Localising Sounds in Space

MSc Neuroscience

Prof. Jan Schnupp jan.schnupp@dpag.ox.ac.uk

Objectives of This Lecture:Objectives of This Lecture:

Acoustic Cues to Sound Source Position Cues to Direction

Interaural Level CuesInteraural Time CuesSpectral Cues

Cues to DistanceEncoding of Spatial Cues in the Brainstem

Divisions of the Cochlear NucleusProperties of the Superior Olivary Nuclei

Representation of Auditory Space in Midbrain And Cortex

The “auditory space map” in Superior ColliculusThe role of Primary Auditory Cortex (A1)“Where” and “What” streams in auditory belt areas?Distributed, “panoramic” spike pattern codes?

Acoustic Cues to Sound Source Position Cues to Direction

Interaural Level CuesInteraural Time CuesSpectral Cues

Cues to DistanceEncoding of Spatial Cues in the Brainstem

Divisions of the Cochlear NucleusProperties of the Superior Olivary Nuclei

Representation of Auditory Space in Midbrain And Cortex

The “auditory space map” in Superior ColliculusThe role of Primary Auditory Cortex (A1)“Where” and “What” streams in auditory belt areas?Distributed, “panoramic” spike pattern codes?

Part 1: Acoustic Cues

Interaural Time Difference (ITD) CuesInteraural Time Difference (ITD) Cues

ITD

ITDs are powerful cues to sound source direction, but they are ambiguous (“cones of confusion”)ITDs are powerful cues to sound source direction, but they are ambiguous (“cones of confusion”)

Interaural Level Cues (ILDs)Interaural Level Cues (ILDs)

Unlike ITDs, ILDs are highly frequency dependent. At higher sound frequencies ILDs tend to become larger, more complex, and hence potentially more informative.

Unlike ITDs, ILDs are highly frequency dependent. At higher sound frequencies ILDs tend to become larger, more complex, and hence potentially more informative.

ILD at 700 Hz

ILD at 11000 Hz

Binaural Cues in the Barn OwlBinaural Cues in the Barn Owl

Barn owls have highly asymmetric outer ears, with one ear pointing up, the other down. Consequently, at high frequencies, barn owl ILDs vary with elevation, rather than with azimuth (D). Consequently ITD and ILD cues together form a grid specifying azimuth and elevation respectively.

Barn owls have highly asymmetric outer ears, with one ear pointing up, the other down. Consequently, at high frequencies, barn owl ILDs vary with elevation, rather than with azimuth (D). Consequently ITD and ILD cues together form a grid specifying azimuth and elevation respectively.

Spectral (Monaural) CuesSpectral (Monaural) Cues

Spectral Cues in the CatSpectral Cues in the Cat

For frontal sound source positions, the cat outer ear produces a “mid frequency (first) notch” near 10 kHz (A). The precise notch frequency varies systematically with both azimuth and elevation. Thus, the first notch iso-frequency contours for both ears together form a fairly regular grid across the cat’s frontal hemifield (B). From Rice et al. (1992).

For frontal sound source positions, the cat outer ear produces a “mid frequency (first) notch” near 10 kHz (A). The precise notch frequency varies systematically with both azimuth and elevation. Thus, the first notch iso-frequency contours for both ears together form a fairly regular grid across the cat’s frontal hemifield (B). From Rice et al. (1992).

Adapting to Changes in Spectral CuesAdapting to Changes in Spectral Cues

Hofman et al. made human volunteers localize sounds in the dark, then introduced plastic molds to change the shape of the concha. This disrupted spectral cues and led to poor localization, particularly in elevation. Over a prolonged period of wearing the molds, (up to 3 weeks) localization accuracy improved.

Hofman et al. made human volunteers localize sounds in the dark, then introduced plastic molds to change the shape of the concha. This disrupted spectral cues and led to poor localization, particularly in elevation. Over a prolonged period of wearing the molds, (up to 3 weeks) localization accuracy improved.

Part 2: Brainstem Processing

Evans (1975)Evans (1975)

Phase LockingPhase Locking

https://mustelid.physiol.ox.ac.uk/drupal/?q=ear/phase_locking

Auditory Nerve Fibers are most likely to fire action potentials “at the crest” of the sound wave. This temporal bias known as “phase locking”.Phase locking is crucial to ITD processing, since it provides the necessary precise temporal information. Mammalian ANF cannot phase lock to frequencies faster than 3-4 kHz.

Auditory Nerve Fibers are most likely to fire action potentials “at the crest” of the sound wave. This temporal bias known as “phase locking”.Phase locking is crucial to ITD processing, since it provides the necessary precise temporal information. Mammalian ANF cannot phase lock to frequencies faster than 3-4 kHz.

Preservation of Time Cues in AVCNPreservation of Time Cues in AVCN

Auditory Nerve Fibers connect to spherical and globular bushy cells in the antero-ventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) via large, fast and secure synapses known as “endbulbs of Held”.Phase locking in bushy cells is even more precise than in the afferent nerve fibers.Bushy cells project to the superior olivary complex.

Auditory Nerve Fibers connect to spherical and globular bushy cells in the antero-ventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) via large, fast and secure synapses known as “endbulbs of Held”.Phase locking in bushy cells is even more precise than in the afferent nerve fibers.Bushy cells project to the superior olivary complex.

sphericalbushy

cell

sphericalbushy

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endbulbof Held

endbulbof Held

VIII nervefiber

VIII nervefiber

“Type IV” neurons in the dorsal cochlear nucleus often have inhibitory frequency response areas with excitatory sidebands. This makes them sensitive to “spectral notches” like those seen in spectral localisation cues.

“Type IV” neurons in the dorsal cochlear nucleus often have inhibitory frequency response areas with excitatory sidebands. This makes them sensitive to “spectral notches” like those seen in spectral localisation cues.

Bushy Multipolar (Stellate) PyramidalOctopus

Extraction of Spectral Cues in DCNExtraction of Spectral Cues in DCN

Medial superior olive-excitatory input from each side (EE)

Medial superior olive-excitatory input from each side (EE)

Superior Olivary Nuclei: Binaural Convergence

Superior Olivary Nuclei: Binaural Convergence

Lateral superior olive-inhibitory input from the contralateral side (EI)

Lateral superior olive-inhibitory input from the contralateral side (EI)

Processing of Interaural Level DifferencesProcessing of Interaural Level Differences

Interaural intensity difference

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Processing of Interaural Time DifferencesProcessing of Interaural Time Differences

Interaural time difference

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How Does the MSO Detect Interaural Time Differences?How Does the MSO Detect Interaural Time Differences?

Jeffress Delay Line and Coincidence Detector Model.MSO neurons are thought to fire maximally only if they receive simultaneous input from both ears.If the input from one or the other ear is delayed by some amount (e.g. because the afferent axons are longer or slower) then the MSO neuron will fire maximally only if an interaural delay in the arrival time at the ears exactly compensates for the transmission delay. In this way MSO neurons become tuned to characteristic interaural delays. The delay tuning must be extremely sharp: ITDs of only 0.01-0.03 ms must be resolved to account for sound localisation performance.

Jeffress Delay Line and Coincidence Detector Model.MSO neurons are thought to fire maximally only if they receive simultaneous input from both ears.If the input from one or the other ear is delayed by some amount (e.g. because the afferent axons are longer or slower) then the MSO neuron will fire maximally only if an interaural delay in the arrival time at the ears exactly compensates for the transmission delay. In this way MSO neurons become tuned to characteristic interaural delays. The delay tuning must be extremely sharp: ITDs of only 0.01-0.03 ms must be resolved to account for sound localisation performance.

From ipsilateral AVCN

From contralateral AVCN

https://mustelid.physiol.ox.ac.uk/drupal/?q=topics/jeffress-model-animation

The Calyx of HeldThe Calyx of Held

MNTB relay neurons receive their input via very large calyx of Held synapses.These secure synapses would not be needed if the MNTB only fed into “ILD pathway” in the LSO. MNTB also provides precisely timed inhibition to MSO.

MNTB relay neurons receive their input via very large calyx of Held synapses.These secure synapses would not be needed if the MNTB only fed into “ILD pathway” in the LSO. MNTB also provides precisely timed inhibition to MSO.

Inhibition in the MSOInhibition in the MSO

For many MSO neurons best ITD neurons are outside the physiological range.The code for ITD set up in the MSO may be more like a rate code than a time code.Blocking glycinergic inhibition (from MNTB) reduces the amount of spike rate modulation seen over physiological ITD ranges.

For many MSO neurons best ITD neurons are outside the physiological range.The code for ITD set up in the MSO may be more like a rate code than a time code.Blocking glycinergic inhibition (from MNTB) reduces the amount of spike rate modulation seen over physiological ITD ranges.

From Brandt et al., Nature 2002From Brandt et al., Nature 2002

The Superior Olivary Nuclei – a SummaryThe Superior Olivary Nuclei – a Summary

Most neurons in the LSO receive inhibitory input from the contralateral ear and excitatory input from the ipsilateral ear (IE). Consequently they are sensitive to ILDs, responding best to sounds that are louder in the ipsilateral ear.Neurons in the MSO receive direct excitatory input from both ears and fire strongly only when the inputs are temporally co-incident. This makes them sensitive to ITDs.

Most neurons in the LSO receive inhibitory input from the contralateral ear and excitatory input from the ipsilateral ear (IE). Consequently they are sensitive to ILDs, responding best to sounds that are louder in the ipsilateral ear.Neurons in the MSO receive direct excitatory input from both ears and fire strongly only when the inputs are temporally co-incident. This makes them sensitive to ITDs.

MNTBMNTB

MSOMSO

LSOLSO

CNCN CNCN

Midline

Inhibitory ConnectionExcitatory Connection

ICIC ICIC

Part 3: Midbrain and Cortex

The “Auditory Space Map” in the Superior ColliculusThe “Auditory Space Map” in the Superior Colliculus

The SC is involved in directing orienting reflexes and gaze shifts.Acoustically responsive neurons in rostral SC tend to be tuned to frontal sound source directions, while caudal SC neurons prefer contralateral directions.Similarly, lateral SC neurons prefer low, medial neurons prefer high sound source elevations.

The SC is involved in directing orienting reflexes and gaze shifts.Acoustically responsive neurons in rostral SC tend to be tuned to frontal sound source directions, while caudal SC neurons prefer contralateral directions.Similarly, lateral SC neurons prefer low, medial neurons prefer high sound source elevations.

Eye Position Effects in MonkeyEye Position Effects in Monkey

Sparks Physiol Rev 1986Sparks Physiol Rev 1986

Possible Explanations for Sparks’ DataPossible Explanations for Sparks’ Data

Underlying spatial receptive fields might shift left or right with changes in gaze direction, or hey might shift up or down.

Underlying spatial receptive fields might shift left or right with changes in gaze direction, or hey might shift up or down.

Creating Virtual Acoustic Space (VAS)Creating Virtual Acoustic Space (VAS)

Probe Microphones

VAS response fields of CNS neuronsVAS response fields of CNS neurons

Microelectrode Recordings

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Passive Eye Displacement Effects in Superior Colliculus

Passive Eye Displacement Effects in Superior Colliculus

Zella, Brugge & Schnupp Nat Neurosci 2001SC auditory receptive fields mapped with virtual acoustic space in barbiturate anaesthetized cat.RF mapping repeated after eye was displaced by pulling on the eye with a suture running through the sclera.

Zella, Brugge & Schnupp Nat Neurosci 2001SC auditory receptive fields mapped with virtual acoustic space in barbiturate anaesthetized cat.RF mapping repeated after eye was displaced by pulling on the eye with a suture running through the sclera.

Lesion Studies Suggest Important Role for A1Lesion Studies Suggest Important Role for A1

Jenkins & Merzenich, J. Neurophysiol, 1984

Spi

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n#19-255, EO, CF=12, A=2.19, D=0.80, L=0.50, 15 dB #54-94, EE, CF=9, A=2.77, D=2.29, L=0.19, 25 dB #51-02, EE, CF=5, A=7.92, D=2.39, L=0.14, 15 dB

#51-19, EO, CF=17, A=4.36, D=1.49, L=0.37, 20 dB #38-78, EO, CF=7, A=5.06, D=2.59 L=0.10, 35 dB #51-07, OE, CF=5, A=8.23, D=2.84, L=0.03, 35 dB

#54-12, EI, CF=8, A=8.28, D=2.39, L=0.13, 20 dB

 #54-304, EE, CF=28, A=1.37, D=1.77, L=0.29, 15 dB

 #51-15, EE, CF=21, A=1.97, D=3.03, L=0.21, 20 dB

 

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A1 Virtual Acoustic Space (VAS) Receptive FieldsA1 Virtual Acoustic Space (VAS) Receptive Fields

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Predicting Space from SpectrumPredicting Space from Spectrum

Schnupp et al Nature 2001Schnupp et al Nature 2001

Examples of Predicted and Observed Spatial Receptive FieldsExamples of Predicted and Observed Spatial Receptive Fields

“Higher Order” Cortical Areas“Higher Order” Cortical Areas

In the macaque, primary auditory cortex(A1) is surrounded by rostral (R), lateral (L), caudo-medial (CM) and medial “belt areas”. L can be further subdivided into anterior, medial and caudal subfields (AL, ML, CL)

In the macaque, primary auditory cortex(A1) is surrounded by rostral (R), lateral (L), caudo-medial (CM) and medial “belt areas”. L can be further subdivided into anterior, medial and caudal subfields (AL, ML, CL)

Are there “What” and “Where” Streams in Auditory Cortex?Are there “What” and “Where” Streams in Auditory Cortex?

Some reports suggest that anterior cortical belt areas may more selective for sound identity and less for sound source location, while caudal belt areas are more location specific.It has been hypothesized that these may be the starting positions for a ventral “what” stream heading for inferotemporal cortex and a dorsal “where” stream which heads for postero-parietal cortex.

Some reports suggest that anterior cortical belt areas may more selective for sound identity and less for sound source location, while caudal belt areas are more location specific.It has been hypothesized that these may be the starting positions for a ventral “what” stream heading for inferotemporal cortex and a dorsal “where” stream which heads for postero-parietal cortex.

AnterolateralBeltAnterolateralBelt

CaudolateralBeltCaudolateralBelt

A “Panoramic” Code for Auditory Space?A “Panoramic” Code for Auditory Space?

Middlebrooks et al.found neural spike patterns to vary systematically with sound source direction in a number cortical areas of the cat (AES, A1, A2, PAF).Artificial neural networks can be trained to estimate sound source azimuth from the neural spike pattern.Spike trains in PAF carry more spatial information than other areas, but in principle spatial information is available in all auditory cortical areas tested so far.

Middlebrooks et al.found neural spike patterns to vary systematically with sound source direction in a number cortical areas of the cat (AES, A1, A2, PAF).Artificial neural networks can be trained to estimate sound source azimuth from the neural spike pattern.Spike trains in PAF carry more spatial information than other areas, but in principle spatial information is available in all auditory cortical areas tested so far.

Azimuth, Pitch and Timbre Sensitivity in Ferret Auditory CortexAzimuth, Pitch and Timbre Sensitivity in Ferret Auditory Cortex

Bizley, Walker, Silverman, King & Schnupp - J Neurosci 2009Bizley, Walker, Silverman, King & Schnupp - J Neurosci 2009

Cortical DeactivationCortical Deactivation

Deactivating some cortical areas (A1, PAF) by cooling impairs sound localization, but impairing others (AAF) does not.Lomber & Malhorta J. Neurophys (2003)

Deactivating some cortical areas (A1, PAF) by cooling impairs sound localization, but impairing others (AAF) does not.Lomber & Malhorta J. Neurophys (2003)

SummarySummaryA variety of acoustic cues give information relating to the direction and distance of a sound source.Virtually nothing is known about the neural processing of distance cues.The cues to direction include binaural cues and monaural spectral cues. These cues appear to be first encoded in the brainstem and then combined in midbrain and cortex.ITDs are encoded in the MSO, ILDs in the LSO.The Superior Colliculus is the only structure in the mammalian brain that contains a topographic map of auditory space.Lesion studies point to an important role of auditory cortex in many sound localisation behaviours.The spatial tuning of many A1 neurons is easily predicted from spectral tuning properties, suggesting that A1 represents spatial information only “implicitly”.Recent work suggests that caudal belt areas of auditory cortex may be specialized for aspects of spatial hearing. However, other researchers posit a distributed “panoramic” spike pattern code that operates across many cortical areas.

A variety of acoustic cues give information relating to the direction and distance of a sound source.Virtually nothing is known about the neural processing of distance cues.The cues to direction include binaural cues and monaural spectral cues. These cues appear to be first encoded in the brainstem and then combined in midbrain and cortex.ITDs are encoded in the MSO, ILDs in the LSO.The Superior Colliculus is the only structure in the mammalian brain that contains a topographic map of auditory space.Lesion studies point to an important role of auditory cortex in many sound localisation behaviours.The spatial tuning of many A1 neurons is easily predicted from spectral tuning properties, suggesting that A1 represents spatial information only “implicitly”.Recent work suggests that caudal belt areas of auditory cortex may be specialized for aspects of spatial hearing. However, other researchers posit a distributed “panoramic” spike pattern code that operates across many cortical areas.

See reading lists athttp://www.physiol.ox.ac.uk/~jan/NeuroIIspatialHearing.htmAnd for demos and media seehttp://auditoryneuroscience.com/spatial_hearing

See reading lists athttp://www.physiol.ox.ac.uk/~jan/NeuroIIspatialHearing.htmAnd for demos and media seehttp://auditoryneuroscience.com/spatial_hearing

For a Reading ListFor a Reading List