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MANAGING UBIQUITOUS ECO CITIES

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKS,

TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE AND INTELLIGENT

URBAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Dr Tan Yigitcanlar

Queensland University of Technology, School of Urban Development, Brisbane, Australia

tan.yigitcanlar@qut.edu.au

Dr Jung Hoon Han

Griffith University, Urban Research Program, Brisbane, Australia

h.han@griffith.edu.au

Brisbane, Australia

August 2009

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MANAGING UBIQUITOUS ECO CITIES

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKS,

TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE AND INTELLIGENT

URBAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Executive summary

Eco City and Ubiquitous City constitute the two distinctive facades of a contemporary

city. Eco City forms the visible facade, where Ubiquitous City is the hidden

infrastructure facade supporting information and services in order to support lifestyles.

The integration of Eco City and Ubiquitous City is important to improve the

sustainability and quality of life in cities. From the point of this integration view, the

traditional quartet of urban planning ‘human-architecture-city-society’ needs to be

naturally evolve into ‘human-architecture-digit-city-society’, where information

management plays a key role in contemporary cities (Wang, 2001; Wang et al., 2002).

There are a number of management and information technology related challenges exist

in establishing Eco Cities. These issues and challenges bring the discussion of ‘the need

for establishment of Ubiquitous Cities and integrating them with Eco Cities’ to the table.

Some of these major challenges include the followings (derived from Wang et al., 2002):

� Building a comprehensive database for ecological elements of a city;

� Decision, information and management systems for an Eco City;

� Managing and monitoring infrastructure and services, and;

� Establishing active public participation.

In a U-Eco City, urban land, modern technology, industry and people create a mutually

supportive and holistic environment for the 21st Century’s new urban development.

Primary characteristics of a U-Eco City includes but not limited to the below so called

5Es five key aspects (derived from Kline, 2000):

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� Ecological integrity: U-Eco Cities regulate human activities by not only managing

each type of activity but also protecting and restoring natural ecosystems;

� Economic security: U-Eco Cities support economic growth and security by

addressing essential links, including education, training, environmental

soundness and occupational safety;

� Enhanced quality of life: U-Eco Cities improve people’s quality of life by

addressing their yearnings for decent, safe, enjoyable places to live, work and

play;

� Empowerment with responsibility: U-Eco Cities are responsive to the needs of

community residents, business people and visitors, and;

� Electronic infrastructure: U-Eco Cities provide the state of the art infrastructure

and their digital monitoring and management systems.

Technological self-sufficiency and advancement of the U-Eco City concept at the same

time must also be dynamic, not static, changing to meet the challenges of each new

generation. Major challenges for a U-Eco City include (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 25):

� Development cost;

� Retrofitting;

� More technology and mobility, more energy use;

� Too much transparency, limited privacy;

� Digital security, smart mobs;

� Technology upgrades and dependency/collapse;

� Urban privileged, and;

� Managing complex/high-tech urban environments.

U-Eco City presents a unique opportunity to foster an alternative model of city and

urban development, one that is holistic, environmentally conscious and humane. Some

of the major opportunities for a U-Eco City include (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 25):

� Zero emission, zero car, waste and water are recycled;

� Compact urban development;

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� Improved quality of life and services;

� Sustained eco-system, better use of energy and natural resources;

� More legible and accessible built and natural environments;

� Opportunities to build new social spaces, and;

� New socio-cultural and economic interactions.

Technology convergence develops new standards for performance and accessibility for

urban infrastructure, and helps lifecycle planning and management. Besides, this

convergence process also has its downside. Particularly in their initial forms, converged

devices are frequently less functional and reliable (e.g. a mobile phone camera may not

perform better than a digital camera). As the array of functions in a single device

escalates the ability of that device to serve its original function decreases (Jenkins,

2006). For example, an iPhone (which, by name implies that its' primary function is that

of a mobile phone) can perform many different tasks, but does not feature a traditional

numerical pad to make phone calls. Instead, the phone features a touchpad, which some

users find it troublesome compared to a conventional phone keyboard. In fact

technological convergence in some ways holds immense potential for the improvement

of the quality of life and liberty, but also degrades it in others (Rheingold, 2000).

Regardless, thanks to convergence and nano-technologies, in recent years an ever-wider

range of technologies are being converted into single multipurpose devices.

Together with the technology convergence intelligent environmental management

systems also provide a new opportunity for U-Eco city management. The main benefit of

intelligent environmental management system adoption is that it provides a systematic

process to address comprehensively all major environmental issues. Tasks that

intelligent environmental management systems support include tracking activities,

tracking waste, monitoring emissions, scheduling tasks, coordinating permits and

documentation, managing material safety data sheets, conducting cost/benefit analysis,

and choosing alternative materials, to name a few. An intelligent environmental

management system integrates monitoring and simulation for environmental decision

support in urban areas. The establishment of clear procedures and responsibilities,

environmental management programmes, audits and other tools lead to the effective

monitoring of environmental issues and solution of problems in a timely manner. An

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intelligent environmental management system is a set of interacting processes or

elements. Each process or element of the environmental management system takes one

or more inputs and creates one or more outputs to be passed onto one or more other

processes or elements (DEWHA, 2009). This evolution of management approaches

requires new instruments and tools for strategic development, for information update

and transmission, and for monitoring the development, and managing the whole

planning and delivery process. At this point new generation intelligent urban

management systems are needed to be developed particularly to be able to cope with

the complexities of U-Eco Cities.

On the one hand, along with these opportunities, and many more, intelligent

management systems for U-Eco Cities also present a number of challenges. These

challenges include: strategically planning every stage of the U-Eco City development

process; significant financial commitment to invest on developing, equipping and

retrofitting new U-technologies to urban environments; developing a system that is

resilient to adopt new technological changes quickly; and securing and safe guarding

the whole system from external and internal security treats. Beyond technology

revolutionising urban management for U-Eco Cities also requires several key

instruments. These instruments include: a strong administration and will to plan and

develop sound policies; legislations and regulations to legitimise and empower the

process; a fiscal system based on ‘user pays’ principle rather than tax payers funding of

all services; strong financial and institutional structure to realise and coordinate U-

infrastructure and services; capability to manage both assets and knowledge that is key

for the knowledge-based and sustainable development of cities (Yigitcanlar et al.,

2008b; 2008c); and embracing an advocating, transparent and participatory approach

for development. For a successful urban management strategic visioning and planning,

as Neilson (2002) highlights, linking strategy and practice play a key role.

In a concluding remark, decisions regarding to telecommunications infrastructure

investments in U-Eco City policy making could have a noteworthy impact on sustainable

urban development by minimising environmental impacts and improving the quality of

lives of residents. Around the world, local governments have been developing planning

strategies focusing on long term telecommunications infrastructure development.

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However, the rapid changes in the technology and telecommunications infrastructure,

including technology convergence, do not make their work any easier in having a

concrete long term development plan that contributes to the formation of sustainable

urban futures.

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MANAGING UBIQUITOUS ECO CITIES

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKS,

TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE AND INTELLIGENT

URBAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Table of contents

Executive summary ........................................................................................................................... 1

Abstract .............................................................................................................................................. 7

Keywords ........................................................................................................................................... 7

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 8

Ubiquitous Eco Cities ...................................................................................................................... 11

Telecommunications infrastructure .............................................................................................. 18

Convergence of ICT and infrastructure ......................................................................................... 23

Internet and media convergence ..................................................................................................... 24

Marketing convergence ................................................................................................................... 26

Telecommunications convergence .................................................................................................. 27

Implications of convergence technologies ...................................................................................... 28

Intelligent urban management systems ........................................................................................ 31

Urban management directions for U-Eco Cities.............................................................................. 40

Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 41

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 44

References ........................................................................................................................................ 44

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MANAGING UBIQUITOUS ECO CITIES

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKS,

TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE AND INTELLIGENT

URBAN MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Abstract

Efficient and effective urban management systems for Ubiquitous Eco Cities require having

intelligent and integrated management mechanisms. This integration includes bringing together

economic, socio-cultural and urban development with a well orchestrated, transparent and open

decision making mechanism and necessary infrastructure and technologies. In Ubiquitous Eco

Cities telecommunication technologies play an important role in monitoring and managing

activities over wired, wireless or fibre-optic networks. Particularly technology convergence creates

new ways in which the information and telecommunication technologies are used and formed the

back bone or urban management systems. The 21st Century is an era where information has

converged, in which people are able to access a variety of services, including internet and location

based services, through multi-functional devices such as mobile phones and provides opportunities

in the management of Ubiquitous Eco Cities. This research paper discusses the recent developments

in telecommunication networks and trends in convergence technologies and their implications on

the management of Ubiquitous Eco Cities and how this technological shift is likely to be beneficial

in improving the quality of life and place of residents, workers and visitors. The research paper

reports and introduces recent approaches on urban management systems, such as intelligent

urban management systems, that are suitable for Ubiquitous Eco Cities.

Keywords

Ubiquitous Eco City, urban management systems, intelligent urban management systems,

technology convergence, information and communication technology, urban telecommunication

infrastructure

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Introduction

During the last few decades rapid urbanisation trends changed urban system and

structures across the globe dramatically (Yeung, 2000). Urban systems now have

become increasingly complex and large in scale as local urban economies, social and

political structures, transportation systems, and infrastructure requirements evolve

hastily. Sustainable and efficient usage of scarce resources together with competing

economic and social priorities are now parts of everyday decisions required to be made

by local governments, which are obliged to hire a sound urban management system that

increases the understanding of, and capacity to undertake, the strategic management of

urban areas (Teriman et al., 2009). Urban management is basically a process of

deliberately directing and facilitating urban development, and also an integration of the

traditional ideas of planning, with its physical, economic and social concerns, and

recently latched to management with its emphasis on efficiency (Davey, 1993). The

application of innovative systems to support urban management and collaborative

decision making offers considerably new opportunities particularly for ubiquitous cities,

where such cities provide ubiquitous infrastructure and services for their residents and

visitors (Galloway, 2003). In Ubiquitous Eco Cities (U-Eco Cities), like any other city,

urban and infrastructure planning, development and management require complex

information and input from institutions, stakeholders and users to deal with spatial,

social, economic, and also multi-dimensional and complex characteristics of urban and

environmental phenomena and problems (Lee et al., 2008).

As Warf (1998:255) states “telecommunication is one of the few topics in geography that

richly illustrates the plasticity of space, the ways it can be stretched, deformed, or

compressed according to changing economic and political imperatives”. Over the past

few decades, telecommunications networks have become an important infrastructure

player, but they are not as readily apparent as other core physical infrastructure such as

highways, roads, and water and power grids. Although, the invisible telecommunications

infrastructure often follow the same routes of highways and railroads, current

communications, whether voice, video, or data, are ultimately dependent on the

existence of telecommunications infrastructure (Hackler, 2003a). Recent advancements

in telecommunications technologies have had a direct impact on firms, particularly in

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the service and high-technology related sectors, and the telecommunications

infrastructure has become important to their production processes. These

developments also have had an indirect effect on the overall economy of cities because

of the externalities they generate (Yimaz & Dinc, 2002).

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) form the basis of

telecommunications infrastructure. In the information and knowledge era, already upon

us, ICTs play an increasingly important role in the planning, provision and management

of urban physical infrastructure. Moreover it is evident that ICT networks as urban

telecommunication networks are becoming the major urban infrastructure

management systems with the rapid development and wide-spread usage of internet. In

a recent study, Lee et al. (2008) point out some challenges to apply digital convergence

technologies in urban infrastructure particularly in ‘Ubiquitous’ or ‘Augmented’ cities

where any citizen can access any infrastructure and services via any electronic devices

regardless of time and location. This idea of advanced and easy accessibility to amenity

and services has been reflected in many science fiction movies such as ‘Matrix’, ‘Island’

and ‘Minority Report’. However, although there are some small scale practices, its

comprehensive real world applications are yet to be developed.

As an integral part of the urban telecommunication networks, electronic or digital

devices such as mobile phones, handheld computers and PCs become the key gadgets of

our daily lives. In order to improve their functionality and increase the product sales

these digital technologies have been subject to continuous and rapid development. One

of the most significant advancements in the field is the ICT convergence that people

intend to access needed urban amenity and services through a single device, so called a

‘black box’ (Jenkins, 2006). This technology convergence has been well explored by

urban planners, media companies, broadcasters, and information technology

enterprises. The trend is found not only in electronic devices but also in business

management such as call centres with several help desks that develop consistent

customer care services.

Convergence of telecommunication technologies and internet services play a significant

role in networking the functions of a city. Early work by Gottman (1983) developed a

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popular notion of ‘transactional city’. In this study he anticipates the modern

telecommunication technologies such as fibre optics, global positioning systems and

wireless networks accelerate the complexity of spatial transformation known as spatial

de-concentration, fragmentation and gentrification (Baum et al., 2006; Chhetri et al.,

2009). Accessibility to the internet and the quality of the network service became also a

critical need for the infrastructure development, analysis, planning, and design. In the

US, information-related investments in urban infrastructure have become an

increasingly vital component of national economic activity. In 1995 the annual spending

on information systems by far (more than $60 billion) exceeded the total public sector

spending on transportation (Wieman, 1998).

ICT networks are rapidly evolving and in the near future will likely to transform into a

network supported by convergence technologies that supports urban management.

Wieman (1998) pointed out how localised high-tech economic activity, supported by

the early examples of technology convergence, boosts the demand on urban

transportation systems. In his recent study Han (2008) investigated the evolution of the

ICT development in the Republic of Korea, which rapidly becoming more ubiquitous and

getting embedded into physical urban environment and supporting urban

infrastructure. He discusses how technology convergence supports rather than

diminishes the quality of life in urban spaces. Personal mobile phones, for instance, are

integrated with the segments of urban services including public transport, u-

government, u-learning and u-health services. The technology convergence improves

the access to urban services and utilities for example by providing mobile phones with

new technologies such as SMS, G3, MP3, GPS navigation, digital camera, smart card, e-

commerce and e-payment.

Telecommunication and infrastructure networks are rapidly moving from systems

based on wired technology to those that are wireless and seamless digital network

systems (Dourish, 2004). However, the question of how the new technology

convergence interwoven with the existing physical urban infrastructure such as roads,

water and power supply, sewerage, and security system still remains unanswered.

Although the ubiquitous computing network system (Weiser, 1991) has become one of

the major phases in many contemporary agendas in terms of the design and engineering

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of computer systems, its’ economic, social and environmental implications are yet to be

explored. Given that significance, there is limited academic research that focuses on the

specific implications of telecommunication technology convergence on urban

infrastructure development and urban management.

This research paper aims to investigate the technological paradigm shift by which those

urban infrastructures are evolved, how convergence arrangements are provided for

current urban infrastructure systems by correct actions over time, and explore

intelligent management systems for U-Eco Cities. The paper focuses on how rapid

technology convergence brings spatial reconfiguration of activities at different levels

such as for homes, neighbourhoods, cities, regions and nations as each different

hierarchy of space and place need an appropriate technology and telecommunication

infrastructure. This research paper also explores a range of technological convergences

and discusses the impact of technology convergence on improving telecommunications

infrastructure provision and benefits to the economy and broader society in U-Eco

Cities. The research reported in this paper argues the critical role of urban management

support systems for ubiquitous cities management and concludes by providing

directions for successfully managing U-Eco Cities.

Ubiquitous Eco Cities

Eco City and Digital or Ubiquitous City constitute the two distinctive facades of a

contemporary city. Eco City forms the visible facade, where Ubiquitous City is the

hidden infrastructure facade supporting information and services in order to support

lifestyles. The integration of Eco City and Ubiquitous City is important to improve the

sustainability and quality of life in cities. From the point of this integration view, the

traditional quartet of urban planning ‘human-architecture-city-society’ needs to be

naturally evolve into ‘human-architecture-digit-city-society’, where information

management plays a key role in contemporary cities (Wang, 2001; Wang et al., 2002).

The modern Eco City concept originates from Ebenezer Howard’s theory of Garden City.

The theory of Garden City reveals the ecological charms of harmonious joint

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development of built and natural environments. A good example of such development is

the Letchworth Garden City in England designed by Ebenezer Howard and built in 1903.

Still after over a century, it remains to be one of the most desirable living spaces. Since

the early Garden City examples urban planners have tried to integrate ecological

ideologies and principles into urban design and development by considering cities as

artificial ecosystems (Wang et al., 2002). For instance, Yanitsky (1987) sees an Eco City

as a perfect living space and an ideal pattern for urban development. Similarly, Roseland

(1997) advocates the idea of Eco City concept that it coexists with and contains others,

rather than existing independently.

The Eco City theory views urban development from the point of ecosystem interactivity.

The basic idea of city development is to fully exploiting the potentials of ecological

construction under the existing resource environment for the purpose of building up

efficient, harmonious, healthy and wealthy cities. It rejects the traditional way of low

productivity and the modern way of excessive resource-consuming. Thus the Eco City

ideology solves urban problems by considering an ecological point of view, this is to say,

it aims to change the city into a low-entropy regular structure with perfect

functionalities, sustainable efficiency and high-level environmental quality. An Eco City

also aims to be a panacea for the problems caused by urbanisation activities and urban

environmental transition. These transitions are summarised in Figure 1 below.

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Figure 1. A stylised urban environmental transition (Nolmark, 2007: 13)

The Eco City development process benefits the ecological, environmental and social

systems. Therefore, in a broad sense an Eco City is a sustainable city that establishes a

harmony between built and natural environments. In a more specific sense, an Eco City

is a city based on the improvement of productivity, using modern science and

technologies such as eco-engineering, system engineering and information technology

including the technological systems of Digital or Ubiquitous Cities (Wang et al., 2002).

There are a number of management and information technology related challenges exist

in establishing Eco Cities. These issues and challenges bring the discussion of ‘the need

14

for establishment of Ubiquitous Cities and integrating them with Eco Cities’ to the table.

Some of these major challenges include the followings (derived from Wang et al., 2002):

� Building a comprehensive database for ecological elements of a city;

� Decision, information and management systems for an Eco City;

� Managing and monitoring infrastructure and services, and;

� Establishing active public participation.

As Lee et al. (2008) defines Ubiquitous Cities (U-Cities) as cities that provide ubiquitous

infrastructure (U-infrastructure) and ubiquitous services (U-services) for their

residents, workers and visitors by utilising a range of ubiquitous technologies (U-

technologies). Life in an U-City can be exemplified by imagining “public recycling bins

that use radio-frequency identification technology to credit recyclers every time they

toss in a bottle; pressure-sensitive floors in the homes of older people that can detect

the impact of a fall and immediately contact help; cell phones that store health records

and can be used paying for prescriptions” (O'Connell, 2005: 1). Similar to the ‘just-in-

time’ delivery system, which saves time and monetary cost by delivering materials

when they are readily needed and by eliminating storage space otherwise needed to

stockpile them, urban resources could be conserved in U-Cities by delivering and

receiving services right in time with the support of a wired and wireless integrated

network equipped with digital home systems and intelligent building systems (Kim,

2008).

In recent years a shift from U-City to U-Eco City has occurred and a number of

integration frameworks have been developed. Figure 2 shows an example framework.

U-Eco City is defined as a city that provides its residents with high quality of life while

using minimal natural resources by making substantive use of ubiquitous information

technologies (Yigitcanlar, 2009). The U-Eco City concept creates environments in cities

where residents can enjoy access to high-speed networks and enhanced information

services at anytime regardless of location through a ubiquitous computing network.

Kirkwood (2008) elaborates this definition further by stating:

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“…The significance of the U-Eco City project for the private and public

sectors as well as government agencies is in providing the ubiquitous

infrastructure itself thus enabling the U-Eco City concept to advance,

generating a larger service market for next-generation communication

technologies as well as establishing a range of cities of ‘good life and

happiness’ for citizens. A further area of significance would be the

establishment of an industry world benchmark in ubiquitous city design

and holistic environmental planning of the U-City. This is important to

capture the future global market in U-Eco City planning as well as to

establish a set of metrics to describe and evaluate the legislative

framework, performance activities and capacity for change and evolution

of the U-Eco City” (pp. 13-14).

Figure 2. A framework for the integration of U-City and Eco City (Wang et al., 2002: 5)

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The U-Eco City concept has taken root in contemporary urban planning as a new

technology and ecology model. The U-Eco City concept enhances global competitiveness

and connectivity of the public and private sectors through the combination of the

hardware construction industry, ICT and their ubiquitous interaction with residents and

the natural environment. This ubiquitous interaction and the resulting form of the U-

Eco City are expected to overcome the limitations of current city development

approaches and physical city implementation and ongoing management by municipal

entities. Current city development approaches to organise the urban fabric use formal

spatial patterns for buildings, open space, transportation and infrastructure. The U-Eco

city concept uses open technological systems and with an urban management centre

(UMC) sitting at its very core, it controls and manages the entire city (Kirkwood, 2008).

In a U-Eco City, urban land, modern technology, industry and people create a mutually

supportive and holistic environment for the 21st Century’s new urban development.

Primary characteristics of a U-Eco City includes but not limited to the below so called

5Es – five key aspects (derived from Kline, 2000):

� Ecological integrity: U-Eco Cities regulate human activities by not only managing

each type of activity but also protecting and restoring natural ecosystems;

� Economic security: U-Eco Cities support economic growth and security by

addressing essential links, including education, training, environmental

soundness and occupational safety;

� Enhanced quality of life: U-Eco Cities improve people’s quality of life by

addressing their yearnings for decent, safe, enjoyable places to live, work and

play;

� Empowerment with responsibility: U-Eco Cities are responsive to the needs of

community residents, business people and visitors, and;

� Electronic infrastructure: U-Eco Cities provide the state of the art infrastructure

and their digital monitoring and management systems.

This new, U-Eco City, urban form also has a number of challenges and opportunities.

Technological self-sufficiency and advancement of the U-Eco City concept at the same

17

time must also be dynamic, not static, changing to meet the challenges of each new

generation. Major challenges for a U-Eco City include (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 25):

� Development cost;

� Retrofitting;

� More technology and mobility, more energy use;

� Too much transparency, limited privacy;

� Digital security, smart mobs;

� Technology upgrades and dependency/collapse;

� Urban privileged, and;

� Managing complex/high-tech urban environments.

A U-Eco City presents a unique opportunity to foster an alternative model of city and

urban development, one that is holistic, environmentally conscious and humane. Some

of the major opportunities for a U-Eco City include (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 25):

� Zero emission, zero car, waste and water are recycled;

� Compact urban development;

� Improved quality of life and services;

� Sustained eco-system, better use of energy and natural resources;

� More legible and accessible built and natural environments;

� Opportunities to build new social spaces, and;

� New socio-cultural and economic interactions.

To address abovementioned challenges and opportunities planning and development of

a U-Eco City require an integrated and sustainable mechanism. Therefore, linking

strategy (planning) and practice (development) is crucial for the development of

successful U-Eco Cities. Strategic visioning and planning of U-Eco Cities need to consider

knowledge-based development in order to establish a strong economic, social and

spatial base (Figure 3). Additionally management of a U-Eco City requires an intelligent

urban management system which is based on a sound telecommunication

infrastructure benefiting from the convergence of ICT and infrastructure networks.

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Figure 3.Sustainable urban planning & development process (Yigitcanlar, 2009a: 17)

A current research undertaken by Yigitcanlar (2009a) has revealed that “U-Eco City is a

new sustainable city form/type, where ubiquitous technologies have the potential to

revolutionise planning, development and management of these new cities” (p.26). The

U-Eco City concept, along with ubiquitous infrastructure and services, offers new

opportunities for pathways towards sustainable urban development. However,

integrated and intelligent systems need to be considered for the management of U-Eco

Cities as just-in-time delivery of goods and services contribute significantly to the

sustainable development by mainly minimising unnecessary resource use.

Telecommunications infrastructure

Not so long ago telecommunications infrastructure was not considered in business or

household location decisions. Our lifestyles have been changed dramatically during the

past few decades, due to rapid technological advances, the convergence to digital forms

of computing, media, and communications, and also globalisation. Consequently,

19

telecom has become a complex menu of choices and providers from which business and

households choose (Malecki & Bous, 2003). Modern economic productivity benefits

from the proliferated use of telecommunications networks and information

technologies such as computers and software. This trend has not only altered the

business practices of all industries that use these as inputs but also sponsored the

growth of new businesses that we now refer to as high-tech industry (Hackler, 2003a).

Today firms and also households, many of which rely on constant high-speed, or

broadband, connections among far-flung operations, demand not only fast connections,

but also redundant links that prevent any downtime or discontinuities, in service.

Telecommunications is the leading factor in location decisions of companies today and

is accounted as among the top criteria for locating a facility (Lawless & Gore, 1999).

Many cities around the world today highly take advantage of advanced

telecommunications infrastructure and such infrastructure has become a growing

concern of local government and industry. From computer manufacturing to software

development and from biotechnology to aviation industries, many cities seek high-tech

growth, where advanced telecommunications infrastructure supports such

development, which is associated with prosperous urban regions (Yigitcanlar et al.,

2008a). The Silicon Valley in Northern California, Route 128 surrounding Boston, the

Silicon Hills in Austin, Texas, and One-North in Singapore are the most prominent

examples of advanced telecommunications infrastructure hardwired in high-tech

locations (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008b). As mediators of all aspects of the reflexive

functioning and development of aforementioned cities, convergent media,

telecommunications and computing grids (known collectively as `telematics’) are thus

basic integrating infrastructures underpinning the shift towards intensely

interconnected planetary urban telecommunications networks (Graham, 1999).

Infrastructure networks such as telecommunications support not only cities to develop

networks within themselves, but also provide a vehicle to get connected with other

cities and join in the ‘world city network’. And beyond this telecommunications

infrastructure also supports cities in the tough global competition and helps them

develop their competitiveness further (Yigitcanlar & Velibeyoglu, 2008). According to

Rutherford (2005:2391) “[in] the same way as the supply of producer services in world

20

cities can be seen largely to reflect demand for those services from multinational

corporations, in a competitive market environment, the supply of telecommunications

infrastructure in and between world cities comes from expressed or anticipated

demand for ‘high performance’ telecommunications network connections to interlink

multinational corporate and producer service firm headquarters and offices in cities

around the world”. Basically without a quality telecommunications infrastructure, a city

would become pretty much ‘disconnected’ from or ‘less connected’ to the rest of the

world city network and, therefore, would lose much of its competitiveness and world

city status.

Taylor (2003) sees the connections between offices and cities as the ‘skeleton’ upon

which contemporary economic globalisation has formed, and Rutherford (2005)

following up on this analogy argues that measures of intercity relations should include

the infrastructural ‘backbones’ which form the actual basis of the skeleton. Moreover,

technological advances play a key role in the provision of telecommunication

infrastructure or in other words backbones and skeletons, for example fibre optic

network development, which is according to Walcott and Wheeler (2001: 321) “hair-

thin threads of glass utilizing laser light pulses in digital computer code, with multiple

glass fibres in each cable – some sending messages from A to B and others from B to A –

are the standard physical paths for global internet telecommunications for major

numeric data and word and graphic information”. The telecommunications

infrastructure particularly plays a crucial role in the development and management of

U-Eco Cities.

For attracting industries, particularly knowledge-based or high-tech ones, being able to

meet the telecommunications service requirements is a necessity. Wiemann (1998: 22)

argues that “broadband information infrastructure is now as important to a growing

array of high-tech firms as railroads were to nineteenth-century steel and textile mills”.

Similarly, cities that are vying to be ‘silicon havens’ are using tactics to enhance their

telecommunications assets, from developing smart buildings (i.e. high-bandwidth

commercial real estate) to increasing bandwidth available to business. For the latter

case, some cities even lobby telecommunications service providers to improve existing

telecommunications infrastructure, and some are building their own improved

21

telecommunications infrastructure. These local communities perceive that an improved

telecommunications infrastructure is a necessity in the new information economy

because telecommunications infrastructure may be both an economic and social

advantage. As Dwyre (1998: 47) views “a solid telecom network is key to economic

development: building industry and manufacturing, improving agriculture, education,

health, social services, transportation, and other crucial elements that make up a

nation’s economy”.

Telecommunications is an important ingredient to cities, particularly U-Eco Cities,

wanting to have a knowledge economy growth. Basically telecommunications

infrastructure is attractive to high-tech industry; locations with large concentrations of

high-tech industry are more likely to have greater telecommunications capacity. In

many cases the relationship between telecommunications infrastructure and economic

development are also mutually reinforcing. This is to say economic growth can spur

telecommunications investment because of the increase in demand from new business,

and telecommunications investment provides a foundation for further economic growth

(Hackler, 2003b).

Beyond creating the necessary conditions for a robust economic structure and

stimulating the growth of productive activity telecommunications infrastructure in U-

Eco Cities also can produce substantial public benefits (i.e. social welfare, e-democracy,

and social development). The impacts of telecommunications infrastructure on

household welfare take several forms: impacts on income, access to services, and the

consumption value of infrastructure. Below are some of the benefits of advanced

telecommunications infrastructure to broader community (Guild, 2000: 280):

� As with firms, households may realise higher incomes through productivity and

increased opportunities for employment of their labour through better

communications;

� Investment in infrastructure projects also raises incomes through direct

employment creation in construction and operations;

� Rural households benefit through better terms of trade for their output and

better access to public services, and;

22

� The most direct impact on social welfare is through actual use of infrastructure

services, as they are an important component of household consumption.

Some advanced telecommunications can be advantageous, particularly, to remote areas,

although not necessarily for use directly by business. The major applications are likely

to be for delivering higher quality education and health services. Better education,

training, and health services can help upgrade the human resource capacity that is often

the greatest problem in remote areas (Fox & Porca, 2001). However, opportunities to

use new electronic technologies to extend one’s social and economic actions across

space are thus being configured highly unevenly within and between the material

geographies of contemporary cities. For instance, the `wiring’ of cities with the latest

fibre optic networks is also extremely uneven. On that point Graham (1999) writes:

“...It is characterised by a dynamic of dualisation. On the one hand,

seamless and powerful global-local connections are being constructed

within and between highly valued spaces, based on the physical

construction of tailored networks to the doorsteps of institutions. On the

other hand, intervening spaces – even those which may geographically be

cheek-by-jowel with the favoured zones within the same city – seem, at

the same time, to be largely ignored by investment plans for the most

sophisticated telecommunications networks. Such spaces threaten to

emerge as `Network ghettos’, places of low telecommunications access and

concentrated social disadvantage” (p.929).

In terms of social implications of telecommunications network Hanafizadeh et al. (2009)

highlight the digital divide as one of the key issues to be dealt with in

telecommunication infrastructure provision. The digital divide is the differences

between individuals, households, companies, or regions related to the access to and use

of ICT (Vehovar et al., 2006). The various factors may cause the divide such as historical,

socio-economic, geographic, educational, behavioural, generation factors, or the

physical incapability of individuals (Curtin, 2001). Whitacre and Mills (2007) argue that

as residential internet access shifts toward high-speed connections, a gap emerges in

rural high-speed access relative to urban high-speed access, and the potential causes of

23

this high-speed ‘’digital divide’’ include rural–urban differences in people, place, and

infrastructure.

Recent developments in both technology and conceptualisation of the needs of the

economy and people are providing new opportunities for cities and their

administrations to develop new generation telecommunications networks. Particularly

ubiquitous urban infrastructure developments are among the significant moves in this

direction. In the light of global connectivity and increasing communication options

available for accessing and exchanging information the vision for future

communications is information anytime, anyplace and in any form, based on the idea of

an open ‘electronic’ market of services, where an unlimited spectrum of communication

and information services will be offered, ranging from simple communication services

up to complex distributed multimedia applications. In this ubiquitous context the instant

provision of services and the customisation and configuration of existing services

become fundamental issues (Magedanz et al., 1996).

Ubiquitous urban infrastructure, particularly in the field of telecommunication, as

stated by Arseni et al. (2001), is witnessing the impetuous evolution and expansion of

two kinds of systems. The first is the universal wireline network that is now able to

provide sophisticated multimedia services. The second comprehends the cellular or

wireless network and is able to satisfy user mobility demand, providing standard

telephone services and low-speed data transmission. Especially in U-Eco Cities the new

generation telecommunication systems are integrating these wireline and wireless

networks in a single, advanced infrastructure. On top of this network integration, the

convergence of technology also revolutionises the way telecommunications

infrastructure is delivered and accessed. And beyond this it contributes to the formation

of the next generation telecommunications infrastructure.

Convergence of ICT and infrastructure

Management of ubiquitous urban infrastructure partially depends on intelligent

planning support, monitoring and management systems that heavily benefits from ICTs

24

and technologies convergence. U-infrastructure management in the areas of education,

transport, power supply, sewerage and waste treatment, and water supply constantly

rely on the ICTs convergence to enhance its quality and customer service delivery. As

Britchie et al. (1987) point out:

“...A shift, from land, material, and energy to knowledge, information, and

intellect as key factors of production, increased the interdependence between

manufacturing, commerce, and consumption and the new information channels

[including] the traditional transport systems” (p.449).

The convergence technologies used in urban infrastructure help local economic growth

through u-business, improve local service delivery through u-government, advance

connectivity to local and global networks through wireline and wireless devices, and

provide access to education through u-education. These technologies also minimise

unnecessary travels and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by offsetting

material and energy consumption and expediting more efficient use of current form of

physical infrastructure. Many local governments have been investing in the latest

telecommunication convergence such as wireless internet network technologies

(WiMAX) in order to improve the shift from polluting manufacturing industries to clean

knowledge industries. Another example is the intelligent streetlights that are being

provided with existing streetlights with RFID and wireline and wireless

communications technologies in order to minimise the energy consumption (Lee &

Leem, 2009). These intelligent streetlights benefits from the convergence technology of

construction and information and communications (C-ICT).

Internet and media convergence

Internet is one of the most powerful technologies to access information in the modern

society. Internet provides a channel for users to undertake many tasks including doing

business, studying online, communicating with others, entertaining such as watching

videos, TV shows, listening to music, downloading and uploading pictures, music and

videos (Cunningham & Turner, 2005). For instance people can easily access the latest

25

audiovisual data downloaded from youtube.com in anytime if they can access the

internet. Technology convergence makes them to access the information regardless

time and space using a converged digital device so called ‘back box’. Jenkins (2006)

describes the technology convergence as a ‘black box’ which multiple products are

integrated with one product taking each of their technical advantages. Convergence

leads a technological shift or a new technological process, but it also integrates

educational, cultural, and social paradigms. The convergence also shows the way in

which individuals interact with each other and use various media platforms in order to

create new experiences, new forms of media and content (Cunningham & Turner,

2005).

To date technology convergence of the internet media and contents significantly

improve our learning activities. For example, a number of primary schools in Australia

use Nintendo DS with a touch-panel interface for mathematics education. Students of

these schools showed higher performance than those who do not use such innovative

education tools. Similarly the Wii was sold over 50 million units in the world by March

2009. In Australia, the Wii exceeded the record set by the Xbox 360 to become the

fastest selling games, exercise and education console in Australian history (Moses,

2006). This innovative device is based on the technology convergence which integrates

a games console, moving sensor and internet browser. The integrated activities can be

visible in U-Eco city using these converged technologies. For instance the

programmable street is provided with multiple functions such as lighting, security

monitoring, commercial advertisement, solar energy and audio-visual objects.

During the last decade, convergence of ICTs also created a new form of urban spaces.

Public telephone booth and public transport ticketing office are disappeared and

replaced by a mobile phone with converged technologies. The new generation mobile

phones are now equipped with more advanced features such as touch screen, video

recording, global positioning system (GPS) navigation, internet and emailing, data

storage and security mechanisms. Today it is possible for a mobile phone to access to

information on urban utilities and real-time monitoring of the environment (Yigitcanlar,

2009b). These ubiquitous devices can be used in real-time planning and management

26

and can contribute to conservation of urban natural resources, urban growth

management and sustainable urban development (Yigitcanlar et al., 2008c).

Marketing convergence

Technology convergence in the area of marketing and business is also apparent. The

notion of multi-play is often used in a convergence of ICT services and products and

often adopted to U-Eco city planning. The multi-play is needed when an individual

accesses different telecommunication services, such as broadband internet access, cable

television, telephone, and mobile phone service rather than traditionally only using one

or two of these services (Cunningham & Turner, 2005). The multi-play technology

convergence consists of dual, triple or quadruple play options depending on the specific

application area:

� A dual play service needs to provide two ICT services such as high-speed

Internet (ADSL) and telephone service over a single broadband connection. High-

speed Internet (cable modem) and TV service provided by a single broadband

connection is an example for this type (ANSI, 1998);

� The convergence can be accompanied by the underlying telecommunications

infrastructure. An example of this is a triple play service, where communication

services are bundled, which allows consumers to access TV, internet and

telephone through a single subscription (Flew, 2008), and;

� A quadruple play service is similar to the triple play service of broadband

internet access, television and telephone, but is based on wireless technologies.

This service is sometimes referred to as the ‘Fantastic Four’ or ‘Grand Slam’

(Baumgarter, 2005).

The next level of service used in U-Eco cities is the integration of radio-frequency

identification (RFID) into the quadruple play, which adds the capability for home

equipment to communicate with the outside world and schedule maintenance of its own

(Fisher & Monahan, 2008). RFID tags are applied to an object incorporated into a

product, an animal or a person for the purpose of identifying, reading and tracking

27

information by using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and

some can far beyond the line of sight of the reader. This technology convergence in

marketing helps connect people to other consumers so that they may share their

reviews and, at the same time, engaged with the service providers in ways in which they

have not been as readily accessible by others in the past.

Telecommunications convergence

Telecommunication convergence is closely related to urban infrastructure such as

telecommunications infrastructure and transport system. Convergence is a key concept

to coordinate a range of urban network services such as physical networks or

components thereof that channel fluxes through conduits or media to their nodes such

as receivers (Neuman, 2006). Technology convergence required of supporting super

ordinate systems connected to the networks. These networks include transportation,

pipes, wires and cables in the channels through which their products are sold and

serviced. A highly mobile nature of portable technology provides immobile physical

networks with convergence incorporating telecommunication devices such as portable

video and media devices, GPS navigation devices, portable internet surfing and mobile

telecommunications devices into a single device, the ‘black box’ designed to remove the

need to carry multiple devices while away from office or home.

Telecommunication infrastructure network which is interconnected by web of sensors,

actuators, wireline and wireless communications networks, and computer systems

could benefit from a convergence in a form of combination of different

telecommunication media in a single operating platform (O’Brien & Soibelman, 2004).

Convergence in fact allows companies no longer confined to their own markets. Fixed,

mobile, and internet protocol (IP) service providers can offer content and media

services, and hardware and software providers can offer services directly to the end

user (Telecom Media Convergence, 2007). These days most of the content or service

providers are consistently looking for new digital infrastructure and more effective

distribution channels. For instance, the new G3 mobile phone technology uses

technology convergence that provides the combination of telecom, data processing and

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imaging technologies. Previously separate technologies such as voice including

telephone features, data including productivity applications, and video including

teleconferencing now share resources and interact with each other (Jenkins, 2006). In

U-Eco city environment the present ‘voice over IP’ (VoIP) and ‘bluetooth’ technologies

are merged into a wireless internet network so called WiMAX for seamless mobility

between VoWiFi and cellular networks (Telephony Online, 2009). These mobile service

provisions give rise to the ability to access to most of the telecommunications channels

including voice, internet, video and content without requiring tethering to the network

via cables (Williams, 2008). Given the recent advancements in WiMAX and other leading

edge technologies, it is fair to say the ability to transfer information over a wireless link

at combinations of speed, distance and non line of sight conditions is rapidly improving.

Therefore, the whole range of technology conversion becomes increasingly invisible,

intangible and pervasive and likely to improve the quality of lives of the users (Firmino

et al., 2008).

Implications of convergence technologies

The technology convergence is classified into the following fundamental groups by their

common features in implementing and processing specific information: (a) sensing, e.g.

data input; (b) network, e.g. data transfer; (c) interface, e.g. data representation; (d)

processing, e.g. data processing, and; (e) security, e.g. data safety measures. A recent

research by Lee and Leem (2009) take these five broad technology categories and

divides them into ten types of specific bundle technologies based on their key

implications, and then subdivides them into 25 segment digital devices (Table 1).

Table 1. Structure of technological convergence classification (Lee & Leem, 2009: 13)

Broad Classification

Specific Classification

Faceted Classification

Sensing

Sensing Remote and

Surroundings Sensing Generals

Context Awareness Image Based Tag

Wireless Tag

Broad Area Information Digital Camera Sensor

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Collection (Topography) Radar and Laser Sensor

Location Information

Collection

Time of Flight

Map Matching

Landmark Navigation

Network Broadband Convergence

Network

Internet Address Standards

Wired Communication

Broadband Wireless Communication

Mobile Telecommunication

Wireless PAN (Personal Area Network)

Wired PAN (Personal Area Network)

Mobile TV

Interface Codec Technology

Video Codec

Audio Codec

Display Visual Display

Processing

Processing Software Embedded Software

Ubiquitous Middleware USN Middleware

Control Middleware

Security Information and

Infrastructure Security

Cryptograph and Certification Technology

Information Management Technology

Hacking and Virus Prevention Technology

Security Management Technology

The implementation of convergence technologies on urban infrastructure is already

understood clearly and somehow the development is underway in most parts of the

developed world. Rapid new economic growth associated with new technology and new

infrastructure is clearly now taking its roots in the global knowledge economy (Wieman,

1998). Managing and monitoring the urban infrastructure could be relatively easy by

deploying appropriate wireless infrastructure, making it accessible and inexpensive to

users, and refining software, portals and so on (Aurigi, 2006). Convergence technology

solutions including performance monitoring, distance working and seamless production

can be incorporated into broad planning initiatives focusing on improving the efficiency

of existing urban infrastructure planning, provision and management.

According to Jenkins (2006) due to the speedy progress of technology conversion it has

been long thought that, eventually, users will access all services and information from

30

urban infrastructure networks and services through one single mobile device, such as a

black box tool. The question arises from Jenkins’ (2006) claim is that how urban

technology practice can identify the next black box tool to invest in and provide

necessary urban infrastructure systems and procedures for it. When multiple systems

or networks merged together, their intersection points can become quite problematic.

The multi-level technology convergence is indicative of the many technical, institutional,

and other services. This complexity is compounded by different disciplines that identify

themselves as the responsible players in any given category of infrastructure (Neuman,

2006). The major problems of the implications of black box are grouped under three

broad categories.

First of all, black boxes are often in and out of popularity, and the consumers are left

with numerous technologies that can perform the same task, rather than a dedicated

device for each task. For example, a consumer may own both a smart card and a credit

card with a microchip to use public transport, subsequently owning two e-cards. This is

for sure does not comply with the streamlined goal or spirit of the 'black box theory’,

and instead it creates a clutter for the users (Rheingold, 2000).

Secondly, technological convergence tends to be experimental in nature. This leads

consumers purchasing technologies with additional functions that are sometimes

harder, in some cases even impractical, to use them compare to a device specifically

designed for each function (Jenkins, 2006). For instance, Nokia, like iPhone and many

other mobile phone brands, has a mobile phone in the market with an in-built GPS

navigation. However many users find more practical to use an automobile built-in GPS

rather than a mobile phone on a GPS. In some cases technology convergence might be

unnecessary or unneeded; however, still an advanced and specialised device for each

task might not be affordable for all users. Furthermore, although users primarily make

use of a specialised media device for their needs, other black box devices that perform

the same task can be used as well under different circumstances, locations or situated

contexts. For example, as the Cheskin Research (2002) report underlines:

“...Your email needs and expectations are different whether you are at home,

work, school, commuting, the airport, etc., and different devices are

31

[available] to suit your needs for accessing content depending on where you

are – your situated context” (p.8).

Lastly, technology convergence provides a single platform or system to access and use

urban infrastructure. However, the physical infrastructure is instead diverging whilst

the platforms on the infrastructure are converging. Urban services can offer the same

content in a number of forms. An example of this is the underground subways. A

subway is a public transport zone, but it is also a space for socialising, shopping,

advertising and delivering fluxes such as goods, services, information, energy and

people. Branding is important and encourages expansion of one concept, rather than the

creation of new ideas (Jekins, 2006). This is totally opposite for physical infrastructure,

which is diversified in order to accommodate the convergence of ICTs. The physical

built environment needs to be specific to each type of function, otherwise branding

would not work effectively. In a black box situation, a user should only need to purchase

one form of media and should be able to do everything with it.

Intelligent urban management systems

The traditional idea of urban management consists of the good management and

planning of a city, entrusted to the institutional actors (UNDP, 1997). Increasing

awareness of the complexity of the modern urban setting has led to the questioning of

management approaches founded on institutional, administrative and geographical

compartmentalisation. (Stubbs et al., 2000). The concept of urban management is

extensive. Following Borja and Castells (1997), there are five main challenges to

managing an urban community: (i) to provide an economic base, (ii) to build urban

infrastructure, (iii) to improve the quality of life, (iv) to ensure social integration, and

(v) to guarantee governance. The quality of the management depends not only on how

well each of these challenges is met, but also on their integration to create coherence in

urban development.

The changing context, in which our societies are evolving, places new pressures on all

the professionals engaged in managing urban and regional development and the built

32

and natural environments. Today, and into the future, planners and managers of urban

and regional development face, on the behalf of our governments and communities, the

complex demands of (Neilson, 2002: 97):

� The scale of demographic changes underway in our societies and the way these

may impact upon our cities and regions;

� An increasing recognition that in modern globalised economies our cities are the

‘engines’ of economic growth;

� The need to manage urban growth and change to increase our cities’ and regions’

capacity to compete in globalised markets , and;

� The need to create ‘learning cities’ capable of operating in the rapidly expanding

world of knowledge economy and utilizing information and knowledge to

advance economic, environmental and social progress.

Giddens (1984) describes urban environments act as ‘crucibles’ where a multitude of

interactions not only take place, but also ‘make place’ for large numbers of individuals.

To underline the importance of foresighted in place making and urban management

Handy (1994: 18) states that “[l]ife will never be easy, nor perfectible, nor completely

predictable”. It will be best understood backwards but we have to live it forwards”. In

their research Stubbs et al. (2000) finds that a new conceptualisation of management

for responding to complex urban issues that confound bounded problem-solving is

necessary.

Around the globe increasing awareness of the complexity of the modern urban setting

and abovementioned demands have led to the questioning of management approaches

founded on traditional institutional, administrative and geographical

compartmentalisation (Stubbs et al., 2000). Urban environments act as ‘crucibles’,

where a multitude of interactions not only take place, but also ‘make place’ for large

numbers of individuals (Giddens, 1984) and therefore managing such places plays a

critical role in establishing sustainable cities. It has been proved that traditional urban

management practices lack of comprehensively tackling urban, economic, social and

environmental problems (Jones et al., 2002).

33

Starting from late 1970s it is clearly accepted that automated information systems or

intelligent management systems in local governments contribute significantly to the

decision process of top policy making and management team by providing them with

accurate information and decision directions (Dutton & Kraemer, 1977). In recent years,

the growing need for an effective urban management approach led into the

development of the notion of ‘intelligent urban management’. This new urban

management approach rises from improving communication within and between

agencies and the public about the highly connected and emergent nature of problems

which management responsibility has been assumed (Stubbs et al., 2000). One of the

characteristics of the intelligent urban management is that it improves the

communication within and between agencies about the highly connected and emergent

nature of problems by benefiting from digital technologies. The most recent view of

intelligent urban management is shaped by the principles of ‘real-time’, ‘effective’,

‘efficient’’ ‘reliable’ and ‘responding’ to the emerging issues of sustainable development

in the urban environment. There are not much comprehensive intelligent urban

management systems available at the moment. The big challenge is to make such system

work in ambitious U-Eco Cities.

Regardless of whether intelligent or not a sound urban planning and management

system should provide: safe, healthy and cohesive communities; sustainable natural

resource management; a supportive environment within which business can develop

and which assists in opportunities for economic growth; and appropriate urban

structure and form so as to provide equitable access to service and amenities. Jones et al.

(2002) summarise the important aspects of shaping the new or intelligent planning and

urban management systems. These key aspects include (p.190-191):

� Changing attitude and understanding in urban development and economic

growth;

� Coordinating and planning the development through a professional and

resourced single body;

� Increasing participation in the planning process;

� Providing equal access to services such as education and health;

� Supporting systems for service planning and delivery;

34

� Strengthening and providing coordinated urban management services between

key infrastructure providers;

� Meeting the demands of varying interest groups;

� Operating a regulatory framework for the control, monitoring and assessment of

the development;

� Considering all the costs of urban growth such as financial, social and

environmental, and;

� Bringing transparency and accountability to the management system.

Additionally, much like in the case of U-Eco Cities an intelligent urban management

system as support systems highly benefits from the state of the art technologies in

planning, decision making and management. These advanced technologies include U-

technologies, ICTs, decision support systems, digital information systems, strategic

choice tools, and E-service technologies (i.e. for E-commerce, E-government and E-

education). In recent years such technologies made online and web-based platforms and

decision support systems accessible for technicians, policy makers and the public for

urban planning, development and management purposes.

Decision making is complex by nature, particularly at a large city context. For example

Figure 4 illustrates the range of factors need to be taken into consideration in decision

making, which include different agencies to develop awareness on the aspects of the

complex phenomenon of air quality.

35

Figure 4. A multi-institutional picture of air quality (Stubbs et al., 2000: 1809)

36

The literature points out that the complexity of an urban management system could be

simplified by using a set of indicators for urban management constitutes an instrument

for observation and for decision (Joerin et al., 2001). This simplification gives urban

stakeholders a model of city development at a given time and for a definite territorial

space (Allen, 2001). The indicators are used as a common base of comparison between

the territorial entities. A set of indicators has three strategic purposes in urban

management (Repetti & Desthieux, 2006):

� Monitoring: a continuous audit of the land in time, comparing its condition at

various moments. The indicators give a series of updated images of reality (von

Stokar et al., 2001);

� Controlling: an evaluation of the distance that separates the condition at a

defined moment from defined objectives or target values. The indicators

measure the distance to the defined objectives (Spangenberg et al., 2002) , and;

� Benchmarking: a comparison between territorial entities to find the best

practices (von Stokar et al., 2001).

Figure 5 below depicts a conceptual intelligent urban model developed for the City of

Saint-Jean by benefiting from indicator sets (Repetti & Desthieux, 2006).

37

Figure 5. An example urban management model (Repetti & Desthieux, 2006: 211)

So far there are a number of intelligent urban management systems are developed in

dealing with various urban issues. One of the most common application areas of these

management systems is the urban environmental management. Intelligent

environmental management systems are broadly defined as computer-based

technologies that support environmental management systems. The main benefit of

38

intelligent environmental management system adoption is that it provides a systematic

process to address comprehensively all major environmental issues. Tasks that

intelligent environmental management systems support include tracking activities,

tracking waste, monitoring emissions, scheduling tasks, coordinating permits and

documentation, managing material safety data sheets, conducting cost/benefit analysis,

and choosing alternative materials, to name a few. An intelligent environmental

management system integrates monitoring and simulation for environmental decision

support in urban areas. The establishment of clear procedures and responsibilities,

environmental management programmes, audits and other tools lead to the effective

monitoring of environmental issues and solution of problems in a timely manner. An

intelligent environmental management system is a set of interacting processes or

elements. Each process or element of the environmental management system takes one

or more inputs and creates one or more outputs to be passed onto one or more other

processes or elements (DEWHA, 2009). This is depicted in Figure 6, which can be

viewed as a broad intelligent environmental management system framework.

Figure 6. Intelligent environmental management system framework (DEWHA, 2009: 31)

39

Another common application area of intelligent management systems is the urban

transport management, which is necessary for solving problems caused by traffic

congestion through a synergy of new information technology for simulation, real-time

control, and communications networks. More specifically, this term refers to the

application of advanced information processing, communications, sensing and

computer control technologies to the driver-vehicle-road infrastructure system with the

aim of improving travel efficiency and mobility, enhancing safety, conserving energy,

providing economic benefits and protecting the environment (Regan et al., 2001). Urban

transportation planning and management is facing challenges and opportunities in the

rapid developments of intelligent transportation systems. Such systems are

characterised by real time information feedback in their operations and management,

and by increasing levels of automation of their various components. The challenges to

planning and management stem from the increased range and added complexity of the

choices available to transportation planners (Kanafani et al., 1993).

The main aim of an intelligent urban transport management system is to strengthen

public transport systems to reduce the negative impacts of air pollutants through

advanced traffic management, to directly involve citizens in planning their own trips

based on environmental friendly routes and finally, to train young citizens and increase

the environmental awareness of citizens in general to develop a new urban mobility

culture. It also aims is to coordinate transport infrastructure and demand management

through the highest possible use and integration of information and its real time

processing, based on the principle of environmental protection in the degraded areas.

The operation of numerous key components of intelligent urban transport management

systems, such as real-time traffic surveillance and management, incident management,

traveller information, natural and human hazard evacuation, heavily relies on the

support of an effective and efficient communication system (Boxill & Yu, 2000). Table 2

below lists some of the key intelligent transportation technologies and intelligent

transportation applications.

40

Table 2. Intelligent transportation technologies and applications

Intelligent Transportation Technologies Intelligent Transportation Applications

Wireless communications Electronic toll collection

Computational technologies Emergency vehicle notification systems

Floating car data or floating cellular data Cordon zones with congestion pricing

Sensing technologies Automatic road enforcement

Inductive loop detection Collision avoidance systems

Video vehicle detection Dynamic traffic light sequence

Urban management directions for U-Eco Cities

In response to the evolution of the urban context, during the last decade we have

witnessed radical changes in management and communication (Geertman & Stillwell,

2003). The new urban management techniques are highly dynamic and derived from

economic management principles and information technologies. In the light of current

changes the key challenges for the management of U-Eco Cities can be grouped under

several groups.

Firstly, as urban management is becoming more flexible, based on the integration of a

strategic global scheme and local management dynamics, the management of highly

complex U-Eco Cities are expected to respond both local and global concerns (Carmona

& Burgess, 2001; Ingallina, 2001). Urban management generally addresses a number of

urban projects (Borja & Castells, 1997) or spatial or territorial planning (von Stokar et

al., 2001), which are flexible tools for management and communication established at

the conurbation level. The rising sustainability concerns and more and more

transparency for public participation are making the management process of U-Eco

Cities even more complicated than they already are (Borja & Castells, 1997; le Gal`es,

1998; Shafer et al., 2000).

Secondly, urban management deals more with powerful databases and information

systems. To face the considerable volume of data, tools are needed to establish

overviews of the goals and provide an appropriate level of synthesis. In an U-Eco City

actors (decision makers, technicians, administrators, users, and so on) must be able to

41

access all the relevant data without getting lost in the details, nor swamped with

information that does not provide a clear picture and is not directly useful for decision

making (Allen, 2001; Joerin et al., 2001).

Lastly, the evolution of management approaches requires new instruments and tools for

strategic development, for information update and transmission, and for monitoring the

development, and managing the whole planning and delivery process. At this point new

generation intelligent urban management systems are needed to be developed

particularly to be able to cope with the complexities of U-Eco Cities.

Conclusions

In the 21st Century global and local forces, such as climate change, resource

consumption and depletion, energy security, oil vulnerability, globalisation, knowledge

economy, global financial crisis, and technological developments, are rapidly re-shaping

our cities. In this reshaping process developing pathways towards sustainable urban

development has been one of the most crucial topics in recent years (see Newton,

2008). In this regard U-Eco City, infrastructure, service and technology developments

offer new opportunities. Such developments revolutionise the urban planning,

development and management by providing a new direction for intelligent urban

management. For example intelligent management of urban infrastructure and services

provide just-in-time delivery of goods and services and contribute significantly to the

sustainable development of our cities by mainly minimising unnecessary resource use.

Similarly U-infrastructure and services supported by convergence telecommunications

technology and infrastructure by improving community and environmental health

contribute to the formation of healthy cities.

On the one hand, along with these opportunities, and many more, intelligent

management systems for U-Eco Cities also present a number of challenges. These

challenges include: strategically planning every stage of the U-Eco City development

process; significant financial commitment to invest on developing, equipping and

retrofitting new U-technologies to urban environments; developing a system that is

42

resilient to adopt new technological changes quickly; and securing and safe guarding

the whole system from external and internal security treats. Beyond technology

revolutionising urban management for U-Eco Cities also requires several key

instruments. These instruments include: a strong administration and will to plan and

develop sound policies; legislations and regulations to legitimise and empower the

process; a fiscal system based on ‘user pays’ principle rather than tax payers funding of

all services; strong financial and institutional structure to realise and coordinate U-

infrastructure and services; capability to manage both assets and knowledge that is key

for the knowledge-based and sustainable development of cities (Yigitcanlar et al.,

2008b; 2008c); and embracing an advocating, transparent and participatory approach

for development. For a successful urban management strategic visioning and planning,

as Neilson (2002) highlights, linking strategy and practice play a key role.

On the other hand, decisions regarding to telecommunications infrastructure

investments in U-Eco City policy making could have a noteworthy impact on sustainable

urban development by minimising environmental impacts and improving the quality of

lives of residents. Around the world, local governments have been developing planning

strategies focusing on long term telecommunications infrastructure development.

However, the rapid changes in the technology and telecommunications infrastructure,

including technology convergence, do not make their work any easier in having a

concrete long term development plan that contributes to the formation of sustainable

urban futures.

Technology convergence develops new standards for performance and accessibility for

urban infrastructure, and helps lifecycle planning and management. Besides, this

convergence process also has its downside. Particularly in their initial forms, converged

devices are frequently less functional and reliable (e.g. a mobile phone camera may not

perform better than a digital camera). As the array of functions in a single device

escalates the ability of that device to serve its original function decreases (Jenkins,

2006). For example, an iPhone (which, by name implies that its' primary function is that

of a mobile phone) can perform many different tasks, but does not feature a traditional

numerical pad to make phone calls. Instead, the phone features a touchpad, which some

users find it troublesome compared to a conventional phone keyboard. In fact

43

technological convergence in some ways holds immense potential for the improvement

of the quality of life and liberty, but also degrades it in others (Rheingold, 2000).

Regardless, thanks to convergence and nano-technologies, in recent years an ever-wider

range of technologies are being converted into single multipurpose devices.

The recent telecommunications infrastructure planning strategies in U-Eco City

initiatives are aiming to reduce labour, administrative and material costs to manage the

urban infrastructure and utilities across cities and towns. Many countries around the

world, particularly in Korea and Japan, technology convergence is now focusing more

on enhancing efficiency of urban services by providing a higher quality of life such as

one-stop services for a number of urban networks and platforms. The

telecommunications infrastructure policies are also targeting to increase the public

recognition and business opportunities through the evolution of convergence over time.

Technological convergence helps people access more features in a short amount of time

through a single device. This means more cutting edge R&D investment for service

providers to remain competitive in the market. With the advancements in technology

comes the ability for technological convergence, which Rheingold (2000) believes that it

alters the ‘social-side effects’ in virtual, social and physical worlds as they are being

collided, merged and integrated. Therefore, further studies are needed to scrutinise the

impacts of technology convergence upon the production of sustainable urban space and

policies within the structure of a socio-spatially sustainability approach. Additionally,

the following questions are worthwhile to further investigate on: How wireline, wireless

and seamless technologies can be integrated into a sustainable urban environment

model? How ICTs can be converged effectively in order to monitor and manage energy

consumption? And, how can we measure ICTs efficiency in the construction and daily

operation of urban infrastructure?

Lastly, the key importance of telecommunications infrastructure and convergence

technologies in economic and social development of cities, particularly U-Eco Cities,

should not be ignored, as Beaverstock et al. (2000: 126) writes “cities accumulate and

retain wealth, control, and power because of what flows through them, rather than what

they statically contain”.

44

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank to the Ubiquitous City Research Cluster (UCRC) of

Hanbat National University, Daejeon, Korea for supporting this research.

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