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Levels of Analysis ( LoA ). Biological Cognitive Sociocultural. Biological LoA. Focuses on physiology and genetics Gender differences via genetic makeup XY and XX chromosomes Gender differences from the impact of hormones testosterone and estrogen. Cognitive LoA. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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BIOLOGICALCOGNITIVE
SOCIOCULTURAL
Levels of Analysis (LoA)
Biological LoA
Focuses on physiology and geneticsGender differences via genetic makeup
XY and XX chromosomesGender differences from the impact of
hormones testosterone and estrogen
Cognitive LoA
Focuses on mental processes Memory Thinking Perception Attention
Gender differences via gender schema theory
Social cognitionGender stereotypes
Sociocultural LoA
Focuses on how environment and culture impact behavior and thinking
Impact of cultural definitions and roles for our mental representations of each gender
Gender differences explained through social learning theory Watching individuals of the same sex for
behavior cues
PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS
Biological Level of Analysis
Biological LoA: Physiology & Behavior
Biology can affect cognition and cognition can affect biology…relationship is bidirectional
Physiological factors that impact behavior: Brain processes Neurotransmitters Hormones Genes
Physiology does not work alone since environmental stimuli influence our behavior Stressful experiences Attractive person passing by Brain damage caused by trauma
Goal of IB Psychology
Taking a holistic approach to human behavior
Interactionist Approach: Both sides of nature (biology) vs. nurture (environment) argument.
Principles of Human Behavior (Biological LoA)
1. Behavior can be innate since it is genetically based
Evolution…key role in behavior2. Animal research can provide insight to
human behaviorMuch research done with animals
3. Biology correlates with behaviorLinks between specific biological factors
and specific behaviors
Reductionist Approach
Micro-level research; breaking down complex human behavior into simple parts.
Criticized for being over simplistic but allows us to gain detailed knowledge of human behavior
Important because it allows understanding of several factors that influence one behavior
The Endocrine System
Glands that produce hormones in the body
Enter from glands to bloodstream (longer)
i.e. pituitary, adrenal, testes, ovaries, etc.
Various Hormones
Hormone Glands Function
Adrenaline Adrenals Fight/flight responseArousal
Cortisol Adrenals ArousalStressMemory
Melatonin Pineal Regulation of sleep
Oxytocin Pituitary & Hypothalamus
Mother-child attachment
Testosterone & Oestrogen
Gonads DevelopmentEmotion
Oxytocin, the “Love Hormone”
Produced by hypothalamusFiring of neurons by amygdala From stimulation by pituitary gland, hugs, and touches
Plays role in inducing labor, trust, generosity, and attachment to others
Melatonin, the “Sleep Hormone”
Made by pineal glandAn unbalance of melatonin gives symptoms of insomnia and/or jet lag
Increase during night/darkness, vice-versa
Release correlates with circadian rhythm
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Side effect of excess melatoninFound by Rosenthal in 1987Subcategory of depressionSleepiness, lethargy, carbohydrates craving and apathy
Cure is sunlight AKA go outside more
Impact of Neurotransmitters on Behavior
Influences mood, memory, sexual arousal, and mental illness
Acetylcholine Muscle contraction, helps with development of memory in
hippocampusDopamine
Voluntary movement, learning, feelings of pleasureNorepinephrine (noradrenalin)
Arousal, alertness, stimulation of sympathetic nervous system
Serotonin Sleep, arousal levels, emotion
Affect of Serotonin on Behavior
Tokyo University (Kasamatsu and Hirai, 1999)Aim: How sensory deprivation affects the brainBuddhist monks deprived of food, water, no
communication, and exposure to cold weather48 hours, hallucinationsBlood samples before and right after
hallucinations (serotonin levels increased which activated the frontal cortex and hypothalamus)
Conclusion: Sensory deprivation released serotonin which altered monks experience.
Drugs
Stimulate the production of neurotransmitters
Block receptor sites if too much is produced
Mouse Party Simulation:http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addicti
on/mouse/
Technology and the Brain & Behavior
Technology gives researchers the ability to monitor and discover the “map” of the brain’s activity
Previously, case studies were used; usually situations that would be unethical to reproduce in the lab. Case studies of brain damaged patients
carried out over a long period of time (longitudinally) Phineas Gage, Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke
Allows for observation of short-term and long-term effects
Localization of Brain Function
The idea that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions
When a behavior is localized in the brain, it is possible to trace the origin of the behavior to a specific part of the brain.
Does not explain ALL human behavior but is a major step forward in brain research
Parts and Functions of the Brain
Robert Heath (1950s) James Old (1950s)
Electrically stimulated parts o f the brain in depressed patients=experienced pleasure
One patient (B-19) electrically stimulated himself 1,500 times in 3 hours
Experienced euphoria and elation and was eventually disconnected against his will
Rats would receive electrical stimulation to the nucleus accumbens when a lever was pressed
Crossed over electrified grids and preferred pleasure lever over food and water
Research on the role of the nucleus accumbens (pleasure center)
Brain Functions and Ethical Considerations
Electrical stimulation of the nucleus accumbens is based mainly on dopamine (desire) and serotonin (satiety and inhibition)
Via animal studies, all drugs increase the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and reduce serotonin. Cocaine and nicotine
Frequent use of drugs increase the amount of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. Why drug addicts have an obsessive drive to seek
more drugs even though they know its not good for them
Spiders on Drugs
http://www.trinity.edu/jdunn/spiderdrugs.htm
TechnologyInvasive
Techniques
Study the active brain EEG, PET, fMRI
More ethicalMay be misleading
Ablation (removing) & leisoning (scarring) techniques on animals
Harm cannot be reversed Ethical? Pain?
Technology vs. Invasive Techniques
Research
Researchers use a lot of technology to study the localization functions of the brain.
Option to study active brainSee where specific brain
processes take place
Invasive Techniques
The more invasive techniques that scientist use to study the brain are reserved for animals such as rats
They benefit us because we are to complete ablations which is where a piece of the brain is removed in order to examine the differences in behavior.
Invasive Technique
Hetherington and Ranson
- Lesion part of the brain called ventromedial hypothalamus in rats
~ Increased food intake dramatically & doubled weight
~ Hypothalamus acts as a brake on food intake
Ethics
Raise serious ethical concerns
Modern Researchers use EEG (electroencephalogram)
Thought of as Brain Waves
Transports information through electrical change
EFG registers patterns of voltage change in the brain
Position Emissions Topography (PET) Scan
Monitors glucose metabolism in the brain
Patient is injected with a harmless dose of radioactive glucose and the radioactive particles emitted by the glucose are detected by the PET scanner
Produces color maps of brain activity
Diagnoses abnormalities
Functional magnetic Resonance imaging (fMRI)
Provides 3D pictures of brain structures using magnetic fields and radio waves.
Shows actual brain activity and indicated which areas of the brain are active.
~Have higher resolution than PET scans
~ Most frequently used technologies in biopsychological research today.
Then and Now
Then (1960’s)-Thought that brain was influenced only by genetics Thought to be
unchangeable
Hubel & Weisel (1965) Showed that brain
changes as response to environmental input Were based on rats
Now Generally accepted
that environment enrichment can modify brain, especially in cerebral cortex (area of higher cognitive function)
Brain is constantly changing as result of experience throughout lifespan
Brain Plasticity
Refers to brain’s ability to rearrange the connections between its neurons Changes that occur in the structure of brain as result
of learning/experience Adapts to challenges of the environment Can change functional qualities of various brain
structures depending on regularity and type of new tasks that neurons are asked to perform
Neural connection density affected by high level stimulation and learning opportunity at appropriate times
Brain Plasticity (cont.)
Dendritic Branching The dendrites of the neurons grow in numbers and
connect with other neurons
Rosenzweig and Bonnett (1972)
Studied brain plasticity with rats To measure the effect of either enrichment or
deprivation on the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex
Used interesting tags to play with (stimulating) and no tags (deprived environment)
Last 30-60 days then were sacrificed Stimulated environment rats had increased thickness
in the cortex Frontal lobe, associated with thinking, planning, and
decision making, was heavier in rats that were in stimulated environment
Rosenzweig and Bonnet (1975) (cont.)
Similar studies show if the rats had more rats with them, the cortex would then be thicker Company + toys=best conditions for cerebral thickness
These findings can be generalized to humans to some extent Humans brains differ in genetic make-up and environment
inputs Makes it difficult to decide what is considered to be an
enriched environment Raises questions of the importance of education in growth
of new synapses If it works as though, environmental stimulation is
important for human cortex
Mozart Effect (Rauscher et al. 1993)
One of the most well-known claims of brain plasticity Listening to Mozart temporarily increases spatial
reasoning ability Structurally complex musical compositions excites brain
firing pattern as when physically completing spatial tasks
Mozart Effect (Rauscher et al. 1993)
Research shows that it has nothing to do with Mozart but with arousal
May just be increase in sense of attention Thompson et al. (2001) if mood elevates -> improved
spatial skills but if mood doesn’t elevate -> no improvement (all in result of music)
This idea suffers from problems with ecological validity Doesn’t show behavior in a real-life situation
Videos about Brain Plasticity
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VaDlLD97CLM
(Ben Carson)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2MKNsI5C
WoU(Cameron: Today Show)
Richard Davidson
In 2004 he held an experiment with eight Buddhist monks.
They were highly experienced with meditation, and the ten volunteers that were there were trained in meditation for one week.
The participants were told to meditate on love and compassion.
The experiment
He used a PET scan to observe that two of the controls and all of the monks experienced an increase in brain waves during meditation.
As soon as they were done meditating, the gamma waves returned to normal.
The monks were more experienced so their gamma waves had no difference.
The spot where the gamma waves were found in the monks brains during meditation on love and compassion was found to be larger than the other volunteers brains.
Conclusion
Davidson argued that meditation could have long term effect on the brain and the way it processes emotions.
The brain adapts to stimulation (either from environment or our own thinking)
Mirror Neurons
One of the ways that people learn is by observing others and then imitating their behavior.
Mirror Neurons – Neurons that fire when an animal (or person) performs an action or the animal/human is observing an action being performed
Mirror Neurons (CONT.)
Mirror Neurons play a vital role in the ability to learn from – as well as empathize with – another person. Example: At a football game or sporting event, when a
player gets hit hard, the crowd cringes and reacts as if they were the one who had been hit.
Gallese et. al. (1996)
Researchers at the University of Parma in Italy, accidentally discovered mirror neurons.
Because neural messages are electrical in nature, the researchers would hear a telltale crackling sound whenever the neurons were activated in the monkeys.
Every time a monkey would reach for a peanut, the crackling sound was heard, not from just the monkey performing the action, but from the other monkeys as well.
Biological LoA: Genetics & Behavior
Behavioral genetics: Understanding how both genetics and the environment play a role to individual variations in human behavior.
Rhesus macaque monkeys & humans 93% genes are shared, the 7% makes a large difference
Complexity of genetics:Inheritance contributes to behavior and
acts as a building block however, it is not probable that one specific gene is responsible for complex behaviors: Intelligence, criminal behavior, attachment, altruism
+ = DISORDER
The diathesis-stress modelThe model looks at the genetic/biologic vulnerability to a disorder/disease and the stress or traumatic environmental stimuli that may trigger a disorder (such as depression) The diathesis-stress model uses the analogy of a "walking time bomb" to help explain why, for example, not 100% of identical twins both get depression. It also helps to explain why a large percent of people in traumatic situations (post 9/11, rape, etc.) never develop PTSD. The model further talks about a balance -- the greater the diathesis or predisposition, the less the stress required for the disorder to "appear" and visa versa.
Biological / genetic predisposition
Stress
(environment)
Last year’s notes on genetics and evolution… I hope you didn’t lose them!
If you did, in your hours of free time,
check these out on the wiki
Inheritance
Genes that are passed down from parents to their off-spring
Humans are composed of 24 pairs of chromosomes 20,000-25,000 genes
James Watson: Human Genome Project 1990-2003 Mapped human genes Regardless of this amazing accomplishment,
the role of specific genes are still unknown
Genetic Research
Based off of correlation studiesIndependent variable is not
manipulated, so no cause and effect can be determined.
Three types:Twin StudiesFamily StudiesAdoption Studies
Twin Studies
Identical: one egg split in two
Share 100% of genes Same sex
Fraternal: Formed from two separate eggs
Share 50% of genes just like any other siblings Same or different sex
Monozygotic (MZ) Dizygotic (DZ)
Used as basis for hypotheses since they show the different degrees of genetic relationship. In twin studies the correlation found is known as concordance.
Family Studies
More representative of the general population
Different degree of relatedness is compared with behavior to determine the impact of genes.
Child
Mother (50%)
Grandparent (25%)
Grandparent (25%)
Father (50%)
Adoption Studies
Used to determine how great of an impact environment plays in behavior since the child does not share any genes with foster parents.
Often criticized because of selective placement Agencies tend to find adoptive parents that are
similar to their biological parents which cause a difficulty in determining separating genetic inheritance from environment influences. This process is known as selective placement.
Evolution
Another principle of the biological LoA is that the environment presents obstacles & challenges for each individual.
In essence, those that adapt have a better chance of survival & having offspring which allows their genes to be passed down.
Theory of Natural Selection
Members of a species acquire adaptive behaviors to survive the ever-changing environment (those better suited for environment will breed and pass on characteristics)
http://youtu.be/Pt2gHpqfZNAAdaption: Species develop characteristics that
make it more competitive in its environmentCharles Darwin (Galapagos Island, finches, beaks)
On the Origin of Species (He didn’t yet know of the biological process through which traits are inherited)
Descent of Man
The Descent of Man findings
We humans share several behaviors with other animalsMate selectionLove of mother for offspringSelf-preservationSimilar facial expressions as apesSimilar feelings as animals
Monkeys vs. Humans
Tetsuro Matsuzawa (2007)Looked at spatial memory in young chimps Used 3 chimps that were taught to recognize
the numbers 1-9 on a computerHumans and chimps saw number flashed on a
touch screen monitor and then the numbers were covered with blank squares and then were asked to touch the squares in sequential order.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gf3_JrTEGW0
Findings
Humans had more errors and less accuracy as numbers were flashed and replaced by squares quicker As agriculture developed, spatial memory skills aren’t
as important for finding food Perhaps this skill was replaced by the ability to develop
languageChimps had astonishing memory; no difference
in their recall in relation to the amount of time that the numbers were replaced with squares. Adaption for survival skills such as remembering where
food and danger is located in the rain forest
Ethical Considerations
Because research in human genetics looks to identify certain genes involved in hereditary diseases there can be some negative outcomes: May pose risks to participates due to the
link between genetic heritage and people’s life
Information obtained may cause stress to participants family
If misused, information can be stigmatizing which could lead the inability to get a job or health insurance.
Once again, notes last year over confidentiality should be revisited
Aboriginal people may object to genetic studies
Eugenics and other forms of discrimination is the cause.
Consent and speaking to community leaders are a must for many aboriginal and ethnic groups.
Intelligence
During the beginning of the 20th century, governments and schools became very interested in one’s intellectual potential and the role genetics play in IQ
Alfred Binet developed an intelligence test to help understand this concept better within the French educational system
Research has shown that poverty plays a major role in the development of a child’s intelligence
The Bell Curve
Book published in 1994 by Harvard professor Richard J. Herrnstein
The debate about the role of genes and environment have to do with ethnic difference in intelligence is not yet resolved
Media discussed the idea that there may be intergroup differences in intelligence, thus conferring the idea that the root of intelligence in debatable
The “g” factor
Argued by Charles Spearman, there is a general intelligence factor that is the basis of all intelligence
Rather than looking a specific educational subjects (history, math, etc.) Spearman’s intelligence test measures the following: Spatial ability Reasoning Divergent Thinking Verbal Fluency
Meta-analysis in Relation to IQ Tests
Bouchard & McGue (1981) used 111 studies of IQ correlations between siblings from research around the world
Found that the closer the kinship the higher correlation of IQ
Meta-analysis: statistical synthesis of the data from a set of comparable studies of
a problem that yields a quantitative summary of the pooled results
Minnesota Twin Study
(Bouchard et al.) Longitudinal study, been going on since 1979
Most cross-cultural study to date (participants from across the world)
Compares MZAs (identical twins raised apart) to MZTs (identical twins raised together)
Mean age of MZAs was 41 (start of study), until this study most research was done with adolescents
Twins completed 50 hours of testing and interviews
Findings
Same person tested twice
87%
Identical twins reared together
86%
Identical twins reared apart
76%
Fraternal twins reared together
55%
Biological siblings reared together
47%
Conclusions
70% of intelligence can be attributed to genetics inheritance, the other 30% is due to other factors
Much research has supported the MTSThe size and nature of the sample has made it
one of the most impressive study ever conducted
Criticisms of the MTS
Relied on media cover for participantsEthical concerns about how twins were
reunitedNo adequate control to establish the
frequency of contact between the twins prior to the study
“Equal environment assumption” Cannot assume twins raised together experience the
exact same environment (different friends, teachers, exposure to stimuli, etc.)
Adoption Studies for Intelligence
Scarr & Weinberg (1977) and Horn et al. (1979)Researched parents that raised adopted and
natural childrenAny significant differences in IQ between the
adoptive and biological children would be attributed to genes
No significant difference in IQ correlations were found
Parents were wealthy, white, middle class and high IQs & adopted children were poor, lower-class backgrounds, and lower IQs
Environmental Role on IQ
Wahlstein (1997) found that intelligence has a lot to do with environment and genetics
Found that transferring an infant from a low SES to a home where parents had a high SES improved childhood IQ scores 12-16 points (about one standard deviation)
Enriched environment may raise IQ in children Strong interaction between genes and the
environment to produce intelligence level
Less Effort Hypothesis
Hainer et al. (1988) used PET scans to see how much energy was used in solving problems vs. data recall Helped decipher what intelligence is (based on
knowledge or ability to solve problems)Those with higher IQs had lower metabolic
rates when solving a reasoning problem in comparison to those with a low IQ No difference in data recall
Those with a higher IQ use less energy to think than those with lower IQs
IQs Change over Time
Plomin & Petrill (1997) found that correlations between parent and child IQs change over time Ages 4-6, 40% correlation Early adulthood, 60% correlation Older adults, 80% correlation
Our genetic disposition pushes us towards environments that accentuate that disposition, thus leading to increased heritability throughout life
SES seems to the most important environmental factors in IQ development
Flynn Effect
James R. Flynn noticed a rise in average scores on intelligence tests in most parts of the world over the last century
Ulric Neisser (1997) The America Scientist, average mean scores are going up about 3 points every decade (increase is even higher in abstract reasoning) Better nutrition Improved schooling Different child-rearing practices Increase in technology in modern life Living a higher visual environment plays an important role in IQ
scores
Does this prove a real increase in IQ or just better understanding of intelligence and tests?
MENTAL PROCESSES
Cognitive Level of Analysis
Cognitive Psychology
Cognition (cognoscere) “to know”Ulric Neisser (1967)
“all the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”
Includes the structure and function of the mind
How the human mind comes to know things about the world and how this knowledge is used
Cognitive neuroscience: Combines the knowledge about the brain and knowledge about cognitive processes.
Cognitive ProcessesCognitive Processes:
Perception Thinking Problem-Solving Memory Language Attention
Cognition is based on an individual’s mental representations of the world Words Images Concepts
Different experiences influence our mental representations
Principles of Cognitive Psychology
1.) Mental processes guide behavior Bottom-up Top-down Output (behavior)
2.) The mind can be studied scientifically Developing theories and using scientific
research methods3.) Cognitive processes are influenced by
social and cultural factors Schemas
Mental processes guide behavior (Principle 1)
The mind is a complex “machine” using hardware (brain) and software (mental images or representations)
Information input via bottom-up processing (from the senses)
Information is processed in the mind via top-down processing (pre-stored information/memory)
Output (behavior)
Cognitive Theories and Models in the Real World
Subtle relationships between how people think about themselves and how they behave
A person’s mindset is important to predicting his/her behavior
People have fixed ideas about other people (stereotyping) which can lead to discrimination
Are memories infallible?
The reconstructive nature of memory We do not store exact copies of
experiences; we outline events which are filled out with information when it is recalled
The brain can fabricate illusions which seem so realistic we believe they are true
False Memory: We cannot distinguish between what we
have experienced and what we have heard about an event
Perception
Interpretation and organization of information from the senses to produce some meaningful experience of the world
Perception of an ambiguous object or event is influenced by: Context Frequency How recent
What we think we objectively experience may in fact be a result of the brain’s interpretation of that object or event
The Mind Can Be Studied Scientifically (Principle 2)
New findings can adjust original theories/models or they can also be rejected if empirical evidence no longer supports it
Psychologists study cognition in laboratory settings as well as daily context Previously, the experimental was assumed to be the
most scientific method In the 1960s, Ulric Neisser suggested that cognition
cannot be isolated from our everyday experiences Experimental tasks did not always resemble what
people did in their daily lives
Studying the Mind
Traditionally, controlled experiments were favored Controlled variables
Experimental research might suffer from artificialityData is used to support/refute cognitive modelsToday more methods are used:Case studies
Incredible memory patients Brain damaged patients (Localization functions)
Imaging technology Which areas of the brain are active when making decisions,
how cognitive processes can be disruptive by brain damage (amnesia or Alzheimer patients)
Cognitive Processes are Influenced by Social & Cultural Factors (Principle 3)
Frederic Bartlett coined the term schema (mental representation of knowledge)
Interested in cultural schemas and how they impact remembering
Discovered that people have difficulties remembering a story from another culture and they adjusted the story to fit in with their own cultural schemas
Memory in not a tape recorder and we remember in terms of meaning and what makes sense to us, thus memory is subject to distortions
Mental Representations & Memory
How we store images and ideas in memoryWe use mental representations to think, make
plans, imagine, & daydreamSelf-representation: How you perceive who
you are and how you lookMental representations are organized in
categories which are stored in your memoryManipulating mental representations allows
us to think about situations & predict possible outcomes Make plans, calculate risks, create
Schemas and Schema Theory
Schemas describe how specific knowledge is organized and stored in memory so it can be accessed and used when needed
Schema theory: Cognitive theory about information processing
Suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing because we humans are active processors of information
We interpret and integrate information to make sense of experiences even if we are unaware of it
When information is missing we fill in the blanks based on existing schemas or inventing information leading to mistakes (distortions)
Cognitive Schemas
Networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world
Pre-stored mental representationsAllows us to have expectations of what will
happen Imagination allows us to picture characters in book
book > movieWhat we already know affects the way we
interpret events and store knowledge in our memory
Points to Remember About Cognitive Schemas
Organize information about the world with fixed and variable slots; if slot is unspecified it is filled in by a “default value” (best guess)
Can be related to form systemsActive recognition devices (pattern
recognition)Help predict future events based on the pastRepresent general knowledge rather than
definitions
Schema Theory & Memory Processes
Schema processing can affect memory at all stages
Encoding: Transforming sensory information into meaningful memory
Storage: Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which can be consolidated or lost
Retrieval: Using stored informationENCODING
Put into Memor
y
STORAGE
Maintain in
Memory
RETRIEVAL
Recover from
Memory
Evaluation of Schema Theory (Support)
Research supports the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory
Useful in understanding how people categorize information, interpret stories, & make inferences
Contributed to understanding of memory distortions as well as social cognition
Social psychologists use social schemas to help explain stereotyping and prejudice
Evaluation of Schema Theory (Limitations)
It is not entirely clear how schemas are acquired and how they actually influence cognitive processes
Cohen (1993) said that the concept of schemas is too vague to be useful yet researchers use it to explain cognitive processing
Daniel Gilbert argues that the brain is a “wonderful magician but a lousy scientist” by looking for meaningful patterns but does not check for accuracy
Multi-Store Model
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) created the most influential information processing model thus far
Based off of two assumptions:1.) Memory consists of a number of separate
stores/types The memory stores are seen as components that
operate in conjunction with permanent memory through processes
2.) Memory processes are sequential; one must happen before another
Memory Storage Processes
Attention: Pay attention to sensory input in order to
remember itCoding:
Give material a form that enables you to remember it
Rehearsal: Keeping material active in memory via
repetition until it can be stored
Steps of the Multi-store Model
1. Sensory memory: information from the world Stays here only for seconds and only a small portion
will transfer to STM Modality specific: related to different senses (hearing
& vision)2. Short-term memory (STM) store:
7 item limit for a duration of 6-12 seconds Quickly lost if not given attention
3. Rehearsal is necessary for long-term memory
Long-term Memory (LTM)
Storehouse of informationSince we do not know how much info
can be stored, LTM is believed to have unlimited capacity and for an indefinite duration
Material is not exact (outline) and memory can be distorted due to schemas “filling in gaps”
Working Memory Model
Baddeley & Hitch (1974) based their model off of the multi-store model
Challenged the idea that STM is a single store
STM includes several components Central executive
Episodic buffer Phonological loop Visuospatial sketchpad
Central Executive
Controlling system which monitors and coordinates the operations of the other components (slave systems)
Most important part of the working memory model
Limited capacity and is modality free (can process any sensory information)
Attentional control is the most important job of the central executive
Attentional Control
Happens in two ways:1.) Automatic level:
Based on habit and controlled automatically by stimuli in the environment
Includes routine procedures2.) Supervisory level:
Deals with emergencies or creates new strategies when old ones are no longer sufficient
Reactions
Episodic Buffer
Consciously trying to remember detailsActs as a temporary and passive display store
until the information is needed (similar to a TV screen)
Processing of the information takes place in other parts of the system
Here’s your picture
Phonological Loop
Divided into 2 components1.) Articulatory control system:
Inner voice which holds information in verbal form Remembering a telephone number and repeating it Holds words until you are ready to speak
2.) Phonological store: Inner ear which holds speech-based material in
phonological form Memory only lasts 1.5-2 seconds if it is not refreshed by the
articulatory system Receives info. directly from sensory memory in the form of
auditory material and from LTM in the form of verbal information and the articulatory control system
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Inner eyeDeals with visual and spatial information
from the sensory memory or LTM
Evidence of Working Memory
Most contemporary research accepts the idea of working memory
Experiments using dual-task techniques/interference tasks support the model Participants were asked to carry out a cognitive task
that used most of the capacity of their working memory Telling a story to a person while also trying to learn a list
of numbers If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one
or both are impaired, it is assumed that both tasks use the same component in the STM
Working Memory Model Multi-store Model
More satisfactory explanation of storage and processing than the STM component of the multi-store model
Include active storage and processing which helps understand all sorts of cognitive tasks (reading comprehension and mental math)
Explains the idea of multi-tasking (performing different cognitive tasks at the same time without disruption)
Assumes that mental processes are passive
Working Memory Model vs. Multi-store Model
Working Memory in Children
Pickering & Gathercole (2001) used the Working Memory Test Battery for Children
Found that there is an improvement in performance in working memory capacity from the age of 5 until about 15
Working memory during childhood varies widely across individuals of the same age
Provides evidence that problems with working memory is associated with problems in academic performance
Problems with the phonological loop have been linked to math and reading abilities
Visual and Spatial Memory Linked to Math Skills
Holmes et al. (2008) studied the association between visuospatial sketchpad capacity and math attainment in relation to age
Samples: Ages 7-8 and 9-10Studied age differences in relationship
between visual and spatial memory and the range of math skills
Findings: Math performance could be predicted based off of the performance on the visual patterns test
SOCIOCULTURAL Level of Analysis
Principles of Sociocultural LoA
1. Since humans are social animals, we have the basic need to “belong”
2. Culture influences behavior3. Since humans are social animals, we have
a social self Not only do we have an individual
identity, but also a collective/social identity
4. People’s views of the world are resistant to change (ideological immunity)
Research: Sociocultural LoA
Goal: To see how people interact with each other
Usually it doesn’t make much sense to use experiments Majority is in qualitative methods
Want to study the behavior of “participants” in realistic ways
Naturalistic, “as it really is”; in environments in which the behavior is likely to occur Participant observation Interviews Focus groups
Thoughts Worth Mentioning About Research
In the past, laboratory experiments were used because they were considered the most scientific way of collecting data
Although modern techniques are more “real” they are descriptive data therefore they cannot explain cause-and-effect (causation) relationships
Participant observation is most common to “see the world through the eyes of the people being studied.”
Covert Overt Researcher does not inform
participants that they are being observed
Deceit is used to gain “trust” of members of the group
Intentions are not disclosed and behaviors are recorded without obtaining informed consent
Can’t take notes which causes researcher to rely on memory leading to distortion of data
Interviews can’t be used for fear of being discovered Example: Leon Festinger et al’s When
Prophecy Fails (1956)
Participants know they are being observed
Gain trust of the group being observed
Can use interviews to gather more information Example: O’Reilly
(2000)
Participant Observation
Attribution Theory
Fritz Heider The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (1958)
Attribution: How people interpret and explain casual relationships in the social world
We have a desire to understand why things happen
By observing behaviors we try to make inferences about intentions and responsibility
Actor-observer effect: Making attributions about behavior depending on whether they are performing it themselves or observing someone else doing it
Answering that “WHY” Question
Discussing own behavior
Blaming the situationAnalyzing the person’s
action with regards to the situation he/she is in
Ex: Late work/missing assignments= genuine issue such as a family/personal issue
Observing someone else’s behavior
Blaming the personA person’s behavior is
influenced by internal characteristics
Ex: Late work/missing assignments= Lazy & irresponsible and never finishes work on time
Situational Dispositional
Fundamental Attribution Error
Self-serving Bias (SSB)
Overestimating the role of dispositional factors and underestimating the role of situational factors in an individual’s behavior
When people take credit for their success, attributing them to dispositional factors and dissociate themselves from their failures, attributing them to situational factors
Errors in Attributions
A Deeper look into Fundamental Attribution Error
Reasons why this error is common: Reason #1:
People tend to view themselves as adaptable, flexible, and ever-changing
We don’t like to view ourselves as that “type” of person but when we look at others we don’t have enough information about them to make a rash decision about them so we attribute their behavior to disposition (that’s just who they are)
Looking at our own behavior we believe we would have acted differently under different circumstances
Western Culture Influence
Reason #2: Placing blame is part of Western culture So is people being held accountable for
their action Evil actions are more acceptable when
blamed on evil than to refer to environmental factors as explanations
The judicial system is looking for a satisfactory motive in order to convict someone of murder
Basics of Lee et al. (1977)
Aim: Will student participants make the fundamental attribution error even when they knew actors were playing a role Roles: Host, contestant, audience
Findings: Role was not attributed to the person’s situation and attributed the person’s performance to dispositional factors (intelligence)
Concerns: Sample (student participants)1. Professors seen as authorities2. Not representative of greater population
Conclusion: People with social power usually initiate and control conversations; makes them seem knowledgeable and ideas are not challenged
Reasons why we use the self-serving bias:
#1: Serves as protection (Greenberg et al., 1982): Attribute success to dispositional factors boosts our self-
esteem Attribute failures to situational factors protect our self-esteem
#2: Cognitive factors play a role (Miller & Ross, 1975): Expect to succeed and do skills and ability Expect to succeed and fail bad luck/external factors Expect to fail and do well external factors/good luck Expect to fail and we do dispositional factors
Exception to the above rules: Severely depressed individuals make more dispositional attributions thus blaming themselves for feeling miserable
Cultural Differences in SSB
Modesty Bias: Explaining failures in terms of lacking abilityKashima and Triandis (1986):
Show slides of scenes from unfamiliar countries Americans attributed success to ability Japanese attributed failures to their lack of ability
Chandler et al. (1990) Also observed modesty bias in Japanese students
Watkins & Regmi (1990) Same held true for Nepalese students
Bond, Leung, & Wan (1982) Chinese students that showed modesty bias rather than SSB were more
popular with peers Kashima & Triandis argue this is due to collective societies which derive
self-esteem from group identity as opposed to individual accomplishments
Social Identity Theory
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Tuner 1979): Assumes that individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self-esteem, based on either personal identity or various social identities
Promotes self-esteem through achievement & affiliation with successful groups
Indicates the importance of social belongingBased off of social categorization theory (self-
categorization) : Putting people into groups In-group (us) Out-group (them)
Causes prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, in-group favoritism, and conformity to in-group norms
Putting Some Faces to Names
Henri Tajfel
John Turner
Studies for Social Identity Theory
Cianldini et al. (1976) Football supporters supporting teams after victories
Tajfel (1970) In-group discrimination
Tajfel (1978) “establishment of positive distinctiveness”
Tajfel et al. (1971) Kandusky vs. Klee
Limitations of the Social Identity Theory (SIT)
#1: Describes but does not predict human behavior#2: SIT can’t fully explain HOW in-group favoritism may
result in violent behavior towards outgroups#3: Cannot explain why social constraints such as poverty
could play a bigger role in behavior than social identity #4: Minimal group research has criticized for artificiality
Experimental set-up is not natural behavior thus could limit predictive value of the theory
#5 : Using it in isolation is reductionist which doesn’t allow for consideration of how the environment interacts with the “self” Cultural expectations, rewards as motivators, and societal constraints
(poverty) may play more of role in behavior that one’s own sense of in-group identity
Strengths of SIT
#1: Assumes the ingroup conflict is not required for discrimination to occur (Tajfel, 1970)
#2: Can help explain some of the mechanisms involved in establishing “positive distinctiveness” to the ingroup by maximizing differences to the outgroup Positive distinctiveness: Using verbal or non-verbal cues to
make your social group more socially valued, creating an increasingly positive meaning for the group’s identity
#3: Helps understand behaviors such as prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, in-group favoritism, and conformity to in-group norms
Social Representations
Social representations (Moscovici, 1973): The shared beliefs and explanations held by society in which we live or the group in which we belong
They are the foundation of social cognition which help us make sense of the world and master it; they also allow communication to take place among members of a community by providing social codes for social exchange and naming a classifying unambiguously the various aspects of their world and their individual and group history
Social Representations=Cultural Schemas
A group may have its own representation of success, beauty, or intelligence
Adler (1990) Meaning of “share” Russian mother’s explanation of sharing children
playing together with a toy at the same time American mother’s explanation of sharing children
taking turns to play with the same toy
Howarth (2002)
Social representations of Brixton (South of London) and their impact they have on the identity of adolescents females
Those not living in Brixton had negative representation of Brixton
Those who lived there saw Brixton as “a diverse, creative, and vibrant” community These ideas impacted the girls in their friend choice, sports
teams, relations with police, and their employment opportunities Illustrates the impact of social representations as the basis of
stereotypes (negative and positive) and how they contribute to social identity
Stereotyping
Stereotype: A social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes Generalization of a group and then attributed to
everyone in that group A form of social categorization that affects the
behavior of those that hold the stereotype, and those labeled by the stereotype
A result of schema processing Can be negative or positive
Formation of Stereotypes
Social categorization (Tajfel, 1969)Campbell (1967) argues there are 2 key sources:
1.) Personal experiences 2.) Gatekeepers (media, parents, other members of our
culture)Argues that stereotypes have a basis in some
realityGrain of truth hypothesis: an experience with
an individual from a group will then be generalized to the group Criticized due to errors in attribution
Studies Related to Stereotyping
Empirical Research (Princeton Trilogy) #1: Katz & Braley (1933): Traditional stereotypes have
cultural basis #2: Gilbert (1951): Replication of above study; less
uniformity of agreement Karlins et al. (1969): Replicated study #2; objected task
but more aggreementDevine (1989) Distinguish between knowledge of
stereotype and accepting itLipmann (1922): Mental images to help interpret
the worldPosner & Snyder (1975): An automatic cognitive
process
Stereotype Threat
Occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or threatened stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm that stereotype
Steele & Aronson (1995) Method & Aim: Experiment to see the effect of stereotype threat on
performance Sample: African American and European American students Procedure: 30 minute verbal test w/ difficult multiple-choice questions.
Two groups were used, each with both types of pariticipants “Genuine test of their verbal abilities” (AA scored lower than EA) “A laboratory task that was used to study how certain problems are generally solved
“(AA were higher than AA in first group and their scores matched the EA) Additional studies: Women (math) and lower social class Conclusions: Stereotype threat can impact members of any social of
cultural group Helps explain why some racial & social groups believe that they are
more/less intelligent than others; harms performance of these groups
Spotlight Anxiety
According to Steele (1997), stereotype threat leads to spotlight anxiety (emotional distress and pressure that undermines performance)
Leads to underperformance which naturally limits educational prospects
Spencer et al. (1997):Gave students that are strong in math a difficult math
testPredicted women would do worse and they did (due
to stereotype that women are not as skilled in math)When same concept was demonstrated with
literature skills both groups performed equally well
Illusory Correlation
Hamilton & Gifford (1976):People forming false associations between memberships
of a social group and specific behaviors women’s abilities in math
Cause people to overestimate a link between two variables
Come in many forms and culturally-based prejudice about social groups can to some extent be classified as illusory correlations
An example of cognitive bias: a person’s tendency to make errors in judgment based on cognitive factors
Attribution errors are examples of cognitive bias
Confirmation Bias
People tend to seek out or remember information that supports relationships (caused by illusory correlation)
Overlook information that contradicts what they already believe
Makes stereotypical thinking resistant to changeSnyder & Swann (1978):Sample: Female college studentsProcedure: Meet introvert or extrovert. Asked to prepare
questions to ask the person they were about to meetConclusion: Questions confirmed their
perceptions/stereotypes of introverts/extroverts Introverts: “What do you dislike about parties?” or “Are
there times you wish you were more outgoing?” Extroverts: “What do you do to liven up a party?”
In-group’s Influence on Stereotypes
Social Desirability Effect
Social and Cultural Norms
Norm: Set of rules based on socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave Regulate behavior within the group Deviants are punished, marginalized,
stigmatized Can be seen as a positive if creative and
affective change takes place in society Leads to conformity since we are social
animals that need to belong
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Assumes that humans learn behaviors through observational learning (learning by watching models and imitating their behavior)
Indirect (not intentionally trying to impact behavior) or direct models (teachers)
Factors of Learning
Attention Paying attention to model
Retention Observer remembers behavior that was observed
Motor reproduction Observer is able to replicate the behavior
Motivation Observer wants to demonstrate behavior/what they
learned
Factors of Motivation
Consistency: Imitation is more likely if model has consistent behaviors
Identification with the model: If models are similar to observer (age or gender) than
replication of behaviors are more likelyRewards/punishment
Vicarious reinforcement (we can learn from observing and we don’t have to experience consequences ourselves) takes place by watching people around us---in reality and movies; observational learning
Liking the model: Warm and friendly models are more likely to be imitated as
opposed to cold, uncaring models Yarrow et al. (1970)
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)
Explanation: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCo33v3Fwc4
Video footage with Bandura’s explanation: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YclZBhn40hU
BBC video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8
Social Learning Theory in Real Life
Does watching violence on television cause people to become violent?
Studies are consistent in proving that watching aggression shows children how to be aggressive in new ways and also draw conclusions about whether being aggressive to others will bring rewards or punishment
Huesmann & Eron (1986):15 year longitudinal study found a positive correlation
between the number of hours of violence watched on TV and the level of aggression demonstrated when being a teenager
8 year olds that watched TV violence were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults
Not all Television is Bad!
Evidence supports shows like Sesame Street teaches positive behaviors and academic & social skills such as sharing, empathy, and academic curiosity
Soap operas/radio dramas use the Sabido method/social learning theory in order to effect change in society
We can learn from role models, especially people we can identify with Unwanted teen pregnancies, reduce the spread of HIV, promote
literacy, and empower women in developing countries Researchers found exposure to Tanzania’s Twende na Wakati
(Let’s Go with the Times) showed an increase in safe sex, women’s status, and family planning (1993-1996)
Evaluation of Social Learning Theory
Helps explain: Why behaviors are passed down in a family or within
cultures Why children can acquire behaviors through trial-and-error
learningCriticism: Though a behavior is acquired it is not
always demonstrated (behaviors may lie dormant) Because of this, it is hard to say if the behavior is a 100%
result of observing the modelThe theory doesn’t explain why some people
never develop the behavior even though they are exposed to it
Social Learning TheorySocial Cognitive Theory & Self-Efficacy Theory
Both are based on social learning theory but the focus is on beliefs and how they influence behavior
An important elaboration of social learning theory to explain why people are motivated not by the role models, but also by their own beliefs and previous experiences
Social Influence: Compliance
Robert Cialdini (leading researcher in the psychology of persuasion)
The result of pressure from person persuading is not always felt directly
Compliance techniques: ways in which individuals are influence to comply with the demands or desires of others
Advertising and marketing Sales tactics are always examined on the basis of what
would most likely persuade consumers to buy specific products
Factors that Influence Compliance
1.) Authority: Compliance with people of authority; famous people wearing basketball shoes
2.) Commitment: Agreement through behavior or by statements, they are more likely to comply with similar requests
3.) Liking: People comply with people they like4.) Reciprocity: The need to “return a favor” 5.) Scarcity: Opportunities are more favorable when
they are less readily available; “last chance” & “limited time” sales
6.) Social proof: View behaviors as correct if they see others performing it
Reciprocity
One of the most widespread and basic norms in human culture
Creates confidence among people in what is given to another is not lost but a sign of a future obligation that enables development of various types of relationships and exchanges
We learn this in childhoodFeelings of guilt plays a key roleCompanies offer free gifts, free travel, free hotel
rooms, etc.Lynn & McCall (1998): Mint with bill, tip increases
Door-in-the-face Technique
1st request (turned down) leads to smaller 2nd request
2nd request is accepted because they believe the request was lowered to accommodate them
Cialdini et al. (1975):1st group: Chaperone juvenile delinquents on a day
trip to the zoo: 83% refused to volunteer2nd group:
1st request: work as counselors for 2 hours a week for 2 years: 0%
2nd request: Chaperone juvenile delinquents on a day trip to the zoo: 50% agreed
How to Avoid Manipulation in Daily Life
Scenario: Salesperson lowers the price of a product because the costumer thinks it is too expensive:
Make a compromise Don’t totally reject what is being offered by others but
accept initial favors in good faith and in some cases be prepared to view them as tricks
If it is a trick, don’t feel the need to respond with a favor unless you really want to
Commitment
Being consistent with previous behaviorPeople make a decision to take a stand,
encountering personal and interpersonal pressures to behave consistently with the commitment (even appears illogical to an outsider)
Kurt Lewin (1951): Claims this behavior is motivated by goal gradients
Foot-in-the-door Technique
Dickerson et al. (1992)University students conserving water; Santa
Cruz, CA1.) Sign a poster: “Take shorter showers. If I
can do it, so can you!”2.) Took survey that made them think about
the amount of water they usedShower time decreased by 3.5 minutesConsideration: They signed the poster because
they were already committed to the cause
Low-balling
Ciadelni et al. (1974)Sample: 1st year psychology students1st group: Volunteer to be part of study on
cognition at 7 a.m. (24% participation)2nd group: Same favor, but not told time; 56%
agreed. After that, told the time and also could back out; no one did On the day of the meeting, 95% of the students (of the
56% that agreed) showed up
Hazing
Common amongst sports teams & fraternities Old School Video Clip
Many universities banned the practice due to deaths but it still exists Extreme temperatures Drinking themselves into comas Digging their own graves
Similar to initiation rites seen in other cultures: African societies have initiation rites (rites of passage) to
indicate their entrance into adulthood Boot camp: teach recruits how to do their job but also
overcoming difficulty and humiliation
Thought Process of Enduring Hazing
1.) Person chooses to join the group, recognizing initiation is involved
2.) Rationalization that it is “worth it”3.) Upon completion there is a sense of
accomplishmentYoung (1963):
54 tribal cultures Those with the most extreme ceremonies had the
strongest group solidarity
Is Hazing Necessary?
Aronson & Mills (1959):Aim: Enduring trouble or pain to join a group causing
people to value the group more vs. those that do notSample: Female college studentsProcedure: Join a sex discussion group
Embarrassing initiation and no initiation Attend a meeting (made up of confederates; acting bored and
uninterested) Conclusions:
Initiation Found the meeting extremely valuable No initiation “worthless and uninteresting”
Gerard & Mathewson (1966) follow-up study: Women received electrical shocks during initiation found their
group interesting, intelligent, and desirable
Social Influence: Conformity
The tendency to adjust one’s thoughts, feelings, or behavior in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group or with accepted standards about how a person should behave in specific situations (social norms)
AKA: Peer pressure when dealing with youth/school
Conformity isn’t limited to just feeling the need to fit in
Asch’s Conformity Study (1951)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyDDyT1lDhA
Asch Paradigm
Factors that influence the likelihood of conformity:1.) Group Size (1955): with only one confederate, 3% of participants conformed; 2 confederates, 14%, 3 confederates, 32%. Large groups did not increase conformity, in some cases very large groups decreased the level of conformity2.) Unanimity (1956): When all confederates agreedconformity. If a confederate disagreedparticipant was less likely to conform3.) Confidence (Perrin & Spencer, 1988): Engineers and medical students conformity rates were almost non-existent; more competentless likely to conform4.) Self-esteem (Stang, 1973): High self-esteemless likely to conform
Criticisms of Asch’s Experiment
1.) Artificiality and ecological validity: Use of strangers made the situation atypical Asch argued that experiments are social situations in which
participants feel like an outsider if they dissent Concern for demand characteristics2.) Culture limited validity: The group was not multiculturalstudy is limited in its
application Asch paradigm is no longer valid today?3.) Ethical considerations: Deception & anxiety4.) Bias in interpretation of the findings (Friend et al., 1990): In the face of unanimity, so many people did not conform Which factors allow people to dissent, rather than which
factors influence conformity?
The Influence of Minority Opinions
Moscovici and Lage (1976): When a minority maintains a consistent view, it is able to
influence the majority 4 participants & 2 confederates, described a blue-green color
as green, 32% of participants made at least one incorrect judgment about the color of slides shown; they also continued to give incorrect responses after the confederates left the experiment
Hogg and Vaughan (1995): Some of the reasons for the influence of a minority groups
include:1.) Dissenting opinions produce uncertainty & doubt2.) Such opinions show alternatives exist3.) Consistency shows that there is commitment to the alternative view
20th Century Examples of Minority Influences
Consistency allows environmental movement to move majority opinions more towards conservation and protection of the environment Women’s Rights Movements Civil Rights Movements
Irving JanisGroupthink: The group is blinded by optimism that their decisions
will be successful Members begin to doubt their own reservations and
refrain from voicing dissenting opinions
Why Do People Conform?
Deutsch & Gerard (1955) believe conformity is a result of informational social influence (the way people cognitively process information about a situation) and normative social influence
Festinger (1954) argues that people evaluate their own opinions and ideas through social comparison (looking at what others do) Cognitive dissonance
Anxiety when you think differently Feeling of not “with it”
Conform to group’s opinion Rationalize your opinion and develop confidence that your
opinion is acceptable
Normative Social Influence
Based off of animal instincts and our need to belong
Avoid rejection and gain social approval Example: if being opposed to a certain trend causes
you to never be invited to parties, you will begin to dress a certain way in order to gain friends/popularity
Cultural Aspects of Conformity
People’s reaction to the word “conform” Asians conform more and value it to a greater degree and
American’s see as a negative trait East vs. West dichotomy
Cashmore & Goodnow (1986) Italians
Burgos & Dias-Perez (1986) Puerto Ricans (obedience in children)
Individualistic vs. Collectivist cultures Smith & Bond (1993)
Economic practices Berry (1967)
Temne (single crop cooperation and coordination) vs. Inuit (continual hunting & gathering)
Definitions of Culture
Matsumoto (2004)…128 different definitions of culture
“Surface culture” (visible): eating habits, clothing, rituals, communication, etc.
“Deep culture” (cultural manifestations): beliefs, attitudes, values, etc. Kuschel (2004)
Ask questions on how specific factors in culture relate to behaviors such as initiation rites, honor killing, etc.
Argues that if culture is used as an explanation of behavior, it can lead to circular arguments and generalizations
Culture is vague and includes many variables, it should not be used as an explanation in itself
More “definitions” of Culture
Lonner (1995): “common rules that regulate interactions and
behavior in a group as well as a number of shared values and attitudes in the group.”
Hofstede (2002): “mental software”… “cultural schemas that have been
internalized so that they influence thinking, emotions, and behavior.” Shared among groups Learned through daily interactions and by feedback from
members of the group
Etic Approach Emic Approach
Rules that can be applied to all cultures around the world
Taken within cross-cultural psychology where behavior is compared across specific cultures that share common perceptual, cognitive, and emotional structures
Behaviors that are culturally specific
Caused psychologists the re-examine their ideas of “truth” with regards to culture
Universal Behaviors
Cultural Variations
Mead (1935) looked at three cultures within New Guinea
Arapesh: Women and men were sensitive and non-aggressive as well
as “feminine” personalitiesMundugamor:
Men and women were ruthless, unpleasant, and “masculine”Tchambuli:
Women were dominant, men were more emotional and concerned about personal appearance
Illustrates how society can powerfully influence gender-role development
Matsumoto’s Definition of Culture (2004)
“a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors.” Dynamic: Changes over time in response to
environmental and social changes & exists on many levels
Explicit: written rules Implicit: understood rules
Anthropologists study objects (foods, buildings, grave sites), psychologists focus on subjective elements (attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms)
Cultural Norms
Behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups
Passed down from generations through observational learning by the group’s “gatekeepers” (parents, teachers, religious leaders, peers) Marriage partners are chosen Alcohol consumption Acceptance/rejection of spanking children
Cultural Dimensions of Behavior
A culture’s perspective on values and norms.Hoefstede (1973):
Multinational IBM employees answered a survey about morale in the workplace
Content analysis of responses, looking at key differences submitted by different ethnicities
The trends he noticed among the 40 most represented countries were called “dimensions”
Help facilitate communication between cultures Handshake in America vs. Middle Eastern countries
during negotiations mean different things
Cultural Dimensions
Individualism vs. CollectivismUncertainty vs. Avoidance
Hoefstede Short-term orientation (Finland, France, Germany, & US)
Value personal steadiness and stability Focus on the future over the past Innovation is highly valued
Bond (1988) discovered some Asian cultures replace the uncertainty-avoidance dimension
Confucian work dynamism: Focusing on virtue over truth Long-term orientation
Value persistence, loyalty and trustworthiness
Hoefstede’s Warning Against Ecological Fallacy
Ecological Fallacy is “When one looks at two different cultures, it can be assumed that two members from two different cultures must be different from one another, or that a single member of a culture will always demonstrate the dimensions which are the norm of that culture.”
Hoefstede says not to do this.
Proxemic Theory
Hall (1966); Hidden Dimension“Personal space” or “Personal bubble”Friends are allowed to be closerConversations 4-7 inches (Americans) but
change with time (today is much different)Parts of Europe, half that
Monochronic Cultures Polychronic Cultures
Focus on one thing at a time
High degree of scheduling
Punctuality and meeting deadlines are valued
Many things happening at once
Focus is on relationships and interactions
Interruptions are seen as “part of life”
Little frustration during late or postponed events/assignments
Time Consciousness
Wasn’t that fun?