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Website to get LECTURE NOTES
Before we start…
http://www.uvm.edu/~dstratto/bcor011_handouts/
Questions from last time?
MatterMatterElementsElements CompoundsCompounds
Pure substancesPure substancesMade up of Made up of only Oneonly One
type of atomtype of atom
Bonded ElementsBonded ElementsMade up of two or moreMade up of two or more
Types of atoms bonded togetherTypes of atoms bonded togetherIn a fixed ratioIn a fixed ratio
NEW SUBSTANCE NEW SUBSTANCE Different PropertiesDifferent Properties
Sodium Chloride Sodium Chloride
+
Figure 2.2
ATOMS are the smallest unit of ATOMS are the smallest unit of matter that maintain the properties matter that maintain the properties
of an elementof an element
Why ATOMS bond together Why ATOMS bond together chemically chemically is because of their is because of their
subatomic structuresubatomic structure
Basis for Chemical BondingBasis for Chemical Bonding
Atomic StructureAtomic Structure
ProtonsProtons (+)(+)
Neutrons (o)Neutrons (o)
ElectronsElectrons(-)(-)
Atoms are electrically neutral !Atoms are electrically neutral !
nucleusnucleusAtomic number = protons Atomic number = protons
Atomic mass = Atomic mass = protons + neutronsprotons + neutrons
Electron numberElectron numberChemical Chemical propertiesproperties
Atoms differ by the Atoms differ by the numbernumber of protons and electronsof protons and electrons
Atomic“characteAtomic“character”r”
11 outer outer shell electronshell electron
44 outer outer shell electronsshell electrons
11 outer outer shell electronshell electron
7 7 outer outer shell electronsshell electrons
Electrons are arranged in SHELLS
• The periodic table of the elements– Shows the electron distribution for all the
elements
Secondshell
Helium
2He
Firstshell
Thirdshell
Hydrogen
1H
2He
4.00Atomic mass
Atomic number
Element symbol
Electron-shelldiagram
Lithium
3LiBeryllium
4BeBoron
3BCarbon
6CNitrogen
7NOxygen
8OFluorine
9FNeon
10Ne
Sodium
11NaMagnesium
12MgAluminum
13AlSilicon
14SiPhosphorus
15PSulfur
16SChlorine
17ClArgon
18Ar
Figure 2.8
BondingBonding: : achieve electronic stabilityachieve electronic stability
““full outer shells of electrons”full outer shells of electrons”
Ionic BondingIonic Bonding Covalent BondingCovalent Bonding
““TheftTheft””
““SharinSharing”g”
• Electronegativity– Is the attraction of a particular kind of
atom for the electrons in a covalent bond
• The more electronegative an atom– The more strongly it pulls shared
electrons toward itself
What determinesWhat determinesIonic or Covalent Bonding?Ionic or Covalent Bonding?
ElectronegativityElectronegativity
Ionic bondingIonic bonding
Atoms have very different Atoms have very different electronegativitieselectronegativities
Secondshell
Helium
2He
Firstshell
Thirdshell
Hydrogen
1H
2He
4.00Atomic mass
Atomic number
Element symbol
Electron-shelldiagram
Lithium
3LiBeryllium
4BeBoron
3BCarbon
6CNitrogen
7NOxygen
8OFluorine
9FNeon
10Ne
Sodium
11NaMagnesium
12MgAluminum
13AlSilicon
14SiPhosphorus
15PSulfur
16SChlorine
17ClArgon
18Ar
Figure 2.8
ElectronicallyElectronicallyStableStable
FullFullOuter Outer ShellsShellsNON-NON-
REACTIVEREACTIVE
StrongStrongElectro-Electro-
NegativeNegativeNearlyNearlyFull Full
Outer Outer shellsshells
WeakWeakElectro-Electro-
NegativityNegativityNearlyNearlyEmptyEmptyOuter Outer ShellsShells
Ionic Bonding:Ionic Bonding:““Theft & Abandonment”Theft & Abandonment”
Unfilled outer shellsUnfilled outer shells Electronically neutralElectronically neutral
Filled outer shellsFilled outer shells
CHARGED SPECIESCHARGED SPECIESNo longer atoms:No longer atoms:
IONSIONSAttraction between ionsAttraction between ions
is very strongis very strong
(Na(Na))
(Cl)(Cl) (Na(Na++)) (Cl(Cl--))
Cl–
Chloride ion(an anion)
–
The lone valence electron of a sodiumatom is transferred to join the 7 valenceelectrons of a chlorine atom.
1 Each resulting ion has a completedvalence shell. An ionic bond can formbetween the oppositely charged ions.
2
Na NaCl Cl
+
NaSodium atom
(an unchargedatom)
ClChlorine atom(an uncharged
atom)
Na+
Sodium on(a cation)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)Figure 2.13
• An ionic bond– Is an attraction between anions and cations
Secondshell
Helium
2He
Firstshell
Thirdshell
Hydrogen
1H
2He
4.00Atomic mass
Atomic number
Element symbol
Electron-shelldiagram
Lithium
3LiBeryllium
4BeBoron
3BCarbon
6CNitrogen
7NOxygen
8OFluorine
9FNeon
10Ne
Sodium
11NaMagnesium
12MgAluminum
13AlSilicon
14SiPhosphorus
15PSulfur
16SChlorine
17ClArgon
18Ar
Figure 2.8
IntermediateIntermediateElectro-Electro-
NegativityNegativity
Covalent Bonding: sharing betweenCovalent Bonding: sharing betweenatoms of similar electronegativity atoms of similar electronegativity
Covalent Bonding: Covalent Bonding: “Sharing”“Sharing”
• physical overlap physical overlap between atomsbetween atoms
• full outer shellsfull outer shells
• physically tied atphysically tied at the hipthe hip
• geometrical/spatialgeometrical/spatial orientation fixedorientation fixed
MOLECULESMOLECULES
HH HH
HH22
H-HH-H
Same electronegativitySame electronegativity
Name(molecularformula)
Electron-shell
diagram
Structuralformula
Space-fillingmodel
(c)
Methane (CH4). Four hydrogen atoms can satisfy the valence ofone carbonatom, formingmethane.
Water (H2O). Two hydrogenatoms and one oxygen atom arejoined by covalent bonds to produce a molecule of water.
(d)
HO
H
H H
H
H
C
Figure 2.11 C, D
Specific GeometrySpecific Geometry
• Each electron shell– Consists of a specific number of orbitals– Orbitals are defined areas of space that
electrons occupy within electron shells
Electron orbitals.Each orbital holds
up to two electrons.
1s orbital 2s orbital Three 2p orbitals 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals
(a) First shell (maximum 2 electrons)
(b) Second shell (maximum 8 electrons)
(c) Neon, with two filled shells (10 electrons)
Electron-shell diagrams.Each shell is shown withits maximum number of
electrons, grouped in pairs.
x
Z
Y
Figure 2.9
s orbital
ZThree p orbitals
X
Y
Four hybrid orbitals
(a) Hybridization of orbitals. The single s and three p orbitals of a valence shell involved in covalent bonding combine to form four teardrop-shaped hybrid orbitals. These orbitals extend to the four corners of an imaginary tetrahedron (outlined in pink).
Tetrahedron
Figure 2.16 (a)
• In a covalent bond– The s and p orbitals may hybridize, creating
specific molecular shapes
Space-fillingmodel
Hybrid-orbital model(with ball-and-stick
model superimposed)UnbondedElectron pair
104.5°
O
HWater (H2O)
Methane (CH4)
H
H H
H
C
O
H
H
H
C
Ball-and-stickmodel
H H
H
H
(b) Molecular shape models. Three models representing molecular shape are shown for two examples; water and methane. The positions of the hybrid orbital determine the shapes of the moleculesFigure 2.16 (b)
• A molecule– Consists of two or more atoms held together by
covalent bonds
• A single bond– Is the sharing of one pair of valence electrons
• A double bond– Is the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons
(a)
(b)
Name(molecularformula)
Electron-shell
diagram
Structuralformula
Space-fillingmodel
Hydrogen (H2). Two hydrogen atoms can form a single bond.
Oxygen (O2). Two oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons to form a double bond.
H H
O O
Figure 2.11 A, B
• Single and double covalent bonds
Missing:Missing: 2 3 42 3 4 outer shell electronsouter shell electrons
alwaysalwaysmakes 2 makes 2 33 4 4 bondsbonds
waterwatercytosinecytosine
ValenceValenceElectronsElectrons
Molecular Shape and Function
• The precise shape of a molecule– Is usually very important to its
function in the living cell– Is determined by the positions of its
atoms’ valence orbitals
• Molecular shape– Determines how biological molecules
recognize and respond to one another with specificity
Morphine
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
OxygenNaturalendorphin
(a) Structures of endorphin and morphine. The boxed portion of the endorphin molecule (left) binds toreceptor molecules on target cells in the brain. The boxed portion of the morphine molecule is a close match.
(b) Binding to endorphin receptors. Endorphin receptors on the surface of a brain cell recognize and can bind to both endorphin and morphine.
Naturalendorphin
Endorphinreceptors
Morphine
Brain cell
Figure 2.17
• nonpolar covalent bond– The atoms have similar
electronegativities – Share the electron equally
Two Types of Covalent BondsTwo Types of Covalent Bonds
•polar covalent bond-The atoms have fairly different electronegativities- Share the electrons, but unequally
Figure 2.12
This results in a partial negative charge on theoxygen and apartial positivecharge onthe hydrogens.
H2O
–
O
H H+ +
Because oxygen (O) is more electronegative than hydrogen (H), shared electrons are pulled more toward oxygen.
• polar covalent bond– The atoms have differing electronegativities– Share the electrons unequally
Water
POLAR COVALENT BOND
the sharing of electrons in a bond is unequal
the molecule is LOPSIDED
NO NET CHARGEJUST ASYMMETRY
negative pole
positive pole
Asymmetry of Electrons within Waterhas some interesting Consequences
Individual Water Molecules have Considerable attraction for one another
Cohesion / Cohesive Properties
Water molecules act as little magnets
++
--
DipoleDipoleElectron withdrawingElectron withdrawing
Hydrogen BondsHydrogen Bonds
weak, dynamic,weak, dynamic,electrostatic interactionselectrostatic interactions* additive* additive
• The polarity of water molecules– Allows them to form hydrogen bonds
with each other– Contributes to the various properties
water exhibits
Hydrogenbonds
+
+
H
H+
+
–
–
–
–
Figure 3.2
Properties of water due to PolarityProperties of water due to Polarity
1.1. Cohesion/surface tensionCohesion/surface tension2.2. Temperature moderationTemperature moderation
• High specific heatHigh specific heat• Evaporative coolingEvaporative cooling• Ice floatsIce floats
3.3. Solvent Ability Solvent Ability • Hydrophilicity and hydrophobicityHydrophilicity and hydrophobicity
4.4. Ionization ability (pH)Ionization ability (pH)
Summary Points of Lecture 2Summary Points of Lecture 2• Atomic StructureAtomic Structure• Atoms bond to achieve full outer electron Atoms bond to achieve full outer electron shellsshells• Ionic bonding “theft and abandonment”Ionic bonding “theft and abandonment”
- consequence: IONS, charged species- consequence: IONS, charged species- Consequence: strong attraction of ions- Consequence: strong attraction of ions
•Covalent Bonding “sharing”Covalent Bonding “sharing”- consequence: molecules- consequence: molecules- consequence: atoms physically tied at the hip - consequence: atoms physically tied at the hip
- consequence: precise 3-D spatial geometries- consequence: precise 3-D spatial geometries • POLAR Covalent MoleculesPOLAR Covalent Molecules
- Asymmetric charge distribution within - Asymmetric charge distribution within moleculemolecule
- “little magnets”- “little magnets”- water is most common example- water is most common example
Emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s fitness for life
1. Cohesion 1. Cohesion - water molecules stick to one another- water molecules stick to one another
Water conducting cells
100 µmFigure 3.3
Figure 3.4
SurfaceSurfaceTensionTension
Emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s fitness for life
2. Temperature Moderation2. Temperature Moderation - water has a high specific heat - water has a high specific heat
(energy to raise 1g of substance 1(energy to raise 1g of substance 1ooC)C)- heat is absorbed when Hydrogen bonds breakheat is absorbed when Hydrogen bonds break- heat is released when Hydrogen bonds formheat is released when Hydrogen bonds form- keeps temperature of earth from fluctuating wildlykeeps temperature of earth from fluctuating wildly
- heat capacities in change of state (solid-liquid-gas)heat capacities in change of state (solid-liquid-gas)(heat of vaporization, heat of fusion)(heat of vaporization, heat of fusion)
• Evaporative cooling– Is due to water’s high heat of
vaporization– Allows water to cool a surface
Some consequences Water hydrogen bondingSome consequences Water hydrogen bonding
• Solid Water – ICESolid Water – ICEIs less dense than Water – SO FLOATSIs less dense than Water – SO FLOATS- Insulates bodies of water- Insulates bodies of water
• The hydrogen bonds in ice– Are more “ordered” than in liquid
water, making ice less dense
Liquid water
Hydrogen bonds constantly break and re-form
Ice
Hydrogen bonds are stable
Hydrogen bond
Figure 3.5
The Solvent of Life
• Water is a versatile solvent due to its polarity
• It can form aqueous solutions
• The different regions of the polar water molecule can interact with ionic compounds called solutes and dissolve them
Negative
oxygen regions
of polar water molecules
are attracted to sodium
cations (Na+).
+
+
+
+Cl –
–
–
–
–
Na+Positive hydrogen regions
of water molecules cling to chloride anions
(Cl–).
++
+
+
–
–
–
–
–
–Na+
Cl–
Figure 3.6
• Water can also interact with polar molecules such as proteins
This oxygen is
attracted to a slight
positive charge on
the lysozyme
molecule.This oxygen is attracted to a slight
negative charge on the lysozyme
molecule.(a) Lysozyme molecule
in a nonaqueous
environment
(b) Lysozyme molecule (purple)
in an aqueous environment
such as tears or saliva
(c) Ionic and polar regions on the protein’s
Surface attract water molecules.
+
–
Figure 3.7