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Defining Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.
6-2
Three Approaches to Motivation
Individual Differences Approach
Treats motivation as a characteristic of the individual
Job & Organization
Approach
Emphasizes the design of jobs and the general organizational environment
Managerial Approach
Focuses on behaviors of managers, in particular, their use of goals and rewards
Motivation
Theories of MotivationEarly Theories of Motivation• Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs • Alderfer’s ERG (Existence,
Relatedness, and Growth)• McGregor’s Theory X and
Theory Y• Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
6-4
Contemporary Theories of Motivation• McClelland’s Theory of Learned
Needs• Equity Theory• Expectancy Theory• Goal-Setting & feedback
Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsThere is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions– Individuals cannot move
to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are
satisfied – Must move in
hierarchical order– Satisfaction-progression
process
6-5
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Lower OrderExternal
Higher OrderInternal
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research.
•Three groups of core needs:Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)
•Removed the hierarchical assumption– Frustration-regression process– Can be motivated by all three at once
•Popular, but not accurate, theory© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights
reserved. 6-6
Existence
Growth
Relatedness
McClelland's Theory Learned Needs
Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Want reasonably challenging goals
• Set their own goalsLike to work alone than in teams
• .Prefer task with immediate feedback
• Money is a symbol of achievement. Desire recognition than money.
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• Desire to seek approval of others, conform to others wishes, avoid conflict
• Like to work with others than alone
• Effective in jobs that require social interaction
• Can be indecisive and unfair in allocating resources
Need for Power (nPow)
• Desire to control one’s environment-people + resources
• Personalized versus socialized power
• Leaders need to have high social power than personal power.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors Motivators
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
Recognition
Work Conditions
Supervision
Salary
Company Policies
Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites butseparate constructs
Extrinsic and Related to
Dissatisfaction
Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction
Outcome 1+ or -
Effort Performance
Outcome 3+ or -
Outcome 2+ or -
Expectancy Theory of Motivation(Victor Vroom)
E-to-P Expectancy• Assuring employees have
competencies• Person-job fit • Provide role clarification and
sufficient resources• Provide training, positive
feedback and coaching
P-to-O Instrumentality • Measure
performance accurately
• Give valued rewards for good performance
• Explain how rewards is linked to performance
Outcomes &valence• Ensure rewards
are valued• Individualize
rewards
Equity TheoryIndividuals compare their job inputs ( effort, experience, education,
competence) and outputs (salary levels ,pay raises, recognition) with those
of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
Reduce our inputs Less organizational citizenship
Increase our outcomes Ask for pay increase
Reduce other’s outputs Ask boss to stop giving other preferred treatment
Change our perceptions Start thinking that other’s perks aren’t really so valuable
Change comparison other Compare self to someone closer to your situation
Leave the field Quit job
Actions to correct inequity Example
Emotions• Anger• Stress
Attitudes• Org Commitment• Job satisfaction
Behaviors• Task Performance• Org Citizenship• Counterproductive • work behavior
Distributive Justice
Perceptions
Procedural Justice
Perceptions
Structural RulesFairness in policies & practices
Social RulesBeing treated with dignity & respect
Organizational Justice Components
5-11
DistributionPrinciples
Fairness in outcomes
Goal-Setting Theory
Specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance
© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6-12
Specific -- measureable change within a time frame
Relevant – relevant to job, within employee’s control and responsibilities
Challenging – raise level of effort
Accepted (commitment) – motivated to accomplish the goal
Participative (sometimes) – improves acceptance and goal quality
Feedback – information available about progress toward goal
Motivation through Rewards
Pay for performance the concept that monetary rewards are in whole, or
in part, linked to performance (individual or team).
Motivation through Rewards
Organizationalrewards
• Profit sharing • Stock options• Balanced scorecard
Teamrewards
• Bonuses• Gainsharing
Individualrewards
• Bonuses• Commissions• Piece rate
Performance-Based Rewards
Employee Recognition Programs– Stimulates Intrinsic Motivation– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition– Inexpensive to implement – Encourages repetition of desired behaviors
Examples– Monthly awards – “Bragging Board”– Notes and messages appreciating employee efforts– Publicly appreciating employees
Motivation through Non-Financial Rewards
Motivation Through Job Design
• Job design – Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency
of those tasks with other jobs– Purpose: to create jobs that allow work to be
performed efficiently yet employees are motivated and engaged
• Scientific management (Fredrick Taylor)
Sought to improve work efficiency by– Emphasizing person-job matching– Creating small, repetitive tasks – Training workers to do these tasks well– Goal setting, work incentives & supportive work
conditions Job specializationDividing work into separate jobs that include a subset of the tasks required to complete the product or service- Intent was to increase efficiency, but decreased motivation due to unappealing jobs.
Motivation Through Job Design
Job Enlargement• Adding tasks to an existing job • Worker performs more tasks but at the same level of
responsibility– Example: video journalist
Employee 1Operates camera
Employee 2Operates sound
Employee 3Reports story
Traditional news teamVideo journalist• Operates camera• Operates sound• Reports story
6-18
Job RotationPeriodically shifting workers among jobs involving different tasks.– Increases worker’s
skills and task variety – Potentially reduces
job boredom caused by repetitive work
Job ‘A’
Job ‘B’
Job ‘C’
Job ‘D’
6-19
Job Enrichment• Given more responsibility for scheduling,
coordinating, and planning one’s own work– Clustering interdependent tasks into one job – Give autonomy– Establishing direct responsibility for specific clients– Provide performance feedback
6-20
Skill VarietyThe degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities or skillsTask IdentityThe degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end) Task SignificanceThe degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other peopleAutonomyThe degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it outFeedbackThe degree to an individual obtain direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance after performing job
Job Characteristic Model
Guidelines for Managers
• Design jobs with high motivating potential
• State the behaviors and performance achievements that are desired and explain how they will be rewarded
• Provide frequent and constructive feedback
• Provide rewards for desired behaviors and outcomes
• Provide rewards that employees value
• Provide equitable rewards
• Diagnose and remove barriers to performance
14.11