MOTIVASI, KEPUASAN KERJA & JOB INVOLVEMENT

PERTEMUAN 12 & 13

Matakuliah : L0064 / Psikologi Industri & Organisasi 1Tahun : 2007 / 2008

Learning ObjectivesAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to1. Explain the content theories of motivation, including

achievement, needs hierarch, motivator-hygiene, and job-characteristics theories

2. Explain the process theories of motivation, including expectancy, equity, and goal-setting theories

3. Understand job satisfaction, its measurement, its relationship to job performance, and the mediating effect of personal characteristics

4. Describe the personal impact of job loss5. Apply motivation theories to predict the effect of

pay equity issues, merit pay, and wage-incentive systems

6. Compare and contrast job involvement and job commitment

Theories of Motivation

• Content theories – Focus on the importance of work itself, dealing with the

specific needs that motivate and direct behavior

• Process theories – Deal with the cognitive processes we use in making

decisions and choices about our work

Content Theories of Motivation• Achievement motivation theory• Needs-hierarchy theory• ERG theory• Motivator-hygiene (two-factor) theory• Job characteristics theory

Achievement Motivation Theory McClelland (1961)

• Emphasizes the need to accomplish something, to do a good job, and to be the best

• Three major characteristics of those with high need for achievement– Want to assume responsibility for solving

problems– Tend to take calculated risks and set moderate,

attainable goals– Need continuing recognition and feedback so

they will know how well they are doing

Needs Hierarchy Theory Maslow (1970)

• Human needs are arranged in a strict hierarchy of importance

• Once we satisfy our lower-order needs, we can pay attention to our higher-level needs– Physiological– Safety– Belonging and love– Esteem– Self-actualization

Motivator-Hygiene Theory Herzberg (1966)

• Often referred to as the two-factor theory• Explains work motivation and job

satisfaction in terms of job duties and features of the workplace

• Meeting Motivator needs produces satisfaction

• Failure to meet Hygiene needs produces dissatisfaction

• Job enrichment is an effort to expand jobs to increase the opportunity to satisfy motivator needs

Motivator-Hygiene Theory Herzberg (1966)

• Motivator needs are internal to the work and include responsibility, achievement, recognition, advancement, career development, and growth

• Challenging work leads to satisfaction, but it’s absence does not necessarily lead to job dissatisfaction

Motivator-Hygiene Theory Herzberg (1966)

• Hygiene needs are external to the job tasks and involves features of the work environment: company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions and salary

• When hygiene needs are not met, the result is dissatisfaction; when they are met, the result is an absence of dissatisfaction

• Job enrichment is an effort to expand the scope of the job to give employees a greater role in planning, performing, and evaluating their work

Motivator-Hygiene Theory Herzberg (1966)

• Job Enrichment– Remove some management controls and make

people accountable and responsible for their work– Create complete work units where possible– Provide regular and continuous feedback– Encourage employees to take on new tasks or

become experts in old ones

• The goals of job enrichment are to increase personal growth, fulfill needs for achievement and responsibility, and provide recognition

Job Characteristics Theory Hackman & Oldham (1976)

• Links specific job characteristics with psychological conditions that lead to greater motivation, performance, and satisfaction for employees who have a high growth need

• Core job characteristics:– Skill variety– Task identity– Task significance– Autonomy– Feedback

• Motivation• Performance• Satisfaction

• Motivation• Performance• Satisfaction

High growth need

Job Characteristics Theory Hackman & Oldham (1976)

• Elements of Job Design– Form larger work units from smaller, specialized tasks– Arrange tasks in meaningful work units to make the

worker responsible for an identifiable unit– Give workers responsibility for direct contact with

clients and end users– Give workers control over tasks– Arrange for workers to regularly learn how well they

are performing on the job

Job Characteristics Theory Hackman & Oldham (1976)

• Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) – A self-report inventory that measures three aspects of

the Job Characteristics theory:

• Employee’s perceptions of job characteristics

• Employee’s level of growth need• Employee’s satisfaction

– Should also consider cognitive demand and production responsibility

Process Theories of Motivation

• Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory (VIE)

• Equity theory• Goal-setting theory

Expectancy Theory Vroom (1964)

• Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory (VIE) states that people make choices based on their expectations that certain rewards will follow from certain behaviors

• Employees will perform at the level that gives the greatest payoff or benefit

• The worth of the reward varies individually• Effort = expectancy x instrumentality x

valence

Expectancy Theory Vroom (1964)

• Expectancy– Employees must decide whether they expect job

behaviors to have a high probability of leading to a particular outcome

• Instrumentality– Employees must determine whether that outcome

will be instrumental in leading to other outcomes

• Valence– Employees must decide whether those outcomes

have sufficient psychological value to motivate them to behave in a certain way

Equity Theory Adams (1965)

• Work motivation is influenced by our perceptions of fairness of treatment

• We calculate the ratio of our outcome to input and compare it with what we believe are the ratios of our co-workers

• Experience inequity if we get less than others

• In presence of inequity we are motivated to do something to reestablish balance

Equity Theory Adams (1965)

Three response patterns to inequity• Benevolent

– Satisfied when they are under-rewarded compared with co-workers

• Equity sensitive– Believe everyone should be fairly rewarded

• Entitled– People believe that everything they receive is their just

due

Goal-Setting Theory Locke (1968)

• Level of motivation on the job is determined by individual desire to achieve a particular goal

• Goal represents what we intend to do at given time in the future

• Setting specific and difficult goals can motivate our behavior

• Warning: Difficult goals may stimulate our motivation to achieve at the expense of other behaviors, such as helping our colleagues

Goal-Setting Theory Locke (1968)

• Individual goal commitment – the strength of our determination to reach our

goal

• Goal commitment is influenced by – External factors: authority, peer influence, and

external rewards– Interactive factors: competition and the

opportunity to participate in setting goals– Internal factors: self-administered rewards,

expectations of success, need for achievement, type-A behavior, self-esteem, internal locus of control

Job Satisfaction• Positive and negative feelings and attitudes

about our job– Most frequently studied IV in I-O Psychology

• People who have positive attitudes toward their work are likely to have positive feelings about their personal and family life

• There is a positive and reciprocal relationship between job and life satisfaction

• General life satisfaction may be the more influential

Measures of Job Satisfaction

• Job Descriptive Index (JDI)– Measures pay, promotion, supervision, nature of the

work, characteristics of co-workers• Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)

– Covers 20 job facets, including advancement, independence, recognition, social status, and working conditions

• Personal interviews• Sentence completion tests• Critical incidents technique

Job Satisfaction• A single measure of job satisfaction does not

identify those areas of specific satisfaction of dissatisfaction

• Need to examine what questions are asked and to which population

• Satisfaction with specific job facets varied from 22% (promotion policy) to 58% (interest in work)

• Only 10 to 13 percent of workers say they are dissatisfied with their jobs

• Satisfaction varies with industry and type of job

Personal Characteristics and Job Satisfaction

• Age – positive relationship• Sex – no clear difference• Race – whites generally more satisfied than

minorities• Cognitive ability – depends on education and

challenge• Job experience – positive relationship• Use of skills – increase with use of more skills• Job congruence – positive relationship• Organizational justice – positive relationship• Personality – varies with different Big 5 factors• Job control – positive relationship• Occupational level – positive relationship

Losing Your Job• Job loss is stressful….• Those losing higher level jobs suffer more from

unemployment• Personal sense of betrayal• Decrease in organizational commitment among

survivors

Losing Your Job• Finding a new position helps counteract the

negative effects unless there is dissatisfaction with the new job

• It may help to take a time off to handle the grief before starting a job search

• Individuals high in job involvement had increased stress due to job uncertainty, and health problems

Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behavior

• There is a positive but weak relationship between satisfaction and productivity– Research indicates that productivity may increase job

satisfaction

• High job satisfaction is related to prosocial behavior , that is, helpful behaviors directed at customers, co-workers, and supervisors

• Counterproductive behavior is related to dissatisfaction

Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behavior

• Job satisfaction is negatively related to absenteeism and turnover

• There is less absenteeism and turnover in jobs that require a high level of creativity, challenge, complexity, and autonomy

• Turnover is not always harmful– Functional turnover occurs when poor employees quit

their jobs– Dysfunctional turnover occurs when good employees quit

their jobs

Perceived Pay Equity• Perceived equity or fairness of pay may be more

important than the amount• We tend to develop personal standards of

comparison based on the minimum salary we consider acceptable– Reflects Equity theory

• Women and minorities generally earn significantly less than white men

Merit Pay• Merit pay systems pay higher performing

workers more than less productive workers• Widespread disagreement among managers

about the behaviors that should be important in making decisions about pay

• Supervisors who themselves receive ample pay raises tend to recommend higher raises for subordinates– However, supervisors low in self-esteem may also

provide high raises for fear of retribution

• Merit pay seems to work better for those lower in positive affect

Wage-Incentive Systems

• The primary pay system for production workers – The more units produced, the higher the wage

• Seldom works in practice – Many work groups establish their own production norms,

regardless of the wage-incentive– Most workers prefer a straight hourly system

Job Involvement

• Job involvement is the intensity of a person’s psychological identification with the job

• The higher the identification, the greater is one’s satisfaction

• Job involvement is related to personal characteristics, job characteristics and social factors

• Older workers and employees who work in teams are more involved

• Those workers with growth needs are more involved with enriched jobs

Organizational Commitment• Organizational commitment (OC) is the

degree of psychological identification with or attachment to the company

• Components of OC:– Acceptance of organization’s values and goals– Willingness to exert effort for the organization– Strong desire to remain affiliated with the

organization

• Longer tenured employees have stronger correlation between OC and job performance

Organizational Commitment• Organizational factors related to commitment include

job enrichment, autonomy, opportunity to use skills, and positive attitudes toward the work group

• There is reciprocity of perceived commitment from the organization; also with organizational equity and justice

• The greater the diversity of the organization, the less the commitment among the majority white employees (same for gender)

Types of Organizational Commitment

• Affective or attitudinal– The employee identifies with the organization,

accepts its values, and complies with its demands– Correlates with perceived managerial potential

• Continuance or behavioral– Employee is bound by extrinsic factors (“golden

handcuffs”)

• Normative– Involves a sense of obligation to the employer

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors• OCBs involve putting forth extra effort, doing

more than the minimum requirements for a job

• Include– Taking additional assignments– Voluntarily assisting others– Keeping up with professional development– Following company rules when not being watched– Promoting and protecting the organization– Keeping a positive attitude and tolerating

inconveniences• Those who display OCBs tend to be high in

conscientiousness, extraversion, optimism and altruism

Key Terms• Achievement

motivation• Equity theory• Goal-setting theory• Job-characteristics

theory• Job congruence• Job enrichment• Job satisfaction• Merit pay

• Motivator-hygiene theory

• Needs hierarchy theory• Organizational

citizenship behaviors• Prosocial behavior• Valence-

Instrumentality-Expectancy theory

• Wage-incentive system