Language & Nationalism in Europe

Chapter 7 Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg: The total

coincidence of nations &

speech communities?

Q: In what countries is German a majority language?

Q: In what countries is German a majority language?

A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein

Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria?

Q: In what countries is German a majority language?

A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein

Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria?

A: Lusatia in E. Germany, where Lusatian (Sorbian) is spoken and Carinthia in S. Austria, where Slovene is spoken

Q: What other countries use German?

Q: In what countries is German a majority language?

A: Germany, Austria, LiechtensteinQ: What are the minor exceptions in Germany

and Austria?A: Lusatia in E. Germany, where Lusatian

(Sorbian) is spoken and Carinthia in S. Austria, where Slovene is spoken

Q: What other countries use German?A: Switzerland & Luxembourg

Switzerland

• German is a majority language only in the German area, which is the largest region, and is diglossic (Swiss-German/High German)

• 4 national languages: German, French, Italian, Romansh

• Romansh is a minority language even in its own region, where German predominates

• Language does not play a major role in Swiss identity

Luxembourg

• Diglossia: Majority spoken language is Luxembourgish, which is close to German; German is also used for formal purposes, although Luxembourgish does have a written standard

• French is also used

The languages of the region

• German has a complex of dialects, often mutually incomprehensible

• Significant immigrant populations in the region include Turkish, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese

• Border zone enclaves: Danish in Germany; Slovene, Croatian, and Hungarian in Austria -- all of these groups have a single standard language and receive support from their respective countries

The languages of the region, cont’d.

• Sorbian has two written standard languages: Upper Sorbian (which is closest to Czech) and Lower Sorbian (which is closest to Polish)

• Sorbian has been under uninterrupted German control since Middle Ages

• Sorbs have received support from Czechs (less from Poles) and were protected under communism

The languages of the region, cont’d.

• N. Frisian in Germany is related to Frisian in Netherlands, but suffers from dialectal fragmentation and have 4 rival written standards

• Romansh has more than 6 rival standards (severe fragmentation) and is related to Ladin & Friulian in N. Italy

• Both Frisian & Romansh suffer fragmentation and lack an external country to promote their interests

German

• Most minority languages in contact with German are non-Germanic and clearly distinct; only Danish & N. Frisian are Germanic, but mutual comprehensibility with German is very low.

• German has many dialects, often mutually incomprehensible

• Dutch is closer to the contiguous dialects of German than many other German dialects

• The identity of German cannot be established on the basis of purely linguistic criteria

German linguistic identity

• Speakers of Luxembourgish, Swiss-German, & Low German feel standard German is separate, foreign

• Luxembourg has its own version of a written standard, but Swiss-German does not

• All German speakers consider their language to be “German” even though German dialects are more diverse than the separate languages of Scandinavia

German linguistic identity, cont’d.

• Austrians see themselves as German, too, though separate Austrian identity develops since 19th c and especially post-WWII

• There has never been a state uniting all German speakers– Kulturnation: nation united only by a common

culture– Staatsnation: nation united by a state

German speakers constitute a Kulturnation -- but why?

German speakers constitute a Kulturnation -- but why?

• “Given the high diversity of its language, and the group’s increasing cultural & political fragmentation, it is indeed surprising that it did not develop into a number of different ethnic groups speaking what would have been considered to be a number of different languages, which then with the modern development of a nation, would have become a number of different nations.”

Name that country!

• Only one area of continental W. Germanic speech became separate in both language and national identity -- what is it?

The Netherlands

• Only one area of continental W. Germanic speech became separate in both language and national identity -- what is it?

Other close relatives

• Frisian -- strong influence from Dutch, German, and Danish; dialectal fragmentation; consider themselves separate from German

• Switzerland -- Multilingual state does not use language as a unifying factor; Swiss-German also identify selves as Swiss; use of German is matter of convenience, not identity

• Luxembourg -- These people consider their language distinct & have negative feelings toward Germany

Germany & Austria

• 15th-17th c single standard language developed, including Germany & Austria

• German Empire of 1871 excluded Austria• Never any serious attempt at a distinct Austrian

language• No desire for political unification with Germany• But Austrians DO see a strong link between their

identity as native speakers of German & Austrian identity

German in Germany

• 1871-1933 German Empire & Wiemar Republic fostered loyalty to state & focused attention on language as a unifying factor; promoted linguistic purism

• 1933-1945 Nazi regime & first state to politically unify all Germans

• Post-WWII divided Germany

German in Germany

• Immigration of ethnic Germans from E. Europe & former USSR creates tensions with citizens who see identity in terms of language

• GDR failed to build loyalty to state rather than culture, and political division did not result in linguistic division

• Overall, there is a strong link between German language and national identity