Lone Parenthood and its Consequences for Children

Paul Gregg, Susan Harkness & Mariña Fernández SalgadoUniversity of Bath

Motivation• Children that have experienced some time growing-up in a

lone-parent family are widely considered to do less well than children from families that are intact. – they have relatively poor cognitive / educational outcomes; – exhibit more behavioural and emotional problems; and – are more likely to engage in “risky behaviour” as young adults.

• But most UK evidence:– uses data on cohorts of children born 30-years of more ago, and– is based on the experience of children who were growing up at

a time when lone parenthood was relatively rare.

Aims

• We aim to update the UK evidence base looking at changes in:– the experience of children growing up in lone-mother

families, and – its consequences for their cognitive and emotional

development.

Research questions (1) How has the experience of lone motherhood changed?

• How common is the experience of lone motherhood?

• How have routes into lone motherhood changed?• How selected are lone mothers?

Research questions (2) What are the consequences of having being brought up with a

lone mother?

• What influence does having lived with a lone mother have on (i) cognitive, and (ii) emotional development at early and middle childhood?

• Does the timing of lone motherhood matter to these outcomes? • What factors drive these relationships?

• Is lone motherhood a cause of poor performance? or, • is it a result of ‘selection’ into lone motherhood? or, • a result of other changes in circumstances which are a consequences of lone

parenthood (such as loss of income or poor maternal mental health)?

• How diverse are the effects of lone motherhood on children’s outcomes?

Data: Birth Cohorts• National Child Development Study (NCDS) -

1958 Cohort. - Ages of 7, 11, 16.

• British Cohort Study (BCS)- 1970 Cohort. - Ages 5, 10, 16.

• Millennium Cohort Study (MCS)- 2000 Cohort.- 9 months, age 3, 5, 7 and 11 (education data still to be released!)

How Common is Lone Motherhood?

Changes in Family Structure

Changes in Family Structure by Age

Family Structure: 1958 Cohort Family Structure: 2000 Cohort

0 7 11 160%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Lone Mother Mother and step-father Other

0 7 11 160%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Lone Mother Mother and step-father Other

Changes in Family Structure by Age

Family Structure: 1970 Cohort Family Structure: 2000 Cohort

0 5 11 160%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Lone Mother Mother and step-father Other

0 5 10 160%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Lone Mother Mother and step-father Other

How common is lone motherhood? There has been a sharp decline in the number of children living with both

natural parents, with large increases in: those born to lone mothers, and parental separation (a large number of separations taking place at an early age).

• The falling number of children living with both natural parents is increasingly associated with a rise in lone parenthood: In 1958 those children born to lone mothers, or whose parents separated, were

frequently brought up by non-natural parents. Between 1958 and 1970 the share of children living with both natural parents

declined but there was no growth in lone parenthood. Instead there was a sharp rise in step-parent families.

By 2000 lone parenthood was much more common , both because fewer children were living with both natural parents and because mothers that separated were much less likely to have repartner.

How “Selected” are Lone Mothers?

Children’s Experience of Lone Motherhood by Child Age and Mother’s Education

1958 and 2000 1970 and 2000

A t B i r t h B y 5 B y 1 0 B y 1 60%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Basic 1970 Basic 2000Post-18 1970 Post-18 2000

A t B i r t h B y 7 B y 1 1 B y 1 60%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Basic 1958 Basic 2000Post-16 1958 Post-18 2000

Children’s Experience of Lone Motherhood by Child Age and Mother’s Age at Birth

1958 and 2000 1970 and 2000

A t B i r t h B y 7 B y 1 1 B y 1 6

-10%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Under 21 1958 Under 21 200030 plus 1958 30 plus 2000

A t B i r t h B y 5 B y 1 0 B y 1 6

-10%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Under 21 1970 Under 21 200030 plus 1970 30 plus 2000

How do children who have lived with lone mother families fair?

Cognitive and Behavioural Outcomes

Deficits in Children's Cognitive Scores: Lone Mother, Age 5 and 10/11

1970 Cohort 2000 Cohort

LM at

birth

LM durin

g earl

y child

hood

LM durin

g middle

childhood

LM durin

g late

child

hood

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

LM at

birth

LM durin

g earl

y child

hood

LM durin

g middle

childhood

LM durin

g late

child

hood

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

Deficits in Children's Cognitive Scores: Lone Mother, Age 7 and 11

1958 Cohort 2000 Cohort

LM at

birth

LM durin

g earl

y child

hood

LM durin

g middle

childhood

LM durin

g late

child

hood

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

LM at

birth

LM durin

g earl

y child

hood

LM durin

g middle

childhood

LM durin

g late

child

hood

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

Children experiencing lone motherhood have poorer cognitive outcomes than average, and … There has been little change in the size of

cognitive gaps over time. Negative effects are much larger for those

experiencing lone motherhood early on. Gaps in attainment are similar for children at

different ages, and For those that separate later (in mid-childhood),

gaps in attainment are observed prior to the parental split.

Emotional “Gaps”

Age 5 (1958 & 2000) Age 7 (1970 & 2000)

LM at

birth

LM durin

g earl

y child

hood

LM durin

g middle

childhood

LM durin

g late

child

hood

-0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

LM at

birth

LM durin

g earl

y child

hood

LM durin

g middle

childhood

LM durin

g late

child

hood

-0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

But, does lone motherhood cause poor performance?

Modelling the effect of LP on outcomes..

We look separately at the effect of lone mother hood on children’s outcomes for those that are ..– Lone Mothers at Birth – Become Lone Mother between Birth and Early Childhood– Become Lone Mother between Early and Late Childhood

Modelling the effect of LP on outcomes..

Models:– Model 1: Family Structure only (raw effect). – Model 2: + Child and Mother Characteristics.• child gender, low birth weight, ethnicity, mother’s age

and education– Model 3: + Father Characteristics – Model 4: + Mediating factors

• employment, income, and mental health – Model 5: + Past Attainment

Effect of Characteristics on Cognitive Outcomes Lone Mother at Birth and Early Childhood

Age 5: 1970 & 2000 Age 7: 1958 & 2000

Raw

gap

Mot

her c

ontr

ols

Fath

er C

ontr

ols

Empl

oym

ent

Raw

gap

Mot

her c

ontr

ols

Fath

er C

ontr

ols

Empl

oym

ent

Inco

me

1970 2000

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

Lone Mother at Birth Lone Mother at Early childhood

Raw

gap

Mot

her c

ontr

ols

Fath

er C

ontr

ols

Empl

oym

ent

Raw

gap

Mot

her c

ontr

ols

Fath

er C

ontr

ols

Empl

oym

ent

Inco

me

1958 2000

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

Lone Mother at Birth Lone Mother at Early childhood

Does lone motherhood leads to poor cognitive outcomes?

– Cognitive gaps during early childhood have remained relatively constant over time, and

– A large part of the gap can be explained by mother characteristics, such as age and education. • This is particularly the case for those who were born to a

lone mother.• For those who’s parents separate during early childhood,

fathers characteristics add further explanatory power.– But factors that are related to living with a lone mother

matter too…• Controlling for income and employment eliminates the “gap”.

Emotional Outcomes

Effect of Characteristics on Emotional Outcomes: Lone Mother at Birth and Early Childhood

Age 5: 1970 & 2000 Age 7: 1958 & 2000

Raw

gap

Mot

her c

ontr

ols

Empl

oym

ent

Raw

gap

Mot

her c

ontr

ols

Empl

oym

ent

Inco

me

1970 Cohort 2000 Cohort

-0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

Effect of characteristics on age 5 Emotional Outcomes

Lone Mother at Birth Lone Mother at Early childhood

Raw

gap

Mot

her c

ontr

ols

Empl

oym

ent

Raw

gap

Mot

her c

ontr

ols

Empl

oym

ent

Inco

me

1958 Cohort 2000 Cohort

-0.6

-0.5

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

Effect of characteristics on age 7 Emotional Outcomes

Lone Mother at Birth Lone Mother at Early childhood

Does lone motherhood leads to poor emotional outcomes?

– But the gap in emotional development of those in lone mother families and “intact” families is widening.• Mother’s characteristics explain a smaller part of the

gap (particularly for those who enter lone motherhood after birth), but• employment and income matter – particularly for those

born to lone mothers.• After controlling for characteristics, it is those who

become lone mothers later that have the worst outcomes.

Other (preliminary) findings…• Re-partnering:– Re-partnering is associated with worse child outcomes compared

to otherwise equivalent intact of lone mother families.• There is heterogeneity in the effect of lone motherhood on

children’s outcomes:– there are larger negative effects for those with more educated or

older mothers, and– across the ability distribution, the largest negative effects are

seen for the most able (who underperform relative to their high ability peers in intact families, after controlling for other characteristics).

Position in the Cognitive Ability Distribution, 2000

Age 5 Age 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

18%

Age 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

18%

Age 7

Key Messages (1)• Lone parenthood is common – up to half of all children will spend

some time with a lone mother.– It has grown partly because fewer children are being brought up in “other”

family forms (by grandparents, adopted etc), and – entry into lone motherhood has changed – there is more lone parenthood at

birth, but there has also been a growth in separation, particularly during early childhood

• Family structures are increasingly diverging by mothers education and age:– those whose mothers left school at or before 16 are three times more likely

to be born to a lone mother, and twice as likely to experience lone motherhood by the age of 11, and

– Two-thirds of those whose mother was under 21 at birth had experienced lone parenthood by age 11.

Key Messages (2)

• But, the consequences of lone parenthood for children’s cognitive development are diminishing.– Lone parenthood today has little effect on children’s

development once other characteristics are accounted for. – But preliminary evidence suggest that gaps remain in

emotional development for those in lone mother families which are not fully explained by characteristics.

• And the effect of lone parenthood is not heterogeneous – if anything it appears to be more detrimental for children of better educated and older mothers, and for high ability children.

Thank-you…

Cognitive OutcomesWe use a single measure of cognitive skills (Carneiro et al. 2007):

• NCDS-1958 cohort: • Age 7: maths, reading, copying and drawing.• Age 11: maths, reading, copying and general ability (verbal and non-

verbal).• BCS-1970 cohort:

• Age 5: test on vocabulary, copying designs, human figure drawing and profile recognition.

• Age 10: British Ability Scale (BAS). It includes measures of word definition, recall of digits, similarities and matrices.

• MCS-2000 cohort:• BAS at Age 5: Naming vocabulary, picture similarity, pattern construction• BAS at Age 7: Pattern Construction, Word Reading, Number Skills

MCS and BCS measures are age adjusted standardized scores.

Emotional Outcomes• Data from the Strengths & Difficulties

Questionnaire.• Single item score with a normalised

distribution.• 5 Categories each with 5 items relating to…• Emotional symptoms • Conduct problems • Hyperactivity/inattention • Peer relationship problems • Prosocial behaviour