Reader: Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences.Learning styles – all students are created equally (and differently).Every student learns differently. An individual's learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student absorbs, processes, comprehends and retains information. Individual learning styles depend on cognitive, emotional and environmental factors, as well as one's prior experience. It is important for educators to understand the differences in their students' learning styles, so that they can implement best practice strategies into their daily activities, curriculum and assessments.

Understanding VARK.One of the most accepted understandings of learning styles is that students learning styles fall into three “categories”: Visual Learners, Auditory Learners and Kinaesthetic Learners. Neil Fleming put these learning styles into the VARK model of Student Learning. The VARK model acknowledges that students have different approaches to how they process information, referred to as “preferred learning modes”.

Students' preferred learning modes have significant influence on their behavior and learning.

Students' preferred learning modes should be matched with appropriate learning strategies.

Information that is accessed through students' use of their modality preferences shows an increase in their levels of comprehension, motivation and metacognition.

V = Visual learners, prefer the use of images, maps and graphic organizers to access and understand new information.A = Auditory learners, best understand new content through listening and speaking in situations such as lectures and group discussions. Aural learners use repetition as a study technique and benefit from the use of mnemonic devices.R = Read and write learners, learn best through words. These students may present themselves as copious note takers or avid readers, and are able to translate abstract concepts into words and essays.K = Kinaesthetic learners, best understand information through tactile representations of information. These students are hands-on learners and learn best through figuring things out by hand.

SWOT strategies.Study Without Tears is where Flemings provides advice on how students can use their learning modalities and skills to their advantage when studying.

Visual = Charts, graphs, diagrams; redraw your pages from memory; replace words with symbols or initials; highlight important key terms in colours.Aural = Record notes and listen to them; talk it out, have a discussion; reread your notes out loud; explain your notes to someone else.Read/Write = Rewrite your notes; reword main ideas and principles; organize diagrams, charts and graphic organizers into statements.Kinaesthetic = Real life examples; redo lab experiments or projects; utilize pictures and photographs to illustrate your idea.

Recognising learners in class.Visual learners: take numerous detailed notes; sit in the front; neat and clean; close their eyes to visualize; find something to watch if they're bored; like to see what they are learning; benefit from

illustrations and colors; like written and spoken language in rich imagery; prefer stimuli to be isolated from auditory and kinesthetic distraction; find passive surroundings ideal.

Auditory learners: sit where they can hear but not up front; may not coordinate colors or clothes, but can explain why they are wearing what they are wearing; hum or talk to themselves; acquire knowledge by reading out loud; remember by verbalizing lessons to themselves.

Kinaesthetic learners: active; take frequent breaks; speak with their hands and with gestures; remember what was done, but can't say what was said or seen; find reasons to tinker or move; rely on what they can directly experience or perform; enjoy field trips; sit near the door; physically expressed encouragement.

Reader: Multiple intelligences.Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in 1983.Instead of having one intelligence it is clamed that we have several different intelligences:

1. Kinaesthetic – Body smartEnjoy sports and are good at it.

2. Linguistic – Word smart.Enjoy reading, writing and talking about things.

3. Logical-mathematical – Number smart.Good at mathematics and other number activities; good at solving problems.

4. Interpersonal – People smart.Likes to mix up with other people and belongs to lots of clubs; likes team games and is good at sharing.

5. Intrapersonal – Myself smart.Knows all about him/herself, strengths and weaknesses; keeps a diary.

6. Musical – Music Smart.Enjoys music and recognises sounds, and timbre, or the quality of a tone.

7. Visual/Spatial – Picture smart.Good at art; good at other activities where you look at pictures like mag reading, finding your way out of mazes and graphs.

8. Naturalistic – Nature smart.Likes the world of plants and animals; enjoys learning about them.

Reader: Active & Brain-friendly learning.(Inter-) Active learning.To activatie → to set in motion; make active or more active.You make your learners more active by:

stimulate and engage personalise for/by pupils challenge pupils as tutor reward listen to pupils' ideas, experiences, suggestions, input let pupils work together make pupils responsible; let them be in charge of their learning themselves give options give realistic tasks attune to the needs of all learning types

create stimulating learning environment student-centred (vs teacher-centred) open-ended activities (vs closed practice) pupils acquire (vs learn/study) pupil is seduced to learn subconsciously; learning by doing/playing while subconscious of

learning effect/result interactive TTT and STT use reflection to round off tasks and raise awareness at the end give learning tips so learners can do things on their own

Why use activating methodology?1. enhancing learning effects/results2. better motivation3. more variation in tasks

Examples of activating methodology per skill/subtopic.Reading → include personal appreciation; authentic material; real reason to discuss what is read; stimulate prediction; engagement is important.

Extensive reading → right level (i+1); use other media for support/stimulance; share book reading experience while reading; have a library; focus on appreciation, not on comprehension; reading circles; compare the book with the film.

Listening & watching → use new media, like podcasts; let the pupils choose and edit themselves; use what pupils normally listen to.

Writing & speaking → automatically more active; come up with meaningful, realistic tasks with personal input that can be used outside the classroom; projects and tasks; let pupils explain why they give certain answers.

Vocabulary → be active with words; pronunciation; personalise words, pupils choose words/sentences to practise; useful phrases/chunks of language; visualise words and sounds.

Grammar → communicative context; flashcards, visualisation of structure; grammar games.

Brain-friendly learning and reaching.Brain-friendly is studying in such a way that the students effectively link the different systems of the brain during the learning process. This improves the transfer of knowledge into their long term memory.

Reader: Improving Children's Working Memory: Neuropsychologist Dr. Stacey Spencer with Morris Psychological Group Offers Tips for Parents.Working memory enables us to hold on to information long enough to manipulate it or use it to complete a task. The academic performance of as many as 10-15% of children is affected by problems with working memory.Their ability to learn is affected by a wide range of emotional and cognitive factors. Some of these children need help improving their working memory.There are two types of working memory: Auditory working memory (information that is heard), where weakness causes not holding onto instructions, and visual-spatial working memory (uses

visualization to hold onto information) where weakness causes trouble with math problems and remembering patterns and images.

Recognizing Weak Working Memory: Difficulty following instructions with more than one step; Losing track in the middle of a task, often abandoning the task before completion; Making place-keeping errors; Difficulty retelling a story in his own words.

Improving a Child's Working Memory: Use the child's strenght to help her learn; Break information down into smaller chunks; Play games that enhance memory skills; Use technology to advantage.

How do you learn language in a brain-friendly way?1. Find a motive.2. Find out what I can do.3. Recycle a lot.4. Find out what your learning style is.5. Use coloured pens: highlight important things and decorate to memorize.6. Organise language/idiom in logical ways to memorize and understand.7. Make language more digestible by diving it into smaller (building) blocks.8. Take the attention span into consideration: change activities, use silence, work in different

organisationgroups.9. Drinking water helps concentration and prevents dehydration of the brain.10. Link things, remind people of something, use preknowledge and recap on previously

discussed things.11. Use the alpha brainwave stage (brain is relaxed but aware) for the cognitive way, but do

something different.12. Use mnemonics and donkey bridges.13. Use the theta brainwave state, when the brain is subconsciously working on things:

remarkable things may come up.14. Use laughter, as this releases endorphines into the limbic system, which changes negative

things into more positive ones.15. Use acting to help learning consolidation. Let strong students model for weaker ones.

How do you teach language in a brain-friendly way?Brain-friendly teaching strategies.

1. Music alters brain chemistry.2. Start class sessions with a greeting, overview, class ritual.3. Begin each session with meaningful information and activities.4. Create positive expectations by framing activities properly.5. Give students a choice so that locus of control remains with them.6. Start with the known, from the knowledge and information students already possess.7. Pose a problem for students to solve.8. Use novelty in the way you present material.9. Use sound.10. Use color.

The adolescent brain.The implications for language teaching/learning.

Flexible brains: they learn to think critically and hypothetically. Positive stimuli. Filter information. Planning, freedom and long-term decisions. Very strong and changing emotions. Not yet active in the morning. More creative and inventive.

Reader: Helping learners to learn.Learner autonomy.No longer are teachers expected to control the whole learning process and pass on knowledge to passive recipient students. Nowadays, the teacher is seen as a facilitator and a guide who can help the students towards their individual goals and objectives, whilst the students, in turn, must take responsibility for their learning and their progression towards their aims. The ultimate aim of language teaching should be to help students learn how to learn and take charge of their own learning.Learner autonomy is important, because taking responsibility for one's own learning leads to higher motivation, which in turn leads to more likely success in learning.

Learner training.Helping learners attain the conditions necessary for autonomy through learner training can be extremely beneficial. Learner training is a way of 'teaching learners explicitly the techniques of learning a language, and an awareness of how and when to use strategies to enable the, to become selfdirected'.

Computers.Modern teaching benefits from access to a vast array of technology. It can be extremely motivating for the students. It adds variety and can enable learners to make choices about the material and pace. It is flexible and can be adapted to suit the needs of individual students. Technology can support autonomy as students select and evaluate material.

Reader: Cooperative learning – background learning.Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it.

Why use cooperative learning? promotes student learning and academic achievement increases student retention enhances student satisfaction with their learning experienced helps students develop skills in oral communication develops students' social skills promotes students' self-esteem helps to promote positive relations

Five elements of cooperative learning.1. Positive independence, sink or swim together.2. Face-to-face interaction, promote each other's success.3. Individual and group accountability, no hitchhiking! No social loafing.4. Interpersonal and small-group skills.5. Group processing.

Cooperative Learning Instruction Strategies. Make that task you are given not only increasing the study skills of the student but is also

interesting and open enough for the group of students. It needs to be planned in such a way that it fits perfectly and the students gain positively

from it. Motivation is a great necessity for the students in order for them to proceed successfully. Teach the students how to work in groups if they aren't familiar with this type of learning. Don't start with big tasks.

Cooperative learning defined.What is it? A successful teaching strategy in which smallteams,each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement.Why use it? Improved academic achievement, improved behaviour and attendance, increased self-confidence and motivation, increased liking of school and classmates. Easy to implement, inexpensive.How does it work? Some typical strategies are:

Group investigations. STAD (Student Teams-Achievement Divisions). Jigsaw II.

Some examples of specific programs: Team Accelerated Instruction in Matchematics. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition. Success for All. Finding Out/Descubrimiento.

What else does it do? Develops and uses critical thinking skills and teamwork. Promotes positive relationships among different ethnic gorups. Implements peer coaching. Establishes environments where academic accomplishments are valued. Cooperatively manages schools.

What else does the research say?Cooperative learning has a positive effect on:

Student achievement. Relations among different ethnic groups. Mainstreaming students with learning disabilities.

Reader: Successful Intelligence in the Classroom.Teaching for successful intelligence provides a way to create a way of teaching that is matched with the students' patterns of abilities. It involves helping all students capitalize on their strengths and

compensate for or correct their weaknesses. It does so by teaching in a way that balances learning for memory, analytical, creative and practical thinking.

The Theory of Successful Intelligence: A Capsule Description.Successful intelligence is the use of an integrated set of abilities needed to attain success in life, however an individual defines it, within his or hes sociocultural context. People are successfully intelligent by virtue of recognizing their strengths and making the most of them at the same time they recognize their weakness and finding ways to correct aspects of their performance in which they are underperforming. They also have to recognize that they probably will never be superb at all kinds of performance. Successfully intelligent people adapt to, shape, and select environments.

Classroom Applications.Teaching for successful intelligence attempts to help teachers reach a larger cross-section of students than more traditional teaching methods that emphasize memory and analytical instruction. In teaching for successful intelligence, a teacher follows a number a fundamental ideas.Teaching and assessment should balance use of analytical, creative, and practical thinking. Teachers need to help students capitalize on individual patterns of strenghts and, at the same time, help them correct or compensate for weaknesses. Students, like teachers, need to develop flexibility, giving students multiple and diverse options in assessment.Teachers have to teach and assess achievement in ways that enable students to analyze, create with, and apply their knowledge. When students think to learn, they also learn to think.

Teaching analytically.Teaching analytically means encouringing the students to analyze, critique, judge, compare and contrast, evaluate and assess.

Teaching creatively.Teaching creatively means encouraging students to create, invent, discover, imagine if..., suppose that …, and predict.

Teaching practically.Teaching practically means encouraging students to apply, use, put into practice, implement, employ and rende practical what they know.

Why Teaching for Successful Intelligence Works.Teahcing for successful intelligence encourages deeper and more elaborated encoding of material than does traditional teaching, so students learn the material in a way that enhances probability of retrieval at test time.Teaching for successful intelligence encourages more diverse forms of encoding material, so there are more retrieval paths to the material and greater likelihood of recall at test time.Teaching for successful intelligence enables students to capitalize on strengths and to correct or compensate for weaknesses.Teaching for successful intelligence is more motivating to both teachers and students, so teachers are likely to teach more effectively and students are likely to learn more.

Reader: Teaching mixed ability teens.Characteristics of mixed ability classes.

While some students follow the lesson and are able to answer questions and do well in

tests, others fall behind, don't seem to understand and do badly in tests. While some students pay attention and are cooperative, others 'misbehave' and seem

disinterested. Teachers feel concerned that they are not challenging the high-achievers enough and at the

same time are not giving enough help to those who are not doing well. Teachers find it hard to 'pitch' their lessons at a level where all students can be engaged.

Ways that mixed ability learners are different:Attention; interest; motivation; learning styles; types of intelligences; physiological needs; psychological needs; speed; maturity; world knowledge; knowledge of and about English.

Teenagers: mixed ability tips.(In order to give all students the chance to benefit from your lessons.)

1. Understanding that we need to address all the students in class,2. Understanding that students are at different levels of English.3. Techniques for dealing with mixed ability students:graded dictation.4. Understanding that students work at different speeds and energy levels.5. Understanding that students have different learning styles.6. Understanding that students come to class with a lot of knowledge of things other than

English.7. Techniques for dealing with mixed ability students: problem solving.8. Understanding that students need to work at their own level.

Reader: Mixed ability or mixed blessing?As teachers, we often find ourselves oscilitating between relating to our class as a homogenous group, and being aware that these classes are made up of individuals with their different characteristics and needs. Treating them as one group may feel like the obvious solution, but by doing so, it is easy to forget that taking into account students' individual needs can make for more interesting learning and teaching.

Mixed ability classes.The bottom line in any of our teaching contexts is that whilst thinking of our students as a group for practical purposes, we also have to recognise that this group is made up of individuals who will, naturally, have different strengths and weaknesses for a range of reasons.

Mixed ability students.Students are influenced in their learning of English by a whole range of factors, including:

Linguistic ability. L1 (mother tongue) and social/cultural background. Prior learning, educational background and awareness of the learning process. Motivation, reasons for learning and wider life goals. Learning styles, preferences, interests, age, maturity and gender. Leanring speed and attention span. Other individual concerns, such as dyslexia, physical disabilities or emotional problems. Distractions, problems and responsibilities, and the impact of these on attendance.

Differentiation.Differentiation techniques address and cash in on each student's differences. By using them, you may find that the different needs of your students are no longer something to hide under the

carpet.

Differentiation techniques.1. Getting to know your students.

– Listen and take notes as students do getting-to-know-you activities.– Ask the students to write you a letter introducing themselves and their reasons for studying.– Allow your students to get to know you, as much as you feel comfortable with.– Personalise activities whenever possible.– Ensure you get to know the shy individuals.– Train your students to sit in different places.– Keep a page with notes about your students.

2. Addressing the class.– Think more carefully about the questions you ask and to whom.– Supplement your teacher-talk by putting written prompts on the board.– Appeal to more visual students by emphasising points.

3. Grouping the students.– Group learners according to differences but also similarities.– Try pairing or grouping students according to the other factors.– Re-group after group activities.– Consider having permanent groupings.– Discuss feedback and error-correction methods openly and consider how directly to express feedback to each student.

Reader: Differentiation.BRIEVEN IN READER DOORLEZEN!

Learning Teaching. Chapter 2: Classroom activities.

2.1 Planning an activity.The activity or task is the basic building block of a lesson. It's something that learners do that involves them using or working with language to achieve some specific outcome. The outcome may reflect a 'real-world' outcome or it may be a purely 'for-the-purposes-of-learning' outcome.As far as possible, make sure that your learners have some specific thing to do, whatever the stage of the lesson. By focusing on what the students do while making a lesson plan, we are likely to think more about the actuallearning that might arise and create a lesson that is more genuinely useful. Think of a complete lesson as being a coherent sequence of learner-targeted tasks.

Teacher options.Even though the coursebook tasks include explicit instructions, you always have the option as a teacher to give a different organisational instruction.The coursebook provides the raw material which only comes alive in class. You have important choices as to how to do this.

2.2 Activity route map.1. Before the lesson: familiarise yourself with the material and activity; prepare any materials

or texts you need; think of scenarios that are likely to happen.2. Lead-in/preperation: (in class) may help to raise motivation or interest, or perhaps to focus

on language items that might be useful in the activity.3. Setting up the activity: organise the students so that they can do the activity or section;

give clear instructions for the activity; check back that the instructions have been understood. (In some activities it may be useful to allow someindividual work before the students get together with others.

4. Running the activity: monitor at the start of the activity or section to check that the task has been understood and that the students are doing what you intended them to do; if eveything's clear, the activity can now largely run itself; allow the students to work on the task without too much further interference; beware of encumbering the students with unnecessary help.

5. Closing the activity: allow the activity or section to close properly, rather than suddenly stopping the activity at a random point; if different groups are finishing at different times, make a judgement about when coming together as a whole class would be useful to most people; give a time warning if some students are still working.

6. Post-activity: feedback sessions are usually important after activities. It is worth to plan a feedback moment in your lesson plan.

Learning Teaching. Chapter 3: Classroom management.3.1 What is classroom management?

Classroom management is creating the conditions in which learning can take place. The skills of creating and managing a successful class may be the key to the whole success of a course.These are common classroom management areas:

1. Activities: setting up activities; giving instructions; monitoring activities; timing activities; bringing activities to an end.

2. Grouping and seating: forming groups; arranging and rearranging seating; deciding where you will stand or sit; reforming class as a whole group after activities.

3. Authority: gathering and holding attention; deciding who does what; establishing or relinquishing authority as appropriate; getting someone to do something.

4. Critical moments: starting the lesson; dealing with unexpected problems; maintaining appropriate discipline; finishing the lesson.

5. Tools and techniques: using the board and other classroom equipment or aids; using gestures to help clarity of instructions or explanations; speaking clearly at an appropriate volume and speed; use of silence; grading complexity of language; grading quantity of language.

6. Working with people: spreading your attention evenly and appropriately; using intuition to gauge what students are feeling; eliciting honest feedback from students; really listening to students.

Classroom management involves both decisions and actions. The actions are what is done in the classroom. The decisions are about whether to do these actions, when to do them, how to do them and who will do them.The essential basic skill for classroom management is to be able to look at and read classroom events as they occur and think of possible options available to you, to make appropriate decisions between these options, and to turn them into effective and efficient actions.

3.2 Classroom interaction.Some common types of student grouping in the classroom include: whole class working together with you; whole class moving around and mixing together as individuals (a mingle); small groups; pairs; individual work.Varying groupings is one way of enabling a variety of experiences for the learners.

Teacher talk and student talk.

Students learn a lot of their language from what they hear you say. It would be unsatisfactory if your talk dominated the lesson to the exclusion of participation from as many learners as possible.

3.3 Seating.However your classroom is laid out and whatever kind of fixed or moveable seating you have, it is worth taking time to consider the best ways to make use of it.For each activity you do in class, consider what grouping, seating, standing arrangements are most appropriate. Changing seating arrangements can help students to interact with different people, change the focus from you when appropriate and allow a range of different situations to be recreated within the classroom, as well as simply adding variety to the predictability of sitting in the same place every time.Remain aware of the possibilities of using the space you are in; sometimes a complete change in the room can make all the difference. Even with the most immovable of fixed scating, it is often possible to be creative in some way.

3.4 Giving instructions.In a multilingual class you have to use English for instructions. But, in monolingual classes you have a choice: English, native language.

How can I give clearer instructions?There are five steps towards better instructions:

1. Become aware of your own instruction-giving.2. For a while, pre-plan essential instructions. Analyse the instructions beforehand so as to

include only the essential information in simple, clear language and sequence it in a sensible order.

3. In class, separate instructions clearly from the other chit-chat, tellinf off, joking, etc that goes on. Create a silence, be authoritative. Use the silence and gestures to pace the instructions and clarify their meaning.

4. Demonstrate rather than explain wherever possible.5. Check that students have understood what to do.

How to get the learners attention.Start making eye contact with as many people as possible; establish a gesture that means you want to speak; just wait; don't look impatient or anxious; think of this as 'gathering attention'; wait as long as necessary until there's enough silence, but don't alter it dramatically.You need to establish your authority and use it appropriately. Project your voice clearly, but speak rather than shout. Control the quantity and complexity of what you say. Say wjat you need to as simply and clearly as possible.

3.5 Monitoring.Deciding on your role while students do an activity:

1. The first 30 seconds: are they doing the task set?Quietly and relativelty inconspicuously wandering around the room, listening in briefly to snatches from many groups and assuring yourself that students are doing what they are supposed to do.

2. The task itself.If the students are doing the task correctly, they don't need any help from you. Monitor discreetly (→ you maintain present in the room, but do not overtly offer help, intervene, correct, etc.) or vanish (→ get out of immediate eyeshot).In some tasks, you may find that some kind of more active rol is asked for. Then you should

monitor actively (→ be visible, allow students to be aware of your presence and of the possibility of calling on you for help and advice) or participate (→ sit down and join a group, then move on to another group, etc).

3.6 Gestures.Try to develop a range of gestures (and facial expressions) to save yourself repeating basic instructions and to increase opportunities for learner talk.Remember that learners will need to learn the meanings of your gestures.

3.7 Using the board.Organisation.Remember that it's not only teachers who can write on boards – where appropriate, get learners to write up answers and ideas, draw pictures and timelines, etc.

3.8 Eliciting.Eliciting meansd drawing out information, language, ideas, etc from the students. It is a technique based on the principles that students probably know a lot more than we may give them credit for; starting with what they know is a productive way to begin new work; involving people in a question-and-answer movement towards new discoveries is often more effective than simply giving lectures.

There are three steps to eliciting:1. I convey a clear idea to the students, perhaps by using pictures, gestures or questions,etc.2. They then supply the appropriate language, information or ideas.3. I give them feedback.

3.9 How to prevent learning – some popular techniques.TTT (Teacher Talking Time).The more you talk, the less opportunity there is for the learners. They need time to think, to prepare what they are going to say and how they are going to say it.Echo.When you echo, the learners soon learn that they don't need to listen to anyone except you, because they know that you'll repeat everything. That has a dramatically negative effect on interaction patterns within the classroom.Helpful sentence completion.People need to finish their own sentences. If they can't finish their own sentences, they need help – but help to produce their own sentence, using their own words and their own ideas.Complicated and unclear instructions.Unplanned, unstructured instructions are extremely confusing to students.Not checking understanding of instructions.Asking Do you understand?You often need clear information about what students have taken in. The best way to do this is to get students to demonstrate their understanding.Fear of genuine feedback.If you can open yourself up to the possibilities of really listening to what students have to say with a view to simply hearing them – without self-defence, justifications or arguments – then you may find that you can start to find out what they are really thinking, and that you can work on responding appropriately to that.Insufficient authority/over-politeness.

Be clear. Say what you need to say without hiding it. Feel your own natural authority and let it speak clearly.The running commentary.Tell the students what they need to know – and stop.Lack of confidence in self, learners, material, activity/making it too easy.Try to keep the level of challenge high. Be demanding. Believe that they can do more than they are aware of being able to do – and help them to do it.Over-helping/over-organising.Sometimes the students will do much better without us, if only we have the courage to trust them.Flying with the fastest.Not really listening (hearing language problems but nog the message).Weak rapport: creation of a poor working environment.

3.10 Intuition.Use of intuition is fundamental to teaching. It is the skill of spontaneously understanding something.Intuitive responses are important in teaching because things happen so fast in lesson time and there is so much to notice, flying at us all at once.Fluent teaching depends on being able to quickly read the classroom situation moment-by-moment and respond appropriately.

Origins of intuition.Intuition is your ability to smoothly access the quantity of experience you have stored inside you to help you interpret what is happening in the present of the moment.We do things → we recall them and reflect on them. This adds to our store of experienced situations → processed and unprocessed memories mix, overlap, synthesise, get confused, cross-fertilise, etc. → Intuitive insights.

Learning Teaching. Chapter 4: Who are the learners?4.1 Individuals and groups.

Motivation.External motivation → external reasons to study.Internal motivation → studying just for the rewards within the work itself.In either case, the strenght of their motivation will be a factor in determining how seriously they approach the work, how much time they set aside for it, how hard they push themselves, etc.

Multiple intelligences.Howard Gardener has suggested that people could have seven 'intelligences':

1. linguistic2. visual3. musical4. logical/mathematical5. bodily/feeling6. interpersonal (contact with other people)7. intrapersonal (understanding oneself)

Gardener suggests that we probably all have these seven intelligences but in different proportions.

4.2 What level are my students?Common level structures in schools.

Many schools divide learners into classes at named language levels, often using coursebooks labelled for those levels. A common structure is:Beginner → Elementary → Pre-intermediate → Intermediate → Upper-intermediate → Advanced.

There are other level systems you may come across. An influential one from the Council of Europe categorises learners as follows:C2 Mastery Nearly native-speaker levelC1 Operational proficiency AdvancedB2 Vantage Upper-intermediate/Post-intermediateB1 Threshold IntermediateA2 Waystage Pre-intermediateA1 Breakthrough Beginner/Elementary

Other educational institutions may structure class levels around exams that students take, naming classes after the exam they are preparing for. (KET, PET, FCE, CAE, CPE, etc.)

IELTS is an exam often taken by people who want to go abroad for employment or study.

Conclusions about level. Every learner has an individual range of levels. Every class is a mixed-level class.

4.3 Learners and their needs.Learners have distinct, individual reasons for being in a class and learning English. We can teach better if we know more about these.

4.4 Getting feedback from learners.Avoiding feedback.Teachers may avoid feedback because they fear hearing comments about their work. The more they avoid it, the more dangerous it becomes, because ungiven feedback piles up like floodwater behind a dam.

4.5 Learner training.Learner training included working on study skills; student examination of the process of learning and reflection on what is happening.

Three ideas to start learner training.1. Integrate study-skills work.2. Let them into the secret.

Talk through the lesson procedure with the learners.3. Discuss process as well as content and procedure.

Learning teaching. Chapter 14: Using technology.14.1 The technology, the teacher and the student.

New technology is widely available. Teaching is beginning to undergo a huge change, the implications of which are not yet fully clear.

14.2 Interactive whiteboards.Things that you can do with IWB's:

Write or draw with a special pen. Save what you have done for later retrieval. Change or erase what you have written or start a new page. Show images, documents and other resources. Annotate previously prepared word-processor texts. View videos and images. Access the Internet. Revisit saved digital boards/pages from your lesson and print them out. Display and run automated content. Use commercial IWB materials.

There are two main types of IWB's: Fixed IWB: an electronic board fixed to the wall, usually in place of the normal board. There

is a projector, usually attached to the ceiling and a computer and peripheral somewhere accesible.

Portable IWB: a small box that can be placed at the bottom of a standard non-interactive whiteboard to add interactivity.

On a fixed IWB you can usually access most functions with your pen: Create a flipchart/notebook. Add a blank page. Choose pen type. Highlighter. Hide/reveal an item or page. Calibrate/keystone correction.

How can I teach with an IWB? Teach as normal and forget all the fancy stuff. Work live with texts. Share learner's work. Integrate Internet-based materials into the lesson. Run automated exrcises.

Useful optional peripherals. Interactive 'voting' buttons, for students to select answers and convey them to the board. Tablet computers, for students to write onto the board without actually coming up to the

IWB. Warning notice: 'do NOT write on this board with ordinary board pens.'

14.3 Presentation software. PowerPoint, Microsoft. Keynote, Apple. The Free Impress (OpenOffice). Prezi and Presentations (GoogleDocs).

Making better inputs.In your presentations:

Minmal text. Be demanding on your clip art.

Make a show with only pictures. Animated grammar. Drills. Download shows. Ask yourself.

Students using presentation software.They could use it for:

Present a current news story. Research an unlikely topic. Make a vocabulary lesson. Pecha Kucha: a PowerPoint presentation that is exactly 20 slides long. Each slide is

automatically timed to change after 20 seconds.

Dangers with presentation software. PowerPoint = interaction between teacher and IWB. Death by PowerPoint. Too many slide, too many words, no interaction. Dead lessons. Using a presentation again and again and again and again...

Teachniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Chapter 13: Learning Strategy Training, Cooperative Learning, and Multiple Intelligences.Learning Strategy Training.In the early 1970s, language learners were seen to be more actively responsible for their own learning. In keeping with this perception, in 1975 Rubin investigated what 'good language learners' did to facilitate their learning. She identified some learning strategies, 'the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge'. Good language learners are willing and accurate guessers who have a strong desire to communicate, and will attempt to do so even at the risk of appearing foolish. They attend to both the meaning and the form of their message. They also practice and monitor their own speech as well as the speech of others.In order to maximize the potential of learners and contribute to their autonomy, language learners needed training in learning strategies. This led to the idea of learning strategy training – training students in the use of language strategies in order to improve their learning effectiveness.

Metacognitive strategies.Strategies that are used to plan, monitor and evaluate a learning task. Examples: arranging the conditions that help one learn, setting long and short-term goals, checking one's comprehension during listening or reading.

Cognitive strategies.Involve learners interacting and manipulating what is to be learned. Examples: replaying a word or phrase mentally to 'listen' to it again, outlining and summarizing what has been learned from reading or listening, using keywords.

Social/affective strategies.Learners interact with other persons or 'use affective control to assist learning'. Examples: creating situations to practice the target language with others, using self-talk, cooperating or working with others to share information, obtain fedback, complete a task.

Cooperative learning.

Involves students learning from each other in groups. The way that students and teachers work together is important. The teacher helps students learn how to learn more effectively. Teachers teach students collaborative or social skills so that they can work together more effectively.

Multiple intelligences.Work by Howard Gardner on multiple intelligences has been influential in language teaching circles. Teachers who recognize the multiple intelligences of their students acknowledge that students bring with them specific and unique strengths, which are often not taken into account in classroom situations. There are at least eight distinct intelligences that can be developed over a lifetime:

1. Logical/mathematical – the ability to use numbers effectively, to see abstract patterns, and to reason well. Puzzles and games, logical, sequential.

2. Visual/spatial – the ability to orient oneself in the environment, to create mental images, and a sensitivity to shape, size and color. Charts and grids, videos, drawing.

3. Body/kinesthetic – the ability to use one's body to express oneself and to solve problems. Hands-on activities, field trips, pantomine.

4. Musical/rhythmic – the ability to recognize tonal patterns and a sensitivity to rhythm, picth, melody. Singing, playing music, jazz chants.

5. Interpersonal – the ability to understand another person's moods, feelings, motivations, and intentions. Pairwork, project work, group problem solving.

6. Intrapersonal – the ability to understand oneself and to practice self-discipline. Self-evaluation, journal keeping, options for homework.

7. Verbal/linguistic – the ability to use language effectively and creatively. Note-taking, storytelling, debates.

8. Naturalistic – the ability to relate to nature and to classify what is observed. Collecting objects from the natural world; learning their names and about them.

A way to teach all the multiple intelligences in one lesson is to deliberately plan lessons so that they are all represented.

The Five Minds.Gardner has developed a theory, focused on cognitive abilities that individuals need to develop in order to be successful in a changing world. Gardner proposes five minds, ways of thinking and acting in the world, which the students need to develop.

1. The Disciplinary Mind: students master a traditional body of information.2. The Synthesizing Mind: the focus shifts to bringing together, organizing, understanding,

and articulating information from various disciplines in a unified and cogerent whole.3. The Creating Mind: students are encouraged to come up with new ideas, original solutions

to problems, and creative questions.4. The Respectful Mind: reflected by awareness of, appreciation for, and openness to the

differences and individuality of others.5. The Ethical Mind: encourages students to cultivate a sense of responsibility for themselves

and for the wellbeing of others.

Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Chapter 14: Emerging Uses of Technology in Language Teaching and Learning.Grammaring → The ability to use grammar structures accurately, meaningfully, appropriately, and creatively.

Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) → Can adapt to diverse learners by analyzing their input and providing customized feedback and remedial exercises suited to their proficiency.

Concordances → An alphabetical index of all the words in a text or corpus of texts, showing every contextual occurrence of a word.

The goals of the teacher.The teacher seeks to provide students with access to authentic language. The language should be used in interaction with others and in relation to knowledge creation. Learning to use technology to support one's language learning is also important because it makes students more autonomous learners.

The role of the teacher.To plan activities that students accomplish via technological means. They monitor their works and guide the students as they learn the language.

The role of the student.To be actively involved in using the language, taking risks with the language by connecting with others, exploring information via the target language. Students help each other.

Characteristics of the teaching-learning process.Learning languages through the use of technology brings learners into contact with authentic language use. Student-generated language is what is focused upon. There is no particular pre-set order to the language items that are learned. Language is influenced by the topical focus and by the personal relationships that are developing. Cultivating students' language awareness is important.Emergitism → a language is learned by using it.

The nature of student-teacher interaction.The teacher guides the process while students enjoy a great deal of autonomy over what is focused on and on how the tasks are achieved.

Student-student interaction.Students working together, helping each other or individual work.

Feelings of the students.Students are motivated by online tasks. They enjoy autonomy in what they want to focus on and learn about.

Language.Language is a tool for social interaction, relationship building, and for knowledge creation. It is used for communication.

Culture.Students learn about the everyday life culture of speakers of the target language through their online interactions, such as those from e-pen pals.

Areas of language.Personal statements, sharing of opinion or facts, reporting and reflectiong are emphasized. Also the skills of reading and writing, although speaking and listening may also be worked on,

depending on which technology is used.

Role of the native language.Can be used for communication and support for learning the target language.

Evaluation.Via an electronic or virtual portfolio of student work that a teacher archives.

Student errors.Editing one's own work is an pongoing process. Therefore, errors are nog a preoccupation of the teacher. Language use is creative and forgiving.

Techniques.Blogs; Computer-assisted Language Learning Software (CALL); Digital Portfolios; Distance Education; Electronic Chatting; E-Pen Pals; Electronic Presentations; Electronic Text Corpora; Cell Phone-based Applications: Text Messaging and Twitter; Podcasts; Social Networking; Wikis.