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MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND STATISTICS (252 BE)
Sr Tan Liat Choon
Email: [email protected]
Mobile: 016-4975551
Organisational Culture, Value and Ethics and Social Responsibility
1
1.Understand the role of organizational culture
2.Understand the role of organizational culture values
3.Understand the role of organizational Ethics
4.Understand the role of organizational socialization
L E
A R N
I N
G
O
B J
E C
T I
V E
S
2
THE BASIC FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
OrganizationalCulture/basic functions
Provides asense of
identity formembers
Enhancescommitment
to the organization’s
mission
Clairifiesand
reinforcesstandardsof behavior 4
CORE ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES REFLECTED IN CULTURE
•Sensitivity to needs of customers
and employees
•Freedom to initiate new ideas
•Willingness to tolerate taking risks
•Openness to communication options5
CREATING A CUSTOMER-RESPONSIVE CULTURE
• Key Variables Shaping Customer-Responsive Cultures1. The types of employees hired by the organization.2. Low formalization: the freedom to meet customer
service requirements.3. Empowering employees with decision-making
discretion to please the customer.4. Good listening skills to understand customer
messages.5. Role clarity that allows service employees to act as
“boundary spanners.”6. Employees who engage in organizational citizenship
behaviors.7
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE?
Characteristics:1. Innovation and risk
taking2. Attention to detail3. Outcome orientation4. People orientation5. Team orientation6. Aggressiveness7. Stability
8
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE?
• Culture Versus Formalization– A strong culture increases behavioral consistency
and can act as a substitute for formalization.
• Organizational Culture Versus National Culture– National culture has a greater impact on
employees than does their organization’s culture.– Nationals selected to work for foreign companies
may be atypical of the local/native population.
11
WHAT DO CULTURES DO?
Culture’s Functions:
1.Defines the boundary between one organization and others.
2.Conveys a sense of identity for its members.
3.Facilitates the generation of commitment to something larger than self-interest.
4.Enhances the stability of the social system.12
WHAT DO CULTURES DO?
Culture as a Liability:
1.Barrier to change
2.Barrier to diversity
3.Barrier to acquisitions and mergers
13
CREATING A CUSTOMER-RESPONSIVE CULTURE
Managerial Actions:
• Select new employees with personality and attitudes consistent with high service orientation.
• Train and socialize current employees to be more customer focused.
• Change organizational structure to give employees more control.
• Empower employees to make decision about their jobs.
14
CREATING A CUSTOMER-RESPONSIVE CULTURE
Managerial Actions (cont’d) :
• Lead by conveying a customer-focused vision and demonstrating commitment to customers.
• Conduct performance appraisals based on customer-focused employee behaviors.
• Provide ongoing recognition for employees who make special efforts to please customers. 15
KEEPING CULTURE ALIVE
• Selection– Concerned with how well the candidates will fit into
the organization.– Provides information to candidates about the
organization.• Top Management
– Senior executives help establish behavioral norms that are adopted by the organization.
• Socialization– The process that helps new employees adapt to the
organization’s culture.
16
SPIRITUALITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Characteristics:• Strong sense of
purpose• Focus on individual
development• Trust and openness• Employee
empowerment• Toleration of
employee expression
19
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE DEFINED
The basic pattern of shared values and assumptions governing the way employees within an organization think about and act on problems and opportunities.
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE PROFILE
Org Culture Dimensions Dimension Characteristics
Innovation Experimenting, opportunity seeking, risk taking, few rules, low cautiousness
Stability Predictability, security, rule-oriented
Respect for people Fairness, tolerance
Outcome orientation Action oriented, high expectations, results oriented
Attention to detail Precise, analytic
Team orientation Collaboration, people-oriented
Aggressiveness Competitive, low emphasis on social responsibility
Source: O’Reilly et al (1991)
ORGANIZATIONAL SUBCULTURES
• Dominant culture -- most widely shared values and assumptions
• Subcultures– Located throughout the organization– Can enhance or oppose (countercultures) firm’s
dominant culture
• Two functions of countercultures:– provide surveillance and critique, ethics– source of emerging values
22
ARTIFACTS IN ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
• Observable symbols and signs of culture
• Physical structures, ceremonies, language, stories
• Maintain and transmit organization’s culture
• Not easy to decipher artifacts - need many of them
ARTIFACTS: ORGANIZATIONAL LANGUAGE
• Words used to address people, describe customers, etc.
• Leaders use phrases and special vocabulary as cultural symbols
• Language also found in subcultures
24
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE STRENGTH
How widely and deeply employees hold the company’s dominant values and assumptions
Strong cultures exist when:– most employees understand/embrace the
dominant values– values and assumptions are institutionalized
through well-established artifacts– culture is long lasting -- often traced back to
founder25
FUNCTIONS OF STRONG CORPORATE CULTURES
Functions ofStrong Cultures
• Control system• Social glue• Sense-making
OrganizationalOutcomes
• Org performance• Employee well-being
Culture strength advantages depend on:
• Environment fit• Not cult-like• Adaptive culture
26
CONTINGENCIES OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE &
PERFORMANCE• Effect of organizational culture strength on
organizational performance is moderate
• Need to consider contingencies:1. Ensure culture-environment fit
2. Avoid strength to level of corporate cult• Cults restrict mental models, suppress subcultures
3. Create an adaptive culture• External focus, process focus, ownership, proactive
27
MERGING CULTURES: BICULTURAL AUDIT
• Part of due diligence in merger
• Minimizes risk of cultural collision by diagnosing companies before merger
• Three steps in bicultural audit:1. Examine artifacts2. Analyze data for cultural conflict/compatibility3. Identify strategies and action plans to bridge
cultures
28
MERGING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES
Assimilation
Deculturation
Acquired company embraces acquiring firm’s cultural values
Acquiring firm imposes its culture on unwilling acquired firm
Integration Cultures combined into a new composite culture
Separation Merging companies remain separate with their own culture
29
CHANGING/STRENGTHENING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
1. Actions of Founders/Leaders– Org culture sometimes reflects the founder’s
personality
– Transformational Leaders can reshape culture --organizational change practices
2. Aligning Artifacts– Artifacts keep culture in place
– e.g., building structure, communicating stories, transferring culture carriers
31
CHANGING/STRENGTHENING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
3. Introducing Culturally Consistent Rewards– Rewards are powerful artifacts – reinforce
culturally-consistent behavior
4. Attracting, Selecting, Socializing Employees– Attraction-selection-attrition theory
– Socialization practices32
ATTRACTION-SELECTION-ATTRITION THEORY
Organizations become more homogeneous (stronger culture) through:
– Attraction -- applicants self-select and weed out companies based on compatible values
– Selection -- Applicants selected based on values congruent with organization’s culture
– Attrition -- Employee quite or are forced out when their values oppose company values
33
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE DEFINED
Basic pattern of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs considered to be the correct way of thinking about and acting on problems and opportunities facing the organization.
34
Physical StructuresRituals/ Ceremonies
StoriesLanguage
Beliefs
Values
Assumptions
Artifacts ofOrganizationalCulture
OrganizationalCulture
ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
35
ORGANIZATIONAL SUBCULTURES
• Located throughout the organization
• Support or oppose (countercultures) firm’s dominant culture
• Two functions of countercultures:– provide surveillance and evaluation
– source of emerging values
36
ARTIFACTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
• Organizational stories– social prescriptions and role models
• Rituals and ceremonies– programmed routines and planned activities
• Organizational language– Defining words, metaphors
• Physical structures and space– Building structure, office design
37
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND PERFORMANCE
Organisational cultures may improve corporate performance through:
•Social control
•Social glue
•Sense-making
38
PROBLEMS WITH STRONG CULTURES
• Strong cultures may be a problem when:– Culture content is incompatible with the
organization’s environment.
– Strong cultures focus attention on one mental model.
– Strong cultures suppress dissenting values from subcultures.
39
BICULTURAL AUDIT
• Part of “due diligence” in merger
• Minimizes risk of cultural collision by diagnosing companies before merger
• Three steps in bicultural audit:1.Examine artifacts identifying cultural differences
between merging companies
2.Analyze audit data -- determine where cultural conflict and compatibility exist
3.Identify ways to bridge the two organizations’ cultures 40
MERGING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES
• Assimilation Strategy
• Deculturation Strategy
• Integration Strategy
• Separation Strategy
41
StrengtheningOrganizational
Culture
Foundersand leaders
Culturallyconsistentrewards
Stableworkforce
Selectionand
socialization
Managing theculturalnetwork
STRENGTHENING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
42
COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE
• Shared meanings are negotiated by communication
• Culture is enacted and made visible through communication
• Communication and cultural change–Top Management
–Socialisation43
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
• Organizational Culture is “The set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments.”
44
UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Antecedents
• Founder’s values
• Industry & business environment
• National culture• Senior leaders’
vision and behavior
Organizational Structure & Practices
• Reward systems
• Organizational design
Organizational Culture
• Observable artifacts
• Espoused values
• Basic assumptions
Group & Social Processes
• Socialization
• Mentoring• Decision making
• Group dynamics
• Communication
• Influence & empowerment
• LeadershipOrganizational Outcomes
• Effectiveness
• Innovation & stress
Collective Attitudes & Behavior
• Work attitudes
• Job satisfaction
• Motivation
45
LAYERS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
• Observable Artifacts physical manifestations of an organization’s culture
• Values enduring belief in a mode of conduct or end-state
– Espoused Values stated values and norms that are preferred by an organization
– Enacted Values values and norms exhibited by employees
• Basic Assumptions unobservable—represent the core of organizational culture
46
FOUR FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizationalculture
Sense-makingdevice
Organizationalidentity
Social systemstability
Collectivecommitment
47
CONSTRUCTIVE CULTURE
Constructive Culture employees are encouraged to interact with others and to work on tasks and projects that will assist in satisfying their needs to grow and develop
High priority on constructive interpersonal relationships, and focus on work group satisfaction
Affiliative
Participative, employeecentered, and supportive
Humanistic-encouraging
Value self-development and creativity
Self-actualizing
Goal and achievement orientedAchievement
Organizational CharacteristicsNormative Beliefs
PASSIVE DEFENSIVE CULTURE
Passive Defensive Culture overriding belief that employees must interact with others in ways that do not threaten their job security
Negative reward system and Defensive avoid accountability
Avoidance
Nonparticipative, centralized decision making, and employees do what they are told
Dependent
Conservative, bureaucratic, and people follow the rules
Conventional
Avoid conflict, strive to be liked by others, and approval oriented
Approval
Organizational CharacteristicsNormative Beliefs
AGGRESSIVE-DEFENSIVE CULTURE
Aggressive-Defensive Culture encourage employees to approach tasks in forceful ways in order to protect their status and job security
Perfectionistic, persistent, and hard workingPerfectionistic
Winning is values and a win-lose approach is used
Competitive
Nonparticipative, take charge of Defensive subordinates, and responsive to superiors
Power
Confrontation and negativism rewarded
Oppositional
Organizational CharacteristicsNormative Beliefs
EVIDENCE FROM ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
RESEARCH1) Organizational culture was significantly correlated with
employee attitudes and behavior2) Congruence between an individual’s values and the
organization’s values was associated with organizational commitment, job satisfaction, intentions to quit, and turnover
3) Organizational culture did not predict a company’s financial performance
4) Mergers frequently failed due to incompatible cultures 5) Strong cultures have a stronger impact on employee
behavior than do weaker cultures51
SPECIFIC TYPES OF CULTURES
• Control culture – values role of senior executives to lead the organization
• Performance culture – values individual and organizational performance
• Relationship culture – values nurturing and well-being
• Responsiveness culture – values ability to keep in tune with external environment
52
CULTURE AND FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE
• Strength perspective – strong culture creates goal alignment, motivation, needed structure & controls
• Fit perspective – culture must align with business or strategic context
• Adaptive perspective – good cultures help firms adapt to environmental changes 53
Organizational Cultures and Diversity
The specific objectives of this chapter are:
1. EXAMINE some of the major ethical issues and problems confronting MNCs in selected countries.
2. DISCUSS some of the pressures on and action being taken by selected industrialized countries and companies to be more socially responsive to world problems.
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES AND DIVERSITY
54
THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
– Shared values and beliefs that enable members to understand their roles and the norms of the organization, including
• Observed behavioral regularities, as typified by common language, terminology, and rituals.
• Norms, as reflected by things such as the amount of work to be done and the degree of cooperation between management and employees.
• Dominant values that the organization advocates and expects participants to share, such as high product and service quality, low absenteeism, and high efficiency.
Organizational culture
55
THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
• A philosophy that is set forth in the MNC’s beliefs regarding how employees and customers should be treated.
• Rules that dictate the do’s and don’ts of employee behavior relating to areas such as productivity, customer relations, and intergroup cooperation.
• Organizational climate, or the overall atmosphere of the enterprise as reflected by the way that participants interact with each other, conduct themselves with customers, and feel about the way they are treated by higher-level management
Organizational culture Shared values and beliefs that enable members to
understand their roles and the norms of the organization, including
56
INTERACTION BETWEEN NATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES
• National cultural values of employees may have a significant impact on their organizational performance
• Cultural values employees bring to the workplace with them are not easily changed by the organization
57
TYPES OF MULTICULTURALISM
• Domestic multiculturalism– Multicultural and diverse workforce that operates
in the MNC’s home country
• Group multiculturalism– Homogeneous groups
– Token groups
– Bicultural groups
– Multicultural groups58
OVERCOMING CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
• Show respect for all workers.• Easy language, slow and clear talk.• Be alert to differences in customs and
behavior.• Watch for differences in nonverbal
communication.• Overlook style, accent, grammar,
personal appearance.59
OVERCOMING CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
• Listen for understanding, not agreement.
• Be attentive to individual differences in appearance. (Do not confuse people because they belong to same race or ethnic group.)
60
CROSS-CULTURAL AND ETHICAL CONCERNS
• Cross-Cultural Concerns–Linear and open conflict assumptions
different from values in some cultures
• Ethical Concerns–Privacy rights of individuals
–Management power
–Individuals’ self-esteem61
FIVE DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE
• Power distance• Uncertainty avoidance• Individualism• Masculinity• Confucian work dynamism
62
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES THAT CAN AFFECT OB
• Relationship & rules• Individual or collective preferences• Type of societies - neutral or emotional
societies• Diffuse or specific culture• Achievement-based societies• Time• Attitude to the environment
63
Courtesy of The Warehouse
VALUES DEFINED
• Stable, long-lasting beliefs about what is important
• Define right or wrong, good or bad
• Include cross-cultural, ethical and organisational culture values
67
VALUES
• A value refers to the importance aperson attaches to something thatserves as a guide to action.
68
FORMS OF WORKPLACE VALUES
Terminal versus instrumental
•Terminal values—desired states worthstriving for
• Instrumental values—desirable modes of behaviour that help us reach the objectives of terminal values
69
FORMS OF WORKPLACE VALUES
• Espoused versus enacted
–espoused are values we want others to believe we hold
–enacted (endorse) are values-in-use; what we actually practice
70
IMPORTANCE OF VALUES AT WORK
• Globalisation– increasing awareness of, and sensitivity to,
different values across cultures
• Replacing direct supervision– potentially aligns employees’ decisions and
actions with corporate goals
• Demand for ethical practices– increasing pressure to engage in ethical practices
71
ALIGNING PERSONAL WITH ORGANISATIONAL VALUES
Problems when employee’s personal values are misaligned with company’s values• – decisions conflict with organisational
goals
• – employees experience higher levels of stress and turnover
72
ALIGNING PERSONAL WITH ORGANISATIONAL VALUES
How to minimise misalignment:
– select applicants with similar values
– provide realistic recruitment - realistic job previews–
• change corporate values, where appropriate 73
ALIGNING PERSONAL WITH ORGANISATIONAL VALUES
Aligning organisational with societal values
• Need to minimise conflict with values of society
74
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN VALUES
• Individualism–collectivism
• Power distance
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Achievement–nurturing orientation
• Long-term or short-term orientation
75
Collectivists tend to
– identify themselves by group membership
– give priority to group goals
– put more emphasis on harmonious relationships
– have more socially-based emotions (indebtedness)
Japan
NZ
Australia
Collectivism
Individualism
Indonesia
INDIVIDUALISM−COLLECTIVISM
76
The degree to which people accept an unequal distribution of power in society
Japan
N.Z.
Australia
Hong Kong
High power distance
Malaysia
Low power distance
POWER DISTANCE
77
High UA
Low UA
S Africa
China
Singapore
The degree to which people tolerate ambiguity / uncertainty (low UA) or feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty (high UA)
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
Australia
78
Japan
S. Korea
Achievement
Nurturing
N.Z.
The degree to which people value assertiveness (confident / self assured), competitiveness and materialism (achievement) versus relationships and well-being of others (nurturing)
ACHIEVEMENT−NURTURING
Australia
79
Japan
Indonesia
Long-term orientation
Short-term orientation
China
The degree to which people value thrift, savings and persistence (long-term) versus past and present issues (short-term)
LONG/SHORT-TERM ORIENTATION
Australia
80
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN VALUES
• Short-term—emphasise the past and present
• such as respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations
81
VALUESValues
Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.
Value System
A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity.
82
IMPORTANCE OF VALUES
• Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors of individuals and cultures.
• Influence our perception of the world around us.
• Represent interpretations of “right” and “wrong.”
• Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others. 83
TYPES OF VALUES – ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY
Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.
Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values.
84
Values in the
RokeachSurvey
Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973).
85
Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973).
Values in the
RokeachSurvey
86
THREE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
• Utilitarianism– greatest good for greatest number
• Individual rights– fundamental entitlements in society
• Distributive justice– inequality with equal access to favoured
positions
– inequality must benefit the least well off89
INFLUENCES ON ETHICAL CONDUCT
• Moral intensity– degree to which an issue demands ethical
principles
• Ethical sensitivity– ability to recognise the presence, and determine
the relative importance, of an ethical issue
• Situational influences– competitive pressures and other conditions affect
ethical behaviour90
ETHICS
• Ethics is the moral choices a personmakes, and what he or she shoulddo. Ethics can also be regarded asthe vehicle that converts values intoaction.
91
CREATING AN ETHICAL ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
• Characteristics of Organizations that Develop High Ethical Standards– High tolerance for risk
– Low to moderate in aggressiveness
– Focus on means as well as outcomes
• Managerial Practices Promoting an Ethical Culture– Being a visible role model.
– Communicating ethical expectations.
– Providing ethical training.
– Visibly rewarding ethical acts and punishing unethical ones.
92
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING CRITERIA
A standard way of understanding ethicaldecision-making is to understand thephilosophical basis for making these decisions.
Focus on consequences.According to this criterion, if nobody getshurt, the decision is ethical. Focusing onconsequences is often referred to asutilitarian.
93
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING
Focus on the rights of individuals.
The theories underlying this approach arereferred to as deontological from the Greekwork deon, or duty.
A fundamental idea of deontology is that equal respect must be given all individuals.
94
ETHICAL DECISION MAKING
Focus on integrity (virtue ethics).
If the person in question has good character,and genuine motivation and intentions, he orshe is behaving ethically.
The decision maker’s environment, orcommunity, helps define what integritymeans.
95
ETHICAL DECISION-MAKINGGUIDE
1. Gather the facts.2. Define the ethical
issues (e.g. lying, job discrimination).
3. Identify the affected parties.
4. Identify the consequences.
5. Identify the obligations.
6. Consider your character and integrity.
7. Develop creative potential actions.
8. Check your intuition.
96
ENTRY SOCIALIZATION OPTIONS
• Formal versus Informal• Individual versus Collective• Fixed versus Variable• Serial versus Random• Investiture versus Divestiture
100
ENHANCING ETHICAL AND SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE BEHAVIOR
• Leadership by example
• Written codes of ethical conduct
• Formal mechanisms for ethics problems
• Accepting whistle blowers
• Training in ethics and social responsibility
• Awareness of cross-cultural influences
101
ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION DEFINED
The process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviors, and social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization.
SOCIALIZATION: LEARNING & ADJUSTMENT
Learning Process– Newcomers make sense of the organization’s
physical, social, and strategic/cultural dynamics
Adjustment Process– Newcomers need to adapt to their new work
environment• New work roles
• New team norms
• New corporate cultural values
103
STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION
Role Management
• Insider
• Changing roles and behavior
• Resolving conflicts
EncounterStage
• Newcomer
• Testingexpectations
Pre-EmploymentStage
• Outsider
• Gathering information
• Forming psychological contract
104
IMPROVING ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION
• Realistic job preview– A balance of positive and negative
information about the job and work context
• Socialization agents– Supervisors– technical information,
performance feedback, job duties
– Coworkers – ideal when accessible, role models, tolerant, and supportive
105
ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION
PhasesPerceptual and Social Processes
1) Anticipatory socialization learning that occurs prior to joining the organization
Anticipating realities about the organization and the new job
Anticipating organization’s needs for one’s skills and abilities
Anticipating organization’s sensitivity to one’s needs and values
106
ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION
2) Encounter values, skills, and attitudes start to shift as new recruit discovers what the organization is truly like
Managing lifestyle-versus-work conflicts
Managing intergroup role conflicts
Seeking role definition and clarity
Becoming familiar with task and group dynamics
PhasesPerceptual and Social Processes
107
ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION
3) Change and acquisition recruit masters skills and roles and adjusts to work group’s values and norms
Competing role demands are resolved
Critical tasks are mastered
Group norms and values are internalized
PhasesPerceptual and Social Processes
108
ORGANIZATIONAL SOCIALIZATION
Phases1) Anticipatory
socialization2) Encounter3) Change and
acquisition
Outsider
Behavioral Outcomes Performs role assignments
Remains with organization
Spontaneously innovates and cooperates
Socialized Insider
Affective Outcomes Generally satisfied
Internally motivated to work
High job involvement
109
SOCIALIZATION TACTICS
Not clearly distinguishing a newcomer from more experienced members
Informal
Practice of segregating a newcomer from regular organization members during a defined socialization period
Formal
Treating each newcomer individually and exposing him or her to more less unique experiences
Individual
Consists of grouping newcomers & exposing them to a common set of experiences
Collective
DescriptionTactic
SOCIALIZATION TACTICS
Does not provide a timetable for the assumption of the role
Variable
Provides a timetable for the assumption of the role
Fixed
Ambiguous or dynamic progression of steps that culminate in the new role
Random
Refers to a fixed progression of steps that culminate in the new role
Sequential
DescriptionTactic
SOCIALIZATION TACTICS
Denial and stripping away of the newcomer’s existing sense of self and the reconstruction of the organization’s image
Divestiture
Affirmation of newcomer’s incoming global and specific role identities and attributes
Investiture
Does not use a role modelDisjunctive
Newcomer is socialized by an experienced member
Serial
DescriptionTactic
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• Learning by observing others, thenmodelling the behaviours that lead to favourable outcomes and avoiding behaviours that lead to punishing consequences
113
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
1. Behavioural modelling
a. observe model’s behaviour
b. remember important actions
c. try to reproduce actions through practice
114
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Behavioural modelling• Model should be respected and reinforced• Good for learning tacit / IMPLIED knowledge
and skills• Enhances self-efficacy (is an individual's
estimate or personal judgment of his or her own ability to succeed in reaching a specific goal)
– belief that you have the ability, motivation and resources to complete a task successfully
115
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
2. Learning behaviour consequences
• We learn to anticipate the consequences of future actions through logic / judgement and by observing the experiences of others
116
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
3. Self-reinforcement• Employee controls a reinforcer (e.g.
having a break), but doesn’t ‘take’ the reinforcer until a self-set goal is done
• Increasingly important as employees manage themselves (by monitoring & observing your own behavior)
• people are also able to change their behavior by reinforcing themselves
117
Study Question 1: Why is globalization significant for organizational behavior?Culture.
– The learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society.
– The “software of the mind.”– Helps define boundaries between different groups
and affects how their members relate to one another.
– Cultural intelligence is the ability to identify, understand, and act with sensitivity and effectiveness in cross-cultural situations.
119
Study Question 2: What is culture and how can we understand cultural differences?
Language.
– Perhaps the most visible aspect of culture.
– Whorfian hypothesis — considers language as a major determinant of thinking.
– Low-context cultures — the message is conveyed by the words used.
– High-context cultures — words convey only a limited part of the message.
120
Time orientation.– Polychronic cultures.
• Circular view of time.
• No pressure for immediate action or performance.
• Emphasis on the present.
– Monochronic cultures.• Linear view of time.
• Create pressure for action and performance.
• Long-range goals and planning are important.
121
Use of space.–Proxemics.
• The study of how people use space to communicate.
• Reveals important cultural differences.
–Concept of personal space varies across cultures.
–Space is arranged differently in different cultures.
122
Religion.
–A major element of culture.
–Can be a very visible aspect of
culture.
–Influences codes of ethics and
moral behavior.
–Influences conduct of economic
matters. 123
Values and national culture.–Cultures vary in underlying
patterns of values and attitudes.–Hofstede’s five dimensions of
national culture:• Power distance.• Uncertainty avoidance.• Individualism-collectivism.• Masculinity-femininity.• Long-term/short-term orientation.
124
Power distance.–The willingness of a culture to
accept status and power differences among members.
–Respect for hierarchy and rank in organizations.
–Example of a high power distance culture — Indonesia.
–Example of a low power distance culture — Sweden.
125
Uncertainty avoidance.–The cultural tendency toward
discomfort with risk and ambiguity.–Preference for structured versus
unstructured organizational situations.
–Example of a high uncertainty avoidance culture — France.
–Example of a low uncertainty avoidance culture — Hong Kong.
126
Individualism-collectivism.– The cultural tendency to emphasize
individual or group interests.
– Preferences for working individually or in groups.
– Example of an individualistic culture —United States.
– Example of a collectivist culture —Mexico.
127
Masculinity-femininity.– The tendency of a culture to value
stereotypical masculine or feminine traits.
– Emphasizes competition/assertiveness versus interpersonal sensitivity/relationships.
– Example of a masculine culture —Japan.
– Example of a feminine culture —Thailand. 128
Long-term/short-term orientation.– The tendency of a culture to emphasize
future-oriented values versus present-oriented values.
– Adoption of long-term or short-term performance horizons.
– Example of a long-term orientation culture — South Korea.
– Example of a short-term orientation culture — United States.
129
Understanding cultural differences helps in dealing with parochialism and ethnocentrism.–Parochialism — assuming that the
ways of one’s own culture are the only ways of doing things.
–Ethnocentrism — assuming that the ways of one’s culture are the best ways of doing things.
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Cultural differences in handling relationships with other people.– Universalism versus particularism.
• Relative emphasis on rules and consistency, or on relationships and flexibility.
– Individualism versus collectivism.• Relative emphasis on individual freedom
and responsibility, or on group interests and consensus.
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Cultural differences in handling relationships with other people– Neutral versus affective.
• Relative emphasis on objectivity and detachment, or on emotion and expressed feelings.
– Specific versus diffuse.• Relative emphasis on focused and narrow
involvement, or on involvement with the whole person.
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Cultural differences in handling relationships with other people– Achievement versus prescription.
• Relative emphasis on performance-based and earned status, or on ascribed status.
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Cultural differences in attitudes
toward time.
–Sequential view of time.
• Time is a passing series of events.
–Synchronic view of time.
• Time consists of an interrelated past,
present, and future.
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Cultural differences in attitudes toward the environment.–Inner-directed cultures.
• Members view themselves as separate from nature and believe they can control it.
–Outer-directed cultures.• Members view themselves as part of
nature and believe they must go along with it. 135
Study Question 3: How does cultural diversity affect people at work?Multinational corporation (MNC).
– A business firm that has extensive international operations in more than one foreign country.
– Have a total world view without allegiance to any one national home.
– Have enormous economic power and impact.
– Bring benefits and controversies to host countries. 136
Multicultural workforces and expatriates.– Styles of leadership, motivation, decision
making, planning, organizing, and controlling vary from country to country.
– Expatriates.• People who live and work abroad for
extended periods of time.• Can be very costly for employers.• Progressive employers take supportive
measures to maximize potential for expatriate success. 137
Ethical behavior across cultures.– Ethical challenges result from:
• Cultural diversity.
• Variations in governments and legal systems.
– Prominent current issues.• Corruption and bribery.
• Poor working conditions.
• Child and prison labor.
• Business support of repressive governments.
• Sweatshops.
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Advice regarding cultural relativism and ethical absolutism.
– Multinational businesses should adopt core or threshold values that respect and protect fundamental human rights.
– Beyond the threshold, businesses should adapt and tailor actions to respect the traditions, foundations, and needs of different cultures.
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