MONGOLS AND NOMADIC INVADERS

Chandler Clark

Theme 1: Interaction Between Humans and their Environment

Mongols rode tough little ponies to round up herds, hunt, and make war

Very mobile (followed herds of animals from pasture to pasture, nomadic)

After the decline of the Yuan dynasty, many Mongols returned to central Asiaconsequence of interaction: transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague—the Black Death—from China and central Asia to the Middle East and Europe

Mongols brought the Muslim and European worlds new military knowledge, especially the use of gunpowder

Depended on environment to live (animals provided all the necessities for life)

Mobile Nomadic Mongol Warriors and Herders

Theme 2: Development and Interaction of Cultures

Mongol military forces: entirely cavalry Mongol courage in battle, bravery in hunt Mongol influence on Russia: military and

political organization, isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization like the Renaissance and the Reformation

Great confederations of tribes were organized for defensive and offensive operations

Mongol battle tactic: cavalry feign defeat, flee, attack

Theme 2 continued Mongols: tolerant leaders (once conquered people were subdued, Chinggis

Khan took interest in their arts and learning) Mongol tolerance drew scholars, artists, artisans, and office seekers from

many regions Yuan policy toward religion during Mongol occupation: like their ancestors,

insisted on religious toleration Script devised for Mongolian language Kubilai was interested in all religions; Buddhists, Nestorian and Latin

Christians, Daoists, and Muslims were all present at court Welcomed foreign visitors(Venetian Marco Polo) Scholar-gentry regarded Mongols as uncouth barbarians with policies

endangering Chinese traditions. Resented refusal to reinstate the examination system

Mongols bolstered the position of artisans and merchants who previously not had received high status. Both prospered as the Mongols improved transportation and expanded the supply of paper money

Mongols developed a substantial navy that helped conquest and increased commerce

Urban life and artistic endeavors (musical drama) flourished in Yuan

Yuan Art

Theme 3: State Building, Expansion, and Conflict

Within decades, Mongols built empire that stretched from the Middle Eastern heartlands of Islamic world to China Sea

Early 12th century, Chinggis Khan's great-grandfather, Kabul Khan, led Mongol alliance that had won glory by defeating army sent by Qin kingdom north China

Chinggis Khan elected khagan (supreme ruler) of Mongol tribes

Chinggis Khan

Theme 3 continued Mongols built up war force New weapons(powerful short bows fired from

horseback, gunpowder, cannons), military discipline

Armies, divided into fighting units of 10,000 (tumens), included both heavy and light cavalry, rode east and west in conquest in second decade of 13th century

Best armed and trained and most experienced, disciplined, mobile soldiers in world

Mongolian Army

Theme 3: Conquest in China

1207: Mongols defeated the northwestern China Tangut kingdom of Xi Xia Then attacked the Qin Empire established by the Jurchens in north China Mongols developed new tactics for capturing fortified urban centers. Cities

that resisted were utterly destroyed, while cities that submitted ensured their safety by paying tribute to Mongol conquerors.

Chinggis Khan's rule of Mongol empire: religious toleration, brought peace to much of Asia, promoted growth of trade and commerce, promulgated a legal code to end divisions and quarrels among Mongol clans

Mongol conquest of Song China: one of the toughest areas for the Mongols to conquer, taking from 1235-1279 to subdue

capital of Mongol empire under Chinggis Khan: Karakorum (consulted with Confucian scholars about how to rule China)

After China, they moved westward Victory over Khwarazm brought many Turkic horsemen into Chinggis Khan's

army The Xi Xia kingdom and the Qin empire were destroyed. At the death of

Chinggis Khan in 1227, the Mongols ruled an empire stretching from Persia to the North China Sea

Theme 3: Conquest in Russia

13th century, Kiev was in decline and Russia was divided into many petty kingdoms, unable to unite before the Mongols (called Tartars by Russians)

Batu, Chinggis Khan's grandson, invaded in 1236 and defeated Russian armies. In 1240, Kiev was taken and ravaged. Novgorod was spared when its ruler, Alexander Nevskii, peacefully submitted

Russian resistance to Mongol invasion: princes of Russia refused to cooperate and were routed individually

Russians became vassals of the khan of the Golden Horde As Moscow grew in strength, the power of the Golden

Horde decline and defeat at Kulikova in 1380 End of 14th century: Moscow was the center of political

power in Russia

Theme 3: Conquest in Europe

Christian western Europe initially: pleased by Mongol success against Islam; many west thought Mongol khan was Prester John

When the Mongols moved westward into Hungary, western Europeans were concerned, but then they withdrew

Satisfied with conquests in Asia and the Middle East, the Mongols never returned to Europe

Mongols did not pursue conquest of Western Europe because the death of Khagan Ogedei in Karakorum precipitated struggle for succession involving the khan of the Golden Horde

Theme 3: Conquest in the Islamic Heartland

Hulegu (grandson of Chinggis Khan) moved westward against Mesopotamia and North Africa

Baghdad was destroyed in 1258 Mongol assault resulted in: end of Abbasid dynasty at

Baghdad (Islam had lost its central authority and thus much of its civilization was devastated) and decline of Seljuk Turks (defeated 1243) opened Asia Minor to conquest by the Ottoman Turks

Mongol advance halted in 1260 when the Mamluks of Egypt defeated the Mongols

Hulegu, faced with threats to his rule, including conversion of the khan of Golden Horde to Islam, did not resume campaign

Theme 3: Conquest in China (again)

Kubilai Khan (grandson of Chinggis Khan) mid-13th century led the Mongols against the Song

1271, Kubilai's dynasty became the Yuan Kubilai attempted to preserve the distinction between

Mongols and Chinese Chinese were forbidden from learning the Mongol script

and intermarriage was prohibited Mongol religious ceremonies and customs were retained.

Kubilai refused to reestablish exams for the civil service Despite the measures protecting Mongol culture, Kubilai

was fascinated by Chinese civilization Kubilai adopted much from Chinese culture into his court;

the capital at Tatu (Beijing) was in Chinese style

Kubilai Khan’s Court

Theme 3: Decline of Yuan and Founding of Ming

Revolt, failed expeditions, defeat, and a corrupted Yuan administration led to the decline of the Yuan dynasty

Peasant leader Ju Yuanzhang founded the Ming dynasty Turk Timur-i Lang brought new expansion to Eurasia Conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and

southern Russia Barbaric destruction of conquered lands—his campaigns

outdid even the Mongols in ferocity Rule did not increase commercial expansion, cross-

cultural exchanges, or internal peace. After his death in 1405, Timur's empire fell apart, and

last great challenge of the steppe nomads to Eurasian civilizations ended

Theme 4: Creation, Expansion, and Interaction of Economic Systems

Turkic expansion covered less territory than Mongol expansion, failed to increase trade, and provided no internal peace

Mongols: nomadic society and culture Survival depended on well-being of herds of goats and

sheep Staple foods: meat and milk from herds, trade for grain

and vegetables with sedentary farmers Traded hides and dairy for jewelry, weapons and cloth

made in urban centers Russian cities (esp. Moscow) benefitted from increased

commercial possibilities brought by Mongol rule Mongol rule made Trade and cultural contact between

different civilizations throughout Eurasia much easier

Theme 5: Development and Transformation of Social Structures Basic unit of Mongol society: tribe, divided into kin-related

clans Change in administration of China under Mongols: Mongols

discontinued use of examination system to keep the scholar-gentry from gaining too much power

Leadership in Mongol society: leaders were elected by free males and held office for as long as they could keep it

Men dominated leadership positions Women exercised influence within the family and had right to

be heard in tribal councils Mongol women remained aloof from Confucian Chinese

culture. Refused to adopt foot binding and retained rights to property and

control in the household, and freedom of movement Some Mongol women hunted and went to war

Freedom of women declined under Kubilai’s successors

Theme 5 continued Yuan social order: Muslims and central Asian allies ranked below the

Mongols After Chinggis Khan's death, administration of empire:

Territory divided into four regional kingdoms (khanates) ruled by sons & grandsons

Chinggis Khan's third son, Ogedei: chosen as grand khan, presided over further Mongol conquests for nearly a decade

After Russian invasion by Mongols: Many peasants sought protection by becoming serfs major change in rural

social structure: serfdom, which endured until the middle of the nineteenth century

New social structure emerged in China under Kubilai Khan: Mongols at top, their nomadic and Islamic allies directly below them. Both

dominated highest levels of administration. Beneath them: north Chinese, then ethnic Chinese and peoples of south.

Kubilai’s policies initially favored the peasantry Their land was protected from Mongol cavalrymen, and famine relief measures

were introduced Tax and labor burdens were reduced A revolutionary change was formulated—but not enacted—for establishing

elementary education at the village level

The End