs. Theoilbath air filter now stand-ard on all militaly motor vehicles, if keptclean, will protect the motor. Constant,close supervision and daily inspection of airfilters are the only ways of insuring thatsand will not get into the motor. Theymust be cleaned more frequently than undernolrmal conditions.

(2) Oil filters. Cartridges of oil filters must berenewed after about one-fifth the distanceusually prescribed or whenever oil showsindication of excessive pollution.

(3) Fuelinvg procedure. Sand may enter thecraukcase and fuel lines when replenishingthe oil or refueling unless great care is usedduring these operations. The driver mustmake it an invariable habit to wipe all sand

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off caps before removing them and off thespouts of oil and gasoline containers beforethey are used.

(4) Protective covering of parts. It may benecessary to make canvas boots to protectfront wheel joints, distributors, and otherparts. Sand and dust will cause failure ofpanel instruments if they are not carefullysealed. 'Tape may be used for this purpose.

d. Overcoming Difficulties Due to Jolts and Vibra-tion. The following items should be observed in pre-venting difficulties resulting from jolts and vibrationdue to operation over rugged terrain or unstableground.

(1) The boldy. Excessive jolting makes it neces-sary to tighten all body bolts and nuts. Or-ganizatiodal maintenance personnel mustbe trained to make this a regular part oftheir daily routine. Proper load distribu-tion and lashing of loads will help reduceshock and body abuse.

(2) Electrical system. Constant shock and vi-bration may cause cable clips to shake loose.Cables may be broken or shorted. Frequentinspection of cable clips should be made andspring washers inserted under the nuts ifpossible. Voltage control units may causetrouble because of breaking of wire in shuntwinding or sticking of regulator points.

(3) Tires. Tires should be suitable for the typeof surface which will be encountered in thedesert. Experience indicates that oversizeballoon sand tires are desirable for wheeled

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vehicles. Air pressure must be varied tosuit the type of ground surface. Over sandor soft powdered clay, the ground pressureper square inch should be reduced to theminimum. By deflating the tires, the areain contact with the ground is increased andthe tire fits itself to the irregularities ofthe sand without breaking through the crust.The minimum pressure must be determinedby test for each type of vehicle. In rockyor boulder-strewn ground, tires must be asfully inflated as age and condition will per-mit. It must be remembered that fully in-flated tires will result in an increase in theshock transmitted to the vehicle and its loadwhen moving over rough or rocky ground.At low pressure the innermost layers ofcanvas will be broken by the violent inwardbending when a sharp rock is struck. Theresulting chafing at the break will wearthrough the inner tube even though no dan-ger is apparent from the outside of the tire.Since a normal day's march will take avehicle over different kinds of ground, stricttire discipline is necessary. The life of tires,as of all rubber, will at best be short becauseof heat, sand, and rough ground surfaces.Provision must be made for tire replace-ments greatly in excess of expectations fornormal terrain. Since tires will deterioratevery rapidly from heat and dryness whenstored in the desert, special covered, venti-lated, storage facilities should be providedwhen possible.

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244. SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

Wheeled vehicles operating in deserts must be pro-vided with special equipment necessary to extricatethem from soft sand. This equipment normally con-sists of devices which may be improvised or manu-factured locally.

a. Channels. For vehicles with single tires ondriving wheels, an excellent solution is the provisionof a pair of steel channels 4 or 5 feet long, carried onthe sides of the vehicle body. In cross section thechannel should have a curved bottom wide enoughto take the whole width of the tire at low pressure.It should be bent up sharply at the sides to preventthe tires fromn running off, and then down again toform a rounded flange on each side to strengthen thechannel. Two angle irons projecting from theunderside and holes punched in the bottom will pre-vent the channel from slipping under driving thrust.Heavy dual-tired vehicles, which will be stuck insand much more frequently than single-tiredvehicles, should be provided with a pair of doublechannels.

b. Mats. MAats should be provided to form aroadway for front wheels. Canvas strips, stiffenedby lateral rungs of steel sewn between two thick-nesses of canvas, have been found excellent for thispurpose. Such mats c an be rolled up for transportand rolled out in front of each front wheel whenneeded.

c,. Spars. Lightweight and mediumweight dual-tired vehicles may be provided with a single roundwooden spar instead of channels. The spar shouldbe placed between the dual tires and used as a rail.338

d. Miscellaneous Equip,,ent. All vehicles shouldbe equipped with at least two short-handled shovelsfor digging out of soft sand. Tow hooks and towcables should be provided for every vehicle. Power-driven winches to extricate stalled vehicles will be ofgreat value in traversing bad stretches of desert.

Section VII. COLD WEATHER, SNOW, ICE-ARCTICCONDITIONS

245. COLD WEATHER MARCHING-GENERAL

a. General. Ice, snow, and extreme cold modifythe usual effect which terrain features have on motormarches and present special problems. Normallythey create difficulties to be overcome, but in manycases they may constitute important aids to move-ment. Lakes, rivers, and swamps, when covered withsufficiently strong ice, cease to be obstacles to motormovement, and may make movement possible in ter-ritory which otherwise could not be traversed.Muddy roads, otherwise impassable, may bear heavytraffic when frozen. However, possible effects ofchanges in temperature, resulting in thaws, must beconsidered.

b. Use of Vehicles, General.(1) Under some conditions stoves in the body

of the truck, and specially designed tar-paulins, are necessary to prevent discomfortand possible serious effect on troops beingtransported. When such expedients areused, due precautions must be taken toeliminate the hazards of fire and carbonmonoxide poisoning.

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(2) Tires should be freed from ice and engineswarned up at moderate idling speed to atemperature prescribed for each vehicle be-fore beginning a march in cold weather.

(3) Under conditions involving thawing andfreezing, vehicles heavily encrusted withmud (particularly track-laying vehicles)should have the mud removed from work-ing parts while still unfrozen. Vehiclesshould not be parked on soft ground or inpools of water or slush when freezing maybe expected, otherwise they may be frozenthere. Planks, logs, or brush may be used toprovide dry standing under such con-ditions.

c. Traction Aids. Skid chains on all wheels areusually the best safeguard in normal winter driving.However, on glare ice, skid chains add little or notraction and are apt to give a false feeling of security.Deflating tires to a lower than normal pressure willassist in preventing skidding under such conditions.

d. Moving Over Fresh Snow. When breakingfreshly fallen snow, manpower should be readilyavailable to push or tow the first vehicle where thesnow is deep. Other vehicles follow in track andusually can move under their own power providedthey are able to gain sufficient momentum in ap-proaching difficult slopes and crossings. Alternateshifting from reverse to forward gears often willrock a vehicle out of a hole in snow, but to preventvehicle abuse this practice should be limited.

e. Braking. In slowing down or descending hills,the engine should be used as a brake. The driver

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should select the proper gear for braking before de-scending hills, but may shift if he finds a lower gear isneeded. Foot brakes, when used, should be appliedlightly with a pumping motion and released quicklyif skidding begins.

f. Accelerating. Rapid acceleration should not beattempted, as it may cause one drive wheel to spin,thus losing traction or causing skidding.

g. Overcoming 8kidding. If skidding occurs, thebrake or clutch should not be touched. The acceler-ator should gradually be released. The front wheelsare turned in the same direction the rear wheels areskidding, so that the vehicle will be carried forwardby its momentum in a straight line parallel to itsoriginal path. This method will ordinarily result inreobtaining control.

Ih. Ioldding Vehicles on Road. If traffic conditionsallow, vehicles should keep the center and ride thecrown of the road. Where necessary, men with towropes may be used to hold vehicles on dangerous icyroads.

246. CARE OF EQUIPMENT, WINTERIZATION

a. Preventive maintenance acquires added impor-tance in extreme cold weather. Proper engine care isabsolutely essential to prevent early ruin of motors.Proficiency in winterization of vehicles should bestressed. Technical publications applying to over-snow and other cold weather operations of the typeof vehicle issued should be carefully adhered to.

b. In extreme cold motor vehicles require specialequipment, special lubricants, and special mainten-

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ance attention to insure proper vehicle protectionand satisfactory operation.

c. Information concerning winterization kits isavailable in appropriate technical publications per-taining to the vehicle. The important factors in thewinterization of vehicles is in the replenishment ofcold-weather lubricants and in carrying out of properlubricating procedures.

d. Winterization also includes making the vehiclecomfortable for operating or using personnel. Allcommand and liaison vehicles should be inclosed ifpracticable. Plywood and shipping cases may beused for the purpose of improvising cab inclosures.

247. ROAD MARKING

a. In winter, snowfalls, fog, and snow-drifts fre-quently make roads and terrain features unrecog-nizable. Therefore, careful route marking is essen-tial. If possible, through roads must be uniformlymarked before the first snowfall. Special road des-ignations must be known to troops who will use theroutes. Permanent routes should be designated bydurable markers.

b. In open country, poles about 8 feet high withdirection markers, snow markers, brushwood, rockcairns, and flags serve the purpose. Their use shouldbe set forth in standing operating procedures.

c. Orientation is facilitated if urnit markers arenumbered in sequence in the direction of march andplaced at equal distances from each other. MAarkersmust be erected about three feet off the trail in orderto avoid damage by traffic. In wooded terrain, treetrunks are marked with blazes, placards, or paint;

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branches are bent; boards; paper, or cloth remnantsare fastened to trees.

d. If complete unit marking is impossible, arrowsignposts should be erected at prominent points toindicate the direction of a march and distance to theobjective. For short distances, direction arrows willbe sufficient.

e. Simple marks in the snow, trail markers, andsimilar signs are adequate for the marking of tem-porary roads, such as those used by patrols. Ifstrange trails cross the route, they should be obliter-ated within the immediate vicinity of marked tracksso that elements of the march will not go astray. Itis frequently advisable to leave guards at such pointsin order to keep units on the proper route.

248. CROSSING FROZEN WATER

a. General. Contrary to general opinion, not allstreams freeze over in extremely low temperature.Streams may have open water or very thin ice intemperature as low as 600 below zero. Frozen lakesand water courses, while often aids to a march, maybe turned into obstacles if ruptured by use, by cur-rent, or by explosives. Runling water, at low tem-perature, is one of the most dangerous types of ob-stacles and may cause the loss of personnel and equip-ment if adequate precautions are not taken. Formore complete discussion of stream-crossing expedi-ents see FM 5-10.

b. Carrying Capacity of ice.(1) A large part of the supporting value of ice

is derived from its pressure on the waterbelow. When the water level falls, the bear-

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ing capacity of iLhe ice decreases. In ex-treme cold, streams often have layers of iceinterspersed with layers of running water.In any crossing of ice, ice reconnaissance isnecessary to insure that its bearing qualityis adequate for men and vehicles. Rottenice can be detected by its dull color andhoneycombed structure. It lhas very littlesupporting power. In judging ice thick-ness, the layers of rotten ice on top and bot-tom should not be considered. Sampleblocks should be cut and thickness at thecrossing site measured. In general, troopscrossing ice should not halt, nor should ve-hicles turn around thereon. Traffic ontoand on the ice should be controlled.

(2) The following is a general guide as to mini-mnnm thicknesses of new sound ice in float-ing contact with water required to supportloads indicated:Th ic ness of ice inl inches Callaeity

3 to 5 .- M.__________ Men on foot.5 to 7 _-__--__--__ Light vehicles.7 to 12 -_M_... .ledium velhicles.9 to 16 .-______ Light tanks and

vehicles up to10 tons.

16 …… _......___ Loads over 10 tons.20 . .______ . 20-ton loads.

c. Increa.sing Carrying Capacity of Ice.(1) Planks may be used to distribute weight of

wheeled vehicles and thus increase bearingpower of ice for short distances.

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(2) In freezing temperatures, thickness of icemay be increased by flooding surface of ice.Water applied to the surface may be con-fined to the desired area by means of lowearthen dams. The belt of ice thickened bythe application of water should be at leastthree times the width of roadway to be used.Piling of snow on the surface of ice andflooding the snow with water will accom-plish the same result with the application ofless water.

(3) When a river is frozen on each side with anopening in the middle due to a swift current,boats or other surface obstacles placedacross the interval may check the currentenough to permit freezing.

249. ARCTIC OPERATIONS

a. General. During the winter months in arcticareas effective surface transportation, with presenttypes of equipment, must await the periods of theyear when ice and snow conditions are sufficientlystrong to provide passage over the many water cross-ings. During the summer months, extremely softgroulnd surfaces and other terrain obstacles precludethe full use of land transportation. Effective yearround transportation service in the Arctic requiresa balanced employment of several modes of trans-portation including air and different kinds of equip-ment.

b, Wheeled Vehicles. Truck transportation maybe used in areas where adequate road nets exist orwhere conditions are such as to allow the prepara-

345

tion of adequate trails. Maximum truck transpor-tation in arctic areas in the winter is over snow com-pacted roads. During the thaw, open, and earlyfreeze periods, wheeled vehicles are limited to roadsor improved trails, of which there may be few. Ex-tensive use of available routes requires careful selec-tion, and continuous maintenance of existing ways.

c. Tracked Vehicles. Track-laying vehicles, par-ticularly those designed or modified to exert the leastground pressure, are effective in areas where few,if any, roads exist (TM 9-775). Track-laying vehi-cles have been successfully used to draw loaded sledsof various types over snow compacted to form trails.Sled trains are effective in open, barren areas wherethe depth of snow is limited and frozen lakes andstreams are numerous.

d. Maintenance, Recovery, and Evacuation ofMaterial.

(1) The problems inherent in transporting andpreserving supplies under conditions in-volving low temperatures-snow, ice, andtundra, together with the lack of road nets,railroads, or similar transportation facili-ties-place an abnormal burden on those re-sponsible for provision of maintenance serv-ices.

(2) Major maintenance problems often arisefrom careless or negligent use and operationof equipment. Often these problems mustbe met on-the-spot by available personnel ofthe march unit and may require the delayof a column to recover or repair a single itemof equipment.

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(3) Normally, maintenance activities will belimited to first and second echelon levels inunits operating outside the base campproper. Third or higher echelon mainte-nance will of necessity hlave to be performedby service troops in close support. Here,also, adequate shelter or proximity of basecamps to fixed installations will influence theextent to which activities of this kind areengaged in.

(4) Valuable data concerning special care ofweapons and equipment in arctic operationsis contained in FM 70-15.

238658 '-53-23 347

CHAPTER 16

EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT AND EXPEDIENTS

Section I. USE OF EQUIPMENT AND EXPEDIENTS INMEETING EMERGENCIES

250. GENERAL

a. Field expedients are the techniques used to over-come emergencies arising from conditions of terrainand climate, or employed to prevent or correct de-ficiencies or breakdowns in roadways and equipment.

b. Field expedients may be used in correctingminor deficiencies of vehicles, in assisting vehiclesin crossing obstacles, in extracting them from diffi-cult sections of terrain, and in reclamation andtowing of damaged and disabled vehicles. Theyare the means by which drivers or crew of vehiclesor other march personnel take action to assist them-selves and keep convoys rolling when more adequateaids, or more qualified assistance, is not available.

c. Expedient methods normally require the use ofvehicle equipment or improvised devices for towing,winching, obtaining traction, lifting, anchoring, andfor limited repair.

251. VEHICLE EQUIPMENT

a. Military vehicles are constructed and equippedso as to be able to meet many of the emergenciesarising in the field. Most tactical vehicles areequipped with a front wheel drive, which may beengaged when necessary, and with a wide selection

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of gears for negotiating grades and other difficultterrain. Administrative vehicles and vehicles de-signed for long hauls over improved highways haveless need for these mechanical aids to meet suchdifficult conditions; and in order to conserve weight,parts, and expense, they are usually not provided.

b. In most units. some vehicles are equipped withwinches, and many units have wreckers, wreckinghoist, towing sets, and other equipment for use inmeeting emergencies.

c. Military vehicles are further provided with alimited supply of mechanics' tools and pioneer equip-ment for use in emergency repair and in overcomingobstacles which may delay movements. Driversshould be familiar with all such tools and equip-ment, make sure of their proper care, and know howto use them properly.

d. Traction devices, including anti-skid chains, areimportant items of vehicle equipment for use in in-clement weather. They are the means of givingmore ground pressure and/or traction to the wheelsof a vehicle.

e. No amount of equipment, tools, or devices cantake the place of the ingenuity of officers, noncom-missioned officers, drivers, and mechanics. Skill inbasic techniques in the use of ropes, knots, chains, andother devices will assist immeasurably in accomplish-ing expedient measures required to overcome emer-gencies arising in the field.

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Section II. USE OF WRECKER SETS AND WINCHES

252. GENERAL

a. 1Wreckers are normally special purpose vehiclesused in extracting, hoisting, towing, and otherwiseassisting disabled vehicles. Wrecking sets are spe-cial equipment which is mounted on general purposevehicles, so they can be used as wreckers. Winchtrucks are any vehicles, including wreckers, whichhave mounted winches for use in pulling or towing.

b. A wrecker, wrecking or winch truck, normallymarches near the rear of each unit in order to assistvehicles which become disabled or otherwise requiresuch assistance.

c. If the column is marching over a difficult route,at least one winch truck, if available, should marchat the head of the unit so as to be in a position toassist vehicles which follow in crossing any obstaclesencountered.

d. Wreckers and wrecking sets are primarily foruse by maintenance personnel. Wrecking sets arenormally mounted in a maintenance vehicle whichhas a winch. Drivers of vehicles having mountedwinches or other wrecking equipment should have agood working knowledge of that equipment. Atmilitary posts and other areas of military activity,and along dispatch or other supply routes, emer-gency wrecker service may be provided by "on call"or "patrol" methods.

253. WRECKERS

a. Wreckers are normally provided units havingsufficient motor transport to require them. Their

350

operation requires special training in the use ofwrecking equipment mounted on the vehicle. Illaddition, wrecker operators should always be quali-fied automotive mechanics.

b. The wrecker equipment is a unit assemblymounted on brackets attached to the frame rails.The assembly consists of the wreckel transmission,winches, booms, winch cables, boom cables, and thenecessary sheaves to guide the cables. In addition,wreckers are normally provided with necessary an-chors, blocks, tow bars, clamps, etc.

c. The following general rules should. be observedill use of the wrecker:

(1) Never race engine when operating wrecker,especially when wrecker is operating with-out a load or with a very light load.

(2) Always use moderate speeds when pullingheavy loads; use low speeds until the loadstarts to move.

(3) When pulling over rough ground, crowbarsmlay be used to ease over rocks or other ob-structions.

(4) Whenever possible to replace an overturnedvehicle on its wheels this should be done asearly in the operation as possible.

(5) Watch tUhe cables to see that they do notchafe on sharp edges. Keep cables free ofkinks.

(6) Anchor lines must always be at least asstronigi as a service or hauling line.

(7) Cables should always be wound tight ondrums. Whenever possible wind them upulnder tension of a load.

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254. USE OF HOISTS AND TOWING DEVICES(fig. 43)

a. A suitably mounted hoist can be used to tow adisabled vehicle with one end in an elevated positionwhen damage requires it, especially when the steeringmechanism or the axle is damaged. The hoist attach-ment may be of use in giving a towing lift to a miredvehicle.

b. Care must be taken not to throw the hoistingvehicle off balance in the attempt to lift too heavyload. Where lift only is necessary, upsetting of thehoisting vehicle may be prevented by placing shortposts under the truck frame at the end nearest theBoist, or by installing a temporary brace under thehoist booms, or by placing weight on the part of thevehicle at the opposite end from the hoist.

Figure 43. Hoist of tool set, second echelon set No. 7(m olonted).

255. USES OF THE WINCH

a. A truck may be taken across an obstacle underthe assisting power of its own winch, with the cableattached to a deadman or tree. The power of thedrive wheels should assist the winch. Gears should

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be so chosen that the wheels will cover ground at thesame speed as the winch cable is pulled in.

b. After the winch truck has crossed an obstaclewith the assisting power of its own winch, it may beused in helping other vehicles over the obstacle byeither straight pulling or winclling operations. Thecable may be run out, the winch locked, and the truckused as a towing vehicle, or the winch truck may behalted and blocked and the winch alone utilized.

c. When pulling a vehicle with the winch ofanother, the towed vehicle should assist with its maxi-mum traction. 'Ihe best powel combination gener-ally results if the winch is operated in the highestgear that will give sufficient power, and the truckbeing winched is pulling in lowest gear.

d. When the winch is used ou a difficult pull, thewinch truck may be held in place by use of the brakesand wheel blocks, or by anchorilg to a tree or dead-man. When the lead is not too heavy, traction de-vices will assist in holding the vehicle in place. Asnatch block may be used to increase the mechanicaladvantage of the winch when pulls are too heavy forthe winch alone (fig. 44).

e. Overturned vehicles cannot always be rightedby malnpower alone. Whel this is impossible, a rig-ging similar to that shown in figure 44 may be used.Parking brakes on the overtlrned vehicle should beapplied before the vehicle is righted. Any of thetowing or winching means may be used to pull on therope. Holding lines should be used to prevent dam-age to the veh!icle from its settling too rapidly. Whenthe vehicle has been righted, a careful inspectionmust be made to determine the extent of damage

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SNATCH BLOCK

ANCHORA. RIG WITHOUT SPREADER BAR.

SNATCH BLOCK

ANCHOR

B. RIG WITH CHAIN PASSED UNDER THEBUMPER BAR.

SNATCH BLOCK

ANCHORSPREADER BAR

C. RIG WITH SPREADER BAR.Fiynvrc .J4. Rig for use of the snatch block.

354

caused by the accident. The axles may be bent, theframe twisted, the wheels bent or broken, or thesteering mechanism damaged. Such damage re-quires that the vehicle be evacuated for repair assoon as possible, since driving the damaged vehicleinvites other and perhaps more serious damage oraccidents. Before the vehicle is moved under its ownpower, necessary oil and gas, battery acid, and radi-ator water should be replaced.

.1.

Figure 1,5. Rightihng (an overtuflred vehicle.

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256. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

a. Certain precautions are necessary in the properuse of the winch cable. Whenever the winch cable isslipped over the ground, it should be protected byplacing pieces of wood under it. Power must be ap-plied to the cable gradually. Kinks and twists mustbe removed at all times. Cables should not be tied inknots, except for emergency repair. They should notbe rigged around an angle in such a manner as tobend them. Vehicles with metal tracks or tiresshould not be permitted to run over the cable.

b. Most winches are provided with a shear pinwhich is designed to break off under any strain whichmight snap the cable. Nevertheless, when a steelcable is tightened it may break and snap back withenough force to seriously injure, or kill, a man. Per-sonnel should stand clear before the cable is tight-ened. Makeshift shear pins should not be used.

c. Rewinding of the cable should be done slowly,with a moderate load so as to prevent kinking. Itshould be wound evenly on the drum. When cable isrewound on drum after use, care must be taken to seethat it is wound in neat layers that run entirelyacross the drum. Otherwise, the cable may be tan-gled and damaged when the next pull is made.Again, it is important that all kinks are taken out ofthe cable before it is used or rewound on the drum.

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Section III. MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES ANDEQUIPMENT

257. TOWING AND PULLING DEVICES

a. Tow Chains or Cables. Tow chains or cablesshould be about 16 feet long and should have a hookon one end and a ring or loop on the other. Cablesand chains of approximately 1/2 to 3/4 inch give suffi-cient strength. In addition, double tow ropes 150feet in length will be found helpful. Safe tensionlimits for larger or smaller ropes will vary roughlyas the square of either diameters.

b. Towing Bars. Towing bars provide a tempo-rary coupling device for use when a vehicle is to betowed a considerable distance.

c. Block and Tackle. A block and tackle is a use-ful piece of equipment for use as a snatch block aswell as for lifting and other purposes. A block andtackle attached to a tree, anchored stake, or deadmanis useful for increasing pulling ability.

d. Spreader Bars. To prevent the frame of thevehicle being towed from being bent or otherwisedamaged improvised spreader bars should always beused between ends of a double cable or tow chainattached to both tow hooks of the vehicle.

258. IMPROVISED A-FRAME (UNMOUNTED)

An improvised A-frame (fig. 46) is an expedientdevice which combines both a lift and tow. It iseasily constructed with two poles approximately 12feet long and two tow chains or cables. Holes aredug as supports for the foot of the frame, and a crosschain or plank is used to prevent the poles from

357

spreading. Care must be taken to place the A-frnmefar enough away from the vehicle to be moved sothat, when it is lifted over, the legs will not damagethe front of the vehicle. This simple device is use-ful when a wrecking hoist attachment is not avail-able to lift a vehicle out of and over a ditch or hole, orwhen a heavy vehicle is badly mired.

259. DEADMAN INSTALLATION(fig. 47)

a. General. The "deadman" is a log, railroad tie,or other similar object sunk into the ground in sucha manner as to afford anchorage. To get the bestresults in installing a deadman the following pro-cedure should be used.

b. Position. The best position for the deadman isbehind a natural crest or mound where as much sur-face of undisturbed earth as possible may be utilized.It should be placed far enough away from the vehiclebeing winched or towed so that it will not interferewhen the vehicle clears the obstacle. If the deadmanis too close to the vehicle, an upward pull may causethe anchorage to become dislodged.

c. Digging. A trench is dug deep enough so asto place the top of the deadman a foot or so below theground surface, and long and wide enough to holdthe deadman. The bank in the direction of pull isundercut at an angle of about 150 from the vertical.The bottom of the hole is cleared at a right angle tothis bank. To assist in strengthening the top edgeof the hole in the direction of pull, two stakes areusually driven on either side of the cable at a slightlygreater angle to the vertical than tile angle made by

358

IC,~~~~~~~~i

5 N ;;

Ii 5 1 i A

: X~~~~~i

-59

the bank, and so as to be flush with the slanted banknear the top. A trench for the cable is cut from thehole through the crest of the hill or mound. Thisshould be slightly deeper than the bottom of the holeat the beginning and should continue out in an as-cending slope.

d. Cable Attachment. A rectangular railroad tieor larger timber is most suitable for the deadman,since it presents the maximum surface to oppose thedirection of pull. The cable or chain is attached tothe deadman so that the largest area of the deadmanis against the forward bank, and so that any ten-dency of the deadman to rotate acts downward andnot upward.

Figueic 47. Deadwinu iilstallationl.

260. ANCHORED STAKE(fig. 48)

Two stakes and a rope lashing may be used toinstall an anchored stake which will withstandconsiderable pull. The first stake is driven into theground at a little greater than a right angle from thedirection of pull; the second stake at an angle

360

slightly closer to the ground and 3 to 6 feet to therear of the first stake. A rope is used to anchor thetop of the first stake to the bottom of the second. Inorder that this rope will not slip down on the firststake, it is first tied to the bottom of the second, thenwrapped over itself with a one-half clove hitch at thetop of the first stake. The rope then is passed aroundthe second and another half clove hitch is completedover the first, wrapping the rope around below thefirst hitch. This lashing is completed a number oftimes before the rope is secured to the second stake.A third stake may then be used to twist the lashingtight, after which the stake is driven into the ground.The operation may be continued with an additionalstake to give a still stronger anchorage.

Figure 48. Anchored stake.

361

APPENDIX I

REFERENCES

1. FIELD MANUALS

FM 5-10 Routes of Communication.FM 5-20 Series Camouflage, Basic Principles.FM 5-20B Camouflage of Vehicles.FM 5-25 Explosives and Demolitions.FM 5-31 Land Mines and Booby Traps.FM 19-5 Military Police.FM 19-10 Military Police in Towns and Cities.FM 19-25 Military Police Traffic Control.FM 21-8 Military Training Aids.FM 31-20 Operations against Guerilla Forces.FM 70-10 Mountain Operations.FM 70-15 Operations in Snow and Extreme

Cold.FM 72-20 Jungle Warfare.FM 100-10 Field Service Regulations, Admin-

istration.FM 101-5 Staff Officers' Field Manual.

Staff Organization and Procedure.FM 101-10 Staff Officers' Field Manual.

Organization, Technical and Lo-gistical Data.

2. TECHNICAL MANUALS

TM 9-2800 Military Vehicles.TM 9-2853 Preparation of Ordnance Materiel

for Deep Water Fording.TM 9-2900 Military Explosives.TM 21-300 Driver Selection and Training.TM 21-305 I)river's Manual.TM 37-2810 Motor Vehicle Inspection and Pre-

ventive Maintenance Services.

362

3. ARMY REGULATIONS

AR 750-5 Maintenance Responsibilities andShop Operations.

4. SPECIAL REGULATIONS

SR 110-1-1 Index of Army MIotion Picture Kine-scope Recordings and Film Strips.

SR 310-20-3 Index of Army Training Publica-tions.

SR 310-204 Index of Technical Manuals, Tech-nical Regulations, Technical Bull-etins, Supply Bulletins, Lubrica-tion Orders, and ModificationWork Orders.

SR 310-20-5 Index of Administrative Publica-tions.

SR 310-20-6 Index of Blank Forms, nnd ArmyPersonnel Classification Tests.

SR 320-5-1 Dictionary of U. S. Army Terms.S11 320-50 1 Authorized Abbreviations.SR 38,-155-1 Prevention of lMotor Vehicle Acci-

dents.

363

APPENDIX II

MARCH DATA

1. MARCH FACTORS AND FORMULAS

lMarcll factors and formulas are explained in para-graphs 48 through 63.

2. USE OF SIMPLE FORMULAS IN COMPUTINGMARCH DATA

a. If the commander or control officer of a columnis familiar'with the basic formulas, it is usually pos-sible for him to keep constantly abreast of the marchsituation by computing the data he needs as hetravels. For example:

(1) There are 12 vehicles in a commander's con-voy. Vehicles average 10 yards in length.The speedometer multiplier (SM) is 2 andthe vehicles are averaging 20 miles per hour.This is the basic information.

(2) Multiply the speed by the SM (20x2), tofind the average intervehicular gap (40yards).

(3) Add the vehicular length to the gap (10+40) to obtain the average lead (50 yards).

(4) Multiply the lead by the number of vehicles(50 x 12) to find the road space (600 yards).

b. To continue these computations, the march com-mander may make use of certain conversion factors(par. 5 of this app.).

(1) Multiply the miles per hour by the factor 30(20x30) to determine the speed in yardsper minute (600 yards per minute).

364

(2) Divide the road space (in yards) by thespeed (in yards per minute) to determinethe time length of the column (600 dividedby 600 equals 1 minute).

c. The time length of the column can be checkedby pulling ahead of the column and clocking its pass-ing. If the tail of the column clears the check pointin less than a minute, the march commander willknow that proper distances are not being maintained.If it requires longer than a minute, he knows some-one is straggling.

d. Assuming that the time length of the column iscorrect, further information regarding the marchmay be computed as follows:

(1) The march orders are that the head of thecolumn should clear Jones Junction at 1200hours. It is now 0950 and the junction is 40miles away (road distance).

(2) At 20 mph it will require 2 hours for thehead of the column to reach Jones Junction(40 divided by 20). This is the time dis-tance.

(3) The tail of the column should clear 1 minutelater or in 2 hours 1 minute.

(4) Since the march commander has 2 hours 1minute to go (0950 to 1200), he knows thatlie is running on schedule and should clearJones Junction at the time specified in hisorders.

3. EXPLANATION OF CONVERSION FACTORS

a. Factor .30 jor Converting Miles Per Hour (mph)to Yards Per Minute.

365

(1) To convert miles per hour to yards perminute, multiply the speed (mph) by thefactor 30 or, for exact computations, 29.33.Ea'm Lple: 20 mph x 30 = 600 yards perminute.

(2) This factor is arrived at by dividing theyards in a mile by the minutes in an hour asfollows:1,760 yards + 60 minutes = 29.33 or ap-proximately 30 yards per minute.

(3) The use of this factor may be checkedagainst standard methods of computation asfollows:Test: 20 miles (per hour) x 1,760 yards

(per mile) = 35,200 yards (perhour); 35,200 yards (per hour) +60 minutes (per hour) = 586.66, orapproximately 600 yards per minute((1) above).

b. Factor 2 for Converting Miles Per Hour toYards Per Second.

(1) To convert miles per hour to yards persecond, divide the speed (mph) by the factor2 for a rough approximation as follows:

30 mph + 2 = 15 yards per second.(2) This factor is based on the fact that there

are approximately twice (2.045) as manyseconds in an hour as there are yards in amile:3,600 seconds + 1,760 yards = 2.045, or alittle more than double.

366

(3) The use of this factor may be checkedagainst standard methods of computation asfollows:30 miles (per hour) x 1,760 yards (permile) = 52,800 yards (per hour);52,800 yards (per hour) + 3,600 seconds(per hour) = 14.66, or approximately 15yards per second ((1) above).

c. Factor 2 for Converting SM to Time Gap (TG).(1) To convert the SM of any governed columnl

to the time gap (in seconds) between indi-vidual vehicles, multiply the SM by 2:

SM 3 x 2 = 6 seconds (TG)(2) This is based on the fact that gap in yards

(as determined from speed in miles per hourby the SM) when divided by the speed inyards per minute (as computed by the2 divisor factor in subpar. b above) willresult in the time gap in seconds:SM'3 X 30 mph = 90 yards gap; 30 miles(per hour) + 2 (divisor factor) = 15 yards(per second); 90 yards (gap) - 15 yardsper second = 6 seconds (TG).

(3) This may be verified as follows:(a) At 30 miles per hour a vehicle travels

52,800 yards per hour (30 miles per hourX 1,760 yards per mile) or 14.66 yards persecond (52,800 yards per hour - 3,600seconds per hour).

(b) At 90 yards gap (30 mph with SM 3),the TG will be 6.14 seconds (90 + 14.66yards per second), which is approxi-mately twice the SM.

367

Table IX. Rates and Lengths of llarches "

Average rates of march (mph)

Unit n 0.roads Across mm~Day'scountry miles

Day Night Day Night

Foot troops -. 2 2- -2 1 1 12-20Trucks, general __- 25 25 (lights)_ - 8 5 175

10 (no lights)Cars, passenger_-- 35 35 (lights) -.. .8 5 250

10 (no lights)Tanks, light or me- 15 25 (lights)_-- 5 5 150

dium. 10 (no lights)Cars, armored ----- 35 35 (lights) --- 10 5 200

10 (no lights)Truck-drawn artil- 20 20 (lights)---- 8 5 140

lery. 10 (no lights)Tractor-drawn ar- 5 5- -_- _ 3 2 40

tillery.Animal elements _ 6 5 -- _ 5 4 35Pack animals- 3 -| 3 3 2 20A nimal-drawn 3 | 3------------ 1 1 20

trains.

This table is for general planning and comparison purposes. All factors givenare variable in accordance with the situation. Rates shown apply primarily tomovement in close column, and may be increased for small commands underfavorable conditions, or for movement'in open column. For movement overmountainous or very diflicult terrain, additional allowances should be made.

368

Table X. Infiltration Rates a

DESIRED (per lane) DISPATCH RATE

TIME LEADSPEED DENSITY FL.OW LEAD (between veh)

(vehicles (vehicles (yards be.per mile) per hour) tween veh)

__mlin see

10 mph 10 100 176 -- 365 50 352 1 124 40 440 1 303 30 587 22 20 880 3

20 mph -- . . .... 10 200 176 ---- 185 100 352 -- 364 80 440 -- 453 60 587 12 40 880 1 30

30 mph --------- 10 300 176 --- 125 150 352 ------ 244 120 440 ------ 303 90 587 ------ 402 60 880 1

40 mph.- . .... 10 400 176 ------ 95 200 352 ------ 184 160 440 ----- 22)i3 120 587 ------ 302 80 880- -- 45

50 mph ..-.. . . .10 500 176 ------ 75 250 352 ----- 144 200 440 -- 183 150 587 ----. 242 100 880 -- 36

The purpose of this table is to establish rates of dispatch in time (time lead)and space (lead) between vehicles when the speed and density or fow are known.After vehicles are dispatched, it will be undesirabhle and impractical for vehilesto maintain exact leads and tiome leads.

369

Table XI. Density and Flow of Governed Columns ~

VEHICU.LAR TRAFFIC (maximum)Speedometer multiplier

((SM) and time lead (TL) LEAD DENSITY FLOWin seconds) SPEEDH(LA TY FL(mph) (yards per (vehicles per (vehicles

vehicle) mile) per hour)

CLOSE COLUMN

SM I (TL 2) 10 10 176 , 76020 20 88 1, 76030 30 59 1, 76040 40 44 1, 760

SM 2 (TL 4) __ 10 20 88 88020 40 44 88030 60 29 88040 80 22 880

This chart is to be used in establishing an SM within the limits of a presribeddensity or traffic flow. The vehicular column is based on a lead SM; the trafficcolumn is based on maximums which donot take into consideration gaps betweenmarch units or columns or the effects of other traffie.

370

Table XI. Delsifty and Floao of Govlerned Columnlns--Con.

VEHICULAR TRAFFIC (marimum)Speedometer multiplier _____ _ __

((SM) and time lead (TL) LEAD DENSIT FLOWin seconds) SPEEDHLAD TYAFLOW(mnP) (yards per (vehicles per (vehiles

ehl) mile) per hour)

OPEN COLUMN

SM 3 (TL 6) 10 30 59 58720 60 29 58730 90 19 58740 120 15 587

SM 4 (TL 8) . .... 10. 40 44 44020 80 22 44030 120 15 44040 160 11 440

SM 5 (TL 10) ---- 10 50 35 35220 100 18 35230 150 12 35240 200 9 352

SM 6 (TL 12) . .10 60 29 29320 120 15 29330 180 10 29340 240 7 293

a This chart is to be used in establishing an SM within the limits of a prescribeddensity of traffic flow. The vehicularcolumn isbased on a lead SM; the trafficcolumn is based on maximums which do not take into consideration gaps betweemarch units or columns or the effects or other traffic.

371

Table XII. Vehicle Fuel and Lubricant Data

~1 ~ ~2 3 4 5 6

Gear Miscel.Vehicle Fuel Oi lubri- laneous

fuel per per cant greaseVehicle tank 100 100 per per

capacity miles miles 100 100(gal (gal) (gal) mles miles

(Ib) (lb)

Automobile, sedan, 5passenger -. . ........ 16 6.4 0.2 0.1 0.1

Car, armored, utility,M20 -------- - 56 14.3 1.5 .5 .9

Carriage, motor (twin40-mm), M19_- 115 100.0 4.0 1.0 2.4

Carriage, motor(105-mm how), M37_ 115 100.0 4,0 1.5 2.4

Carriage, motor(155-mm gun), M40or (8-in. how) M43_ 215 200. 0 5. 0 1. 6 2. 8

Carrier, cargo, M-29-.- 25 20. 0 1.5 .8 .5Carrier, cargo, M-29C__ 35 20. 0 1. 5 1. 0 5Carrier, half-track 60 30.0 1.1 .7 1.2Compressor, air, trk-

mtd--------------- 40 13.3 .3 .5 .3Crane, trk mtd t -yd

capacity --50 40.0 .4 .8 .4Grader, road, mtzd,

diesel --------------- 27 72.0 .8 12.5 2.0Shop equipment, mtzd,

GP .-------------- 45 20.0 .4 .8 .4Motorcycle, solo - . ... 3. 5 2.4 .2 . 1 . IMotor, scooter - . ..... 2.0 2.0 .2 . 1 . 1Tank, light, M24 110 63. 0 3. 2 1. 0 1.5Tank, medium, M4A3

(76-mm) ------------ 175 125. 0 4.0 1.5 2. 4Tank, medium, M26 - 183 166. 0 4. 0 1. 6 2. 8Tractor, medium, high-

speed, 13T, M5 .---- 100 80.0 1.0 1. 1 .5

372

Table XII. Vehicle Fuel and Lubricant Data-Continued

1 2 3 4 5 6

Gear : Miseel-Vehicle Fuel Oil lubri- laneous

fuel per per cant greaseVehicle tank 100 100 per per

capacity miles miles 100 1!0(gal) (gl) (gal) miles miles

(lb) (Ib)

Tractor, medium, high-speed, 18T (M4) .... 125 70. 0 1.4 1.2 .6

Tractor, heavy, high-speed, 38T (M6) .-. ..300 200. 0 2. 0 1.8 .5

Truck, 4-ton .-------- 15 7. 0 .2 .2 .2Truck, Y%-ton --------- 30 12. 5 . 3 .3Y .Truck, 1%-ton, 4 x 4_ 30 13.3 .3 .5 .3Truck, 1A-ton, 6x 6--- 30 12.5 .3 .5 .3Truck, 2%4-ton, 6x 6. - 40 17.9 .4 .8 .4Truck, 4-ton, 6 x 6 --- 60 40. 0 .6 1. 2 .8Truck, 6-ton, 6 x 6,

prime mover .- .... 75 50. 0 .9 .7 . 0Truck, 73-ton, 6 x 6,

prime mover . .---- -160 40. 0 .8 .8 1. 0Truck, amphibian, 2%-

ton (amph trk) .- .. 40 16. 7 .6 .9 .3Truck, crane, M2 .- . 100 66. 7 .7 .7 .5Truck, wrecking, MIAI_ 100 40. 0 9 . 8 1. 0Truck; tractor (tank

transporter) M26-__- 120 62. 5 1.5 .9 1. 1Truck, tractor, 4-5 ton

(7-ton semitrailer) --- 60 3h 3 . 6 1. 2 . 8Truck, trailer, 5-6 ton

(10-ton semitrailer) - - 90 18. 9 .8 1.0 . 9Vehicle, landing,

tracked LVT (4)LVT (A) (5) ------- 162 82. O0 2. 4 1. 3 .8

Vehicle, tank recovery,M32A1 -- -------- 172 172. 0 2. 0 1.6 2. 8

Vehicle, engr, armnd__.... 140 166. 6 4. 0 1. 5 2. 4Vehicle, utility, armd,

M44 -- ......... 110 55. 0 2.8 .9 1. 2

373

Table XIII. Standard Types and Capacities of Trucksand Trailers

Cases or units per load -

Type of container Unit l2o--ton 5-ton tsei.trailer cargo c trailer(eaOpi- (capae- (aver- aer

ity) ity) age)

Full

US 55-gallon drum -. ... 1 6 15 24 49US 5-gallon can (gasoline) 1 50 125 250 500US 1-quart can (oil) - . . .12 60 145 290 581US 25-pound pail (grease) 1 70 170 245 690

Empty

US 55-gallon drum 1 6 23 23 55US 5-gallon can (gasoline) - 1 88 320 320 750

Wfhen overloads are authorized, these quantities may be increased to the cubiccapacity of the vehicles or to 100 percent overload, whichever limit is reached first.

374

INDEX

-Parasrphs PageAccidents and procedures following accidents__ 122, 175, 294

123, 207Administration, motor vehicle ------------ 21, 22 27, 28Administrative arrangements on the march_ 113, 114 170Advance elements:

Advance parties -...... 44, 90, 208 65, 138,294

Pioneer party -------- 90 138Quartering (billeting) party ----------- 90 138Reconnaissance party ---------------- 90 138

Advance officer ..-.................... 87 133Aircraft warning to convoys- -......... 214 297Automotive maintenance:

Command inspections - ....... 31 49Definition -...... 30 48Driver responsibility ----------------- 34 53Organization of the maintenance function:

Depot maintenance (fifth echelon)._ 32 50Field maintenance:

Fourth echelon - . . .32 50Third echelon -------------- 32 50

Organizational maintenance:First echelon - ........ 32 50Second echelon ------------ 32 50

Repair procedure .. . ..... 35 55Support -.................. 149 214System of performance:

Production line -........... 33 52Unit --------------------------- 33 52

375

Paragraphs PageBeach and port clearance . --- 187 266Billeting party -...... .90 138

Cadence counting in maintaining time lead__ 70 110Cargo losses .-................. 194, 195 279Classification:

Of highway movements - . ......... 37, 38 58, 59Of highways -.....--. 150 216

Columns:Communications control - ...-.... 84 129Length -_-_................. 61, 64 86, 94Make-up -........ .64 94Movement, mechanics - . ........ 64-70 94Speed .-... ................. 64 94Types:

Close -................ 72, 74 111, 112Double staggered - ............ 73, 80 112, 122Fixed -................... 73, 77 112, 119Foot .-............. 37 58Governed - 73, 78 112, 120Main, parts:

Head -.............. .44, 45 65, 67'Main body - .............. 44, 46 65, 67Trail -................. 44, 47 65, 68

Open -.................. 72, 75 111, 114Conversion factors for computing march

data .-........................... App. II 364Convoys:

Aircraft warning to ------------------ 214 297Definition ------ 38 59Demolition of vehicles to prevent enemy

use .-....................... 218 304Effects of terrain and climate .- . 220 309Enemy capabilities against - . ...... 210 295Guerilla activities against - . ....... 219 307Halts --...................... 104 156Initial point, selection- -211 295Operation, SOP for -............. 154 221Protection from mines -------------- 213 296Reconnaissance ------------- 212 295

376

Detached parties: Paragrapha PaeAdvance elements. (See Advance ele-

ments.)Escort techniques- -............. 94 141Follow-up detachments - . ........ 91 . 139General -........... .89 137Route marking-_-.......... 93 140Security forces- .-.............. 92 140Traffic escorts .-.............. 92 140

Detrucking- -................. 169, 175, 176, 241, 249,179 251, 254

Dispatch routes -............... 150, 157 216, 226Dispersion points -..................... 111 . 168Distance:

Estimating- -.................. 69 109Factors in movement .- . ......... 52, 53 75

Drivers:Maintenance responsibility -. . .... 34 53Orientation for march 99 146Responsibility while march is en route__ 100 147Selection - 9 8Training__ -- __-___.-------------- 10 9

Emergency equipment:A-frame ..........-- .. 258 357Anchored stake ----------..----- 260 360Deadman -------------- 259 358For towing-_ ---------- 257 357General .........--.......... 250, 251 348Hoists ...........-- . . .254 352Winches-_---------------- 255, 256 352, 356Wreckers -..... _.... 252, 253 350

Enemy capabilities against supply convoys. 210 295Entrucking -_.. .......... 169-176, 179 241, 254Explosives, handling -- .......... 196 201 280

Flags, unit- - - .---..--------- ---- 83 128Follow-up detachments -.......... 91 139Follow-up parties -................. 44, 209 65, 294Formulas, march .- .......... 56, App. 1I 79, 364

Guides-_ -.. _...------------- 87 133

377

Paragrophs 1'ageHalts ........................... - .63, 104 92, 156Highway:

Capabilities:Tonnage -------------------- ---- 12 12Vehicle ----------------------- 12 12

Movements, classification .--------- 37, 38 58, 59Regulation and traffic control:

Automotive maintenance support 149 214Civil laws and ordinances . -------- 159 229Control classification of highways:

Dispatch routes - . .. 150, 156, 157 216,225, 226

Open routes - .......... 150 216Reserved routes .- . .... 150 216Supervised routes - . ... .150 216

Fuel, oil, and lubricant provisionI--- 149 214General -............ 151, 158 217, 228Management -.----- -------- 147 213Military police, authority of - - 160 229Orders -.... ........... 154 .221Organization for -........... 152 219Points -............... 153 220Priorities -.... ... .155 224Road maintenance - ....... 149 214Schedules ---------- 156 225Signal communications - . .. .149 214Standing operating procedure -. .154 221Transportation officer - . .... 148 214Types -. 149 214

Traffic, military. (See Military highwaytraffic.)

Transport (military) within United States.(See Military Highway transport.)

Transport unit pools -.. ........... 22 28

Ice, carrying capacity of 248 343Identification of vehicles. (See Vehicles.)Infiltration -................ 72, 76, 156 111,

116, 225Inflammable liquids, handling - . ...... 196-201 280

378

Initial point: Parsragphs PheColumn control at 98 145General .... 96 145Location 97 145Reaching- -...... .63 92Selection -......... 211 295

Inspection, command_ -.........----- 31 49International sign system- - . ........ 146 212Islands, traffic -................ 145 212

Loading-_-............ 190-193 270Logistics:

For personnel movements -- . .... 169 241For supply movements -- ....... 189 268

Maintenance:Automotive. (See Automotive mainte-

nance.)In the desert -----------.--- - 243 333Road -...................... 149 214Winterization- -............. 246, 249 341, 345

Maps, traffic:Circulation_ -............. 134 193General-_ -..................... 134 193Overlays- -.... ....... .134 193Strip_ -...................... 134, 179 193, 254

Symbols- -.... ....... .135 197Marches:

Administrative arrangements ------- 113, 114 170Changing direction- -............. 105 159Column_ .-................... 40, 42, 60, 62,

95, 103 144, 153Completion .-......... 110-112 168Control and discipline:

Communications control -------- 84 129General- -........ .81 125Identification of vehicles. (See Ve-

hicle identification.)Control personnel__-- . ........... 85-88 131Data:

Conversion factors -- . ....... .App. II 364Formulas .- . ............. 56, App. II 79, 364

379

Marches-Continued Paregraphs PageDefinition -------------------------- 37, 38, 58, 59,

40 60Discipline - ----- ---------- 82 125En route techniques --------------- 100-109 147Formation - -- --------------- 95-99 144Formulas --------- ----------- 56, App. II 79, 364General ...- --...-----. 81 125Graph --------- _--- --_..- ---- 57-63 81Motor, definition .-- --...... 37, 38 58, 59Organization:

General -...................... 39, 40 59, 60March column --------.. ------ 40, 42 60, 62March unit -............... 40, 41 60, 61Serials, types ----------- - -- - 43 62

Planning and planning aids:Basic march formulas ----- - --- 56 79Distance factors .- ... __ _.... 52, 53 75General-- - - 49, 50 70, 71Rate of movement ------- - --- 55 78Reconnaissance ----------- - ------ 48 69Time factors ------------------- 52, 54 75, 77

Principles and methods:Estimating distance -------- - ---- 69 109General --------------- - --- - 64 94Maintaining time lead ------ - --- 70 110Speedometer multiplier --- --- 66, 67 100, 104Vehicle length in governing columns_ 68 107

Rate ------------------------------ 61, 63 86, 92Reversing direction ----------------- 106 160Types:

Controlled column:Close column -------------- 72, 74 111, 112Double staggered column ----- 73, 80 112, 122Fixed column: -------------- 73,77 112, 119Governed column ----------- 73, 78 112, 120Open column --------------- 72,75 111, 114Orders .---------------- 154, 177, 221, 251,

179 254

380

Marches-ContinuedTypes-Continued

Flexible types: Paraoraphs PaneInfiltration -........ 72, 76 111, 116Shuttling 73, 79 112 121

General -......... .71 110Night -.................. 108 164

Marking routes. (See Signing and markingroutes.)

Medical services on the march .- . ._. . 120, 121 174Messages for communications control .---- 84 129Messing .-........................ 115-117 171Military highway traffic:

Conditions affecting .......... 6, 7 5,Traffic density .-.......... 131, 133 191, 192Traffic flow -.... .... .131 191

Military highway transport within UnitedStates:

Accidents, procedure in case of___ 122, 123, 207 175, 294Advance parties -........... 90, 208 138, 294Clearance from civilian authorities 202 288Follow-up parties -......... 91, 209 139, 294Reconnaissance -205 293Tolls and ferries -................ 204 293Traffic escorts, civilian and MP 203 292

Mines, protection of supply convoys against_ 213 296Motorized operations, basic factors:

Driver selection .. . ........ 9 8General .. 8 8Highway capabilities -.......... 12 12Highway traffic plan 13-15 14Utilization of available vehicles -. 11 I I

Motor:Pools -...... ............... 23-29 28Vehicle. (See Vehicles.)

Motor Transport, relation to over-all move-ment function -. 3 2

Movements:Administrative .-........ 38 59Classification - 37, 38 58, 59Conditions affecting .. - 6, 7 5, 6

381

Movements-Continued Pragraphs PogeDetached parties . .. 44 65Management -......... 147 213Multiple (on a graph) -62 86Organization, main column il-l--.. _ 44-47 65Rate- -.......... .55 78Tactical -................ 38 59

Operations:Desert -.................. 240-244 329In arctic conditions -- . ........ 245-249 339In mountainous terrain ll--....222-226 310In mud .-. 227-229 316Jungle -........... 236-239 325Off-road . 221 309Through water -....... 230-235 320

Orders:Highway regulation-__-....... 154 221March ............ 154, 177, 179 221,251,

254Operational ........... 179 254Warning_ ..-............. 177, 178 251, 252

Overlays .. 134 193

Personnel:Control - - - _ 85-88 131Duties:

At halts -104 156Following the march -- . ...... 112 169

Personnel movements:Command ...-....... 163-165 233Detrucking- -........... 175, 176 249, 251Entrucking -...... 170-176 246Logistics for .-... .. 169 241March orders and tables for - 177-180 251Methods .-..... .... 166 237Tactical considcrations ..-. . 167 239

Pioneer party-... 90 138Planning:

For quartering --9......... 60, 118, 119 138, 172,173

March ............... 49-51 70

382

Parar'aphs Page

Port and beach clearance ....--- -. - - - 187 266Purpose of manual -.................. 1 1

Quartering .. . ................. 102, 103 153Quartering party . 90 138

Radio sets, two-way (for control communica-tion) _------------------------ 84 * 129

Reconnaissance:For supply convoys in combat areas---- 212 295In march planning -........... 48 69In United States .---------. 205 293Party -.............. .90 138

References -..................... App. I 362Refueling on the march -........ 124, 125 178, 179Release points -................... 63, 111 92, 168Repair, automotive -............ 35, 36 55, 56Right-of-way of march column -. . ... .100 147Route card -...............-- 99 146Route marking. (See Signing and marking

routes.)

Safety precautions:Against cargo losses -------------- - 195 279In handling explosives --------- 196-201 280In movements in United States ----.-- 206 293While march column is en route ----- 100, 102 147, 153

Scope of manual ..-------------------- 2 1Security:

Forces --------- --- ----------- 92 140General measures for - . ......... 215-217 298In signing and marking routes -------- 138 206SOP for ---------------- 154 221

Serials:Definition ------------------------ 40, 43 60, 62Individual numbering for identification-- 83 128Organization ------------- ----- 154 221

Shuttling:Definition ------- --------- 73, 79 112, 121Types -------- ------ 166 237

Signal communication - ------ ------- 149 214

383

Signals: Paragravhs PageAs traffic control devices .- ...... 144 211Used in a march column - . ... 101 149

Signing and marking routes ------ 93, 136 146, 247 140, 204,342

Sign messages -.. .............. 84 129Sign system, international -...... 146 212Speedometer multiplier -.......... 66 68 100Speed:

Rate of march -_........ 61, 63 86, 92Variation within column … .. ..... 64 94

Standing operating procedure:For highway regulation - _- - _ 154 221For march orders ------ _- ---- - 177 251

Strip maps _-------------------. 134, 179 193, 254Supply movements:

Cargo losses -. . ......... 194, 195 279Command .-........ 183 261Explosives and inflammable liquids 196-201 280General _------------- 181 259Logistical factors .-............. 189 268Operating methods - . ...._....... 186 265Operations in tactical support - . .._ 188 267Port and beach clearance .- . .. .185, 187 264, 266Types of- _----------- 184 263

Tables:I. Ratings of Elements Used in Road

Classification - -__ ._- 135 197II. Symbols for Length and Width of

Road and for Types of Road Surfaces__ 135 197III. System Schedule, a Composite

Schedule for a Road Net -------- - 156 225IV. Table for Computing Organic Truck

Requirements for Troop Movement - 169 241V. Table for Computing Truck Require-

ments (for Troop Movement) Re-quested from Higher Headquarters-_- 169 241

VI. Work Sheets for Preparation ofEntrucking and Detrucking Tables_ _ 176 251

384

Tables-Continued Poroaraphs PageVII. Entrucking and Detrucking

Tables. ..---- -------- 176 261VIII. Example of a March Table -. ... 180 257IX. Rates and Lengths of Marches ___ App. II 364'X. Infiltration Rates .- . .... App. II 364XI. Density and Flow of Governed

Columns- -.................. App. II 364VII. Vehicle Fuel and Lubricant Data_ App. II 364XIII. Standard Types and Capacities of

Trucks and Trailers - . .......App. II 364Tactical movements __-............ 38 59Tactical support-_ .---- 188 267Time:

Factors in movement - ........... 52, 54 75, 77Lead -............... .70 110Length- -...----- 61 86

Traffic:Control:

Devices- ----------- 137 205In mountainous terrain .------- 226 313Of march column -- 100 147Types of -............. 1409 214

Escorts .-.........---- 87, 92, 94, 203 133,140,141, 292

Islands- -.... ........ .145 212Maps. -.................... 134, 135 198, 197Patrols -------------- 87 133

Trail maintenance officer-_.... ... 87 133Trail officer ---- 8------------------ 87 133Transportation officer .------ --..... 148 214Turn-around time -....---. ..---. 189 268

Unit:Flags. ---.-.-.....-----.-----.- 83 128Symbols - -....----------------- 83 128

Vehicles, motor:Administration .-... .. 21-29 27Availability --------- 189 268Classification_ -. _. ___....... 16-18 16

385

Vehicles, motor-Continued Paragrph PibeDemolition ............... 218 304Highway capability for -12 12Identification:

Communications - 84 129Control -........... 83 128

Length (use in governing columns) --- 68 107Outside the convoy 100 147Responsibility . 20 26Use -.............. 11,20 11, 26

Warning orders -........... 177, 178 251, 252

386ff $ IY¥£~M£~I PsllIT~rlli OFQiTET: 1i9

Documents

MOTOR TRANSPORTATION, OPERATIONS · ing references, charts, and data helpful to the marchll planner. 3. MOTOR TRANSPORT'S RELATIONSHIP TO THE OVER-ALL MOVEMENT FUNCTION lfotor transportation