© Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR ... · PDF file3 J ennifer is a 42-year-old tennis player. She states that recently her energy levels have dropped and she has had

1 Introduction toSports Nutrition

■ What is sports nutrition?

■ Why study sports nutrition?

■ What are the basic nutrients?

■ How does the body produce energy?

■ What are the Dietary Reference Intakes?

■ What are enriched and fortified foods?

■ What are the basic nutrition guidelines?

■ How should athletes interpret the information on food labels?

■ What are the factors to consider when developing an individualized sports nutrition plan for athletes?

■ How can sports nutrition knowledge be converted into practical applications?

© Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.

3

Jennifer is a 42-year-old tennis player. She states that recently her energy levels have droppedand she has had a hard time recovering from long tennis matches. She also complains of being“hungry all the time.” The constant hunger has been frustrating because she is trying to main-

tain her current weight and thus attempting to control her total daily intake. She has been “eatingwell” since she found out two years ago that she has high cholesterol. She counseled with a dieti-tian at the time of her diagnosis and subsequently made major changes in her diet such as switch-ing to nonfat foods and eliminating dairy. Her goals are to increase her energy levels, decreaserecovery time, and create a meal plan that will also be healthy for her husband and three sons.

Question

� What should be considered her top priority—her high cholesterol, struggle to maintain her weight, constant hunger, low energy levels, or long recovery time?


4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Sports Nutrition

What is sports nutrition?

Sports nutrition is a specializationwithin the field of nutrition that part-ners closely with the study of the hu-man body and exercise science. Sports

nutrition can be defined as the application of nutri-tion knowledge to a practical daily eating plan fo-cused on providing the fuel for physical activity,facilitating the repair and rebuilding process fol-lowing hard physical work, and optimizing athleticperformance in competitive events, while also pro-moting overall health and wellness. The area of sportsnutrition is often thought to be reserved for only“athletes,” which insinuates the inclusion of onlythose individuals who are performing at the elitelevel. In this text, the term athlete refers to any in-dividual who is regularly active, ranging from thefitness enthusiast to the competitive amateur or pro-fessional. Differences may exist in specific nutrientneeds along this designated spectrum of athletes, cre-ating the exciting challenge of individualizing sportsnutrition plans.

In order to fully understand and subsequentlyapply sports nutrition con-cepts, professionals instruct-ing athletes on proper eatingstrategies first need to have acommand of general nutri-tion as well as exercise sci-ence. The second step is togain the knowledge of hownutrition and exercise scienceare intertwined, understand-ing that physical training anddietary habits are reliant oneach other in order to pro-duce optimal performance.The final step can be consid-ered one of the most critical—the practical application ofsports nutrition knowledge toindividual athletes partici-pating in any sport or physi-cal activity.

Sports nutrition professionals must be able toteach athletes how to put “book” knowledge intopractice with actual food selection and meal plan-ning, while keeping in mind the challenges presented

by busy schedules of exercise, competitions, work,school, and other commitments. It is this third stepthat many professionals lack after graduating froman undergraduate or graduate program in sports nu-trition, dietetics, exercise science, or athletic train-ing. The focus of this book is to review sportsnutrition concepts while also translating the infor-mation into specific meal plans, recipes, and casestudy scenarios. Students are encouraged to seek ad-ditional opportunities outside the classroom to workwith recreational and elite athletes to gain more ex-perience in applying sports nutrition concepts beforesearching for a job in the “real world.”

Why study sports nutrition?

Sports nutrition has recently emerged as a rec-ognized specialty area within the field of nutri-tion. Athletes challenge their bodies on a regularbasis through physical training and competitions.In order to keep up with the demands of theiractivity or sport, athletes need to adequately fueltheir bodies on a daily basis. This fueling processrequires a specialized approach; therefore, ath-letes who want to make dietary changes shouldseek out professionals who are experts in sportsnutrition and experienced in developing individ-ualized plans.

Because of its relative in-fancy, sports nutrition researchis providing new and excitinginformation on a regular basis.Over the years, this informa-tion has been compiled to formdietary guidelines geared specif-ically for athletes. Profession-als who have studied sportsnutrition and have experiencein the field can help athletes in-terpret research and determinehow, or if, the information re-lates to their sport and indi-vidual needs.

Studying sports nutritionand becoming an expert requires years of educa-tion and experience. The last chapter of this text out-lines the traditional pathway to becoming an expertin this area, which can lead to an exciting and ful-filling career.

sports nutrition A recentspecialty area of studyand practice within thefield of nutrition.

gaining the performance edge

The field of sports nutritionrequires a command ofgeneral nutrition andexercise science, anunderstanding of theirinterrelationship, and theknowledge of how topractically apply sportsnutrition concepts. This textprovides a review of thecurrent sports nutritionresearch, establisheddietary recommendationsfor athletes, and guidanceon how to developindividualized nutritionplans for athletesparticipating in varioussports.


The field of sports nutritionis growing, and thuscreating a demand forqualified sports nutritionprofessionals. In order to be considered an “expert”in sports nutrition, aprofessional must obtainthe appropriate educationand certificationbackground as well ashands-on experienceworking with athletes.


What are the basic nutrients? 5

What are the basic nutrients?

Foods and beverages are composed of six nutrientsthat are vital to the human body for producing en-ergy, contributing to the growth and development oftissues, regulating body processes, and preventing de-ficiency and degenerative diseases. The six nutrientsare carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals,

and water. These six nutrients are clas-sified as essential nutrients. The bodyrequires these nutrients to functionproperly; however, the body is unableto endogenously manufacture them inthe quantities needed daily, and there-fore these nutrients must be obtainedfrom the diet. Carbohydrates, proteins,and fats are classified as macronutri-ents because they have a caloric valueand the body needs a large quantity ofthese nutrients on a daily basis. Themicronutrients include vitamins andminerals; the prefix micro- is used be-cause the body’s daily requirements forthese nutrients are small. Water fits intoits own class, and requirements for it

vary greatly among individuals. These nutrients willbe introduced in this section; individual chapters laterin this book will provide a more thorough reviewof their application to athletics.

What are carbohydrates?Carbohydrates are compounds constructed by car-bon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules. Carbo-hydrates are converted into glucose in the body,providing the main source of fuel (4 calories per gramof carbohydrate) for all physical activity. Carbohy-drates are found in a wide variety of foods includ-ing grains, fruits, and vegetables, as well as in themilk/alternative (soy, rice, nut, or other nondairyproducts) group.

What are proteins?Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, con-structed by carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro-gen molecules. Amino acids can be made within the

body (nonessential) or required fromdietary sources (essential). Proteins areinvolved in the development, growth,and repair of muscle and other bod-

ily tissues and are therefore critical for recovery fromintense physical training. Proteins ensure the bodystays healthy and continues working efficiently byaiding in many bodily processes. Protein can also beused for energy, providing 4 calories per gram; how-ever, it is not used efficiently and therefore is not asource of energy preferred by the body. Proteins arefound in a variety of foods including grains and veg-etables, but are mainly concentrated in the milk/alternative as well as meat and beans/alternative (soyproducts, nuts, seeds, beans, and other nonanimalproducts) group.

What are fats?Fats consist of oils and fat-like substances found infoods such as cholesterol and phospholipids. Fatsare commonly referred to as lipids. With 9 caloriesper gram, fats are a concentrated source of energy.Fat is primarily used as a fuel at rest and during low-to-moderate intensity exercise. Fats are also involvedin providing structure to cell membranes, aiding inthe production of hormones, lining of nerves forproper functioning, and facilitating the absorptionof fat-soluble vitamins. Fats are concentrated in but-ter, margarines, salad dressings, and oils, but are alsofound in meats, dairy products, nuts, seeds, olives,avocados, and some grain products.

What are vitamins?Vitamins are a large class of nutrients that containcarbon and hydrogen, as well as possibly oxygen, ni-trogen, and other elements. There are two main re-quirements for a substance to be classified as avitamin. First, the substance must be consumed ex-ogenously because the body cannot produce it orcannot produce it in sufficient quantities to meetits needs. Second, the substance must be essentialto at least one vital chemical reaction or process inthe human body. Vitamins do not directly provideenergy to the body; however, some vitamins aid inthe extraction of energy from macronutrients. Vit-amins are involved in a wide variety of bodily func-tions and processes that help to keep the body healthyand disease-free. Vitamins are classified as either wa-ter soluble (B vitamins and vitamin C) or fat solu-ble (vitamins A, D, E, and K), depending on theirmethod of absorption, transport, and storage in the body. Vitamins are found in nearly all foods in-cluding fruits, vegetables, grains, meat and beans/alternative, milk/alternative, and some fats.

nonessential A nutrientdescriptor referring tonutrients that can bemade within the body.

essential A nutritiondescriptor referring tonutrients that must beobtained from the diet.

macronutrients Theseinclude carbohydrates,proteins, and fats andare classified as suchbecause they havecaloric value and thebody has a large dailyneed for them.

micronutrients Vitaminsand minerals areclassified asmicronutrients becausethe body’s dailyrequirements for thesenutrients are small.



What are minerals?Minerals are also a large group of nutrients. Theyare composed of a variety of elements; however, theylack carbon. Minerals have a role in the structuraldevelopment of tissues as well as the regulation ofbodily processes. Physical activity places demandson muscles and bones, increases the need for oxy-gen-carrying compounds in the blood, and increasesthe loss of sweat and electrolytes from the body, allof which hinge on the adequate intake and replace-ment of dietary minerals. Minerals are categorizedinto major minerals (calcium, sodium, potassium,chloride, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur) andtrace minerals (iron, zinc, copper, selenium, iodine,fluoride, molybdenum, and manganese) based onthe total quantity required by the body on a dailybasis. Similar to vitamins, minerals are found in a

wide variety of foods, but mainlyare concentrated in the meatand beans/alternative andmilk/alternative groups.

What is water?Forming a category of its own,water deserves to be high-lighted due to its vital roleswithin the body. The humanbody can survive for a muchgreater length of time withoutany of the macro- or mi-cronutrients than without wa-ter. The body is made of55–60% water, representing anearly ubiquitous presence inbodily tissues and fluids. Inathletics, water is importantfor temperature regulation, lu-brication of joints, and thetransport of nutrients to activetissues. In addition to plainwater, water can be obtained

from juices, milk, coffee, tea,and other beverages, as well as watery foods such asfruits, vegetables, and soups.

How does the body produce energy?

The body derives its energy from foodsingested daily. Carbohydrates, fats, andproteins are known as the energy nu-trients because they serve as the body’ssource for energy. These energy nutri-

ents are quite literally chemicals that have energytrapped within the bonds between the atoms of whichthey are made. The energy trapped within these nu-trients is released when metabolic pathways within thecells break down the foods into their constituent parts,carbon dioxide and water. Some of the energy releasedis conserved or captured and used to make anotherhigh-energy chemical called adenosinetriphosphate (ATP). The rest of the en-ergy is lost as heat. ATP is the body’s di-rect source of energy for cellular work.Without a constant source of ATP, mus-cles would not be able to generate forceand thus athletes would not be able to move or per-form any physical activity. In Chapter 2, the impor-tance of the energy nutrients, the metabolic pathwaysthat break them down, and their role in energy pro-duction during sport will be discussed in more detail.

What are the Dietary Reference Intakes?

Several different terms are used to classify the rec-ommendations for macronutrients andmicronutrients. The Recommended Di-etary Allowances (RDAs) were devel-oped in 1941 by the U.S. NationalAcademy of Sciences. The RDAs werethe primary values health profession-als used to assess and plan diets for in-dividuals and groups, and to makejudgments about excessive intakes. TheRDAs still exist for many nutrients;however, a newer way to quantify nu-trient needs and excesses for healthyindividuals has been developed andtermed the Dietary Reference Intakes(DRIs). The DRIs expand on the RDAsand take into consideration other di-etary quantities such as Estimated Av-erage Requirement (EAR), AdequateIntake (AI), and Tolerable Upper In-take Level (UL). DRIs are continuallybeing reviewed, and reports on variousgroups of nutrients are published asscientific data are gathered. This com-prehensive effort to develop all com-ponents of the DRIs is under theauspices of the Standing Committee onthe Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Ref-erence Intakes of the Food and Nutri-tion Board, the Institute of Medicine,and the National Academy of Sciences

energy nutrientsCarbohydrates, proteins,and fats serve as thebody’s source of energyand are considered theenergy nutrients.

adenosine triphosphate(ATP) The molecule thatserves as the body’sdirect source of energyfor cellular work.

Recommended DietaryAllowance (RDA) Theaverage daily dietaryintake level that issufficient to meet thenutrient requirements ofthe overwhelmingmajority (i.e., 98%) of ahealthy population.

Dietary Reference Intakes(DRI) A newer way toquantify nutrient needsand excesses forhealthy individuals. TheDRI expands on theolder RecommendedDietary Allowances(RDA) and takes intoconsideration otherdietary quantities suchas Estimated AverageRequirement (EAR),Adequate Intake (AI),and Tolerable UpperIntake Level (UL).

Estimated AverageRequirement (EAR) Theestimated daily intakelevel of a vitamin ormineral needed to meetthe requirements, asdefined by a specifiedindicator of adequacy,of half of the healthyindividuals within agiven life stage orgender group.


Each of the six nutrientshas a role in the health andproper functioning of thehuman body. Physicalactivity places extrademands on the body,increasing the importanceof the nutrients’ presencein the diet. Many of thenutrients are so critical tooptimal athleticperformance that the totaldaily requirements areincreased to meet thedemands placed on thebody. The six basicnutrients each have distinct,but also intertwining, roles,making it critical toconsume adequateamounts of each nutrienton a daily basis.


What are enriched and fortified foods? 7

of the United States, along with HealthCanada.1 The definitions of these valuesare reviewed in Table 1.1.

What are enriched and fortifiedfoods?

In the milling process of grains, thegerm and bran are removed. The germand bran contain a majority of the vi-tamins and minerals in whole grains,and thus the resulting refined productis less nutritious. Refined grain prod-ucts include white flours, bread, pasta,rice, crackers, and cereals. To preventdeficiency diseases, the Food and DrugAdministration mandated in 1943 thatthe nutrients lost during the millingprocess of wheat, rice, and corn be re-placed. The nutrients identified andthus added to refined grain products

include thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron. The ad-dition of vitamins and minerals to refined products

is termed enrichment.Fortification is the addition of a vi-

tamin or mineral to a food or beveragein which it was not originally present.The first successful fortification pro-gram was the addition of iodine to salt in the 1920s to prevent goiter and other iodine deficiency conditions.In general, fortification is not requiredby the FDA, with the exception of f

olic acid in grains and vitamin D in milk. Other fortification programs aredesigned to enhance thequality of a product, such asthe addition of vitamin A tomilk and other dairy foods,as well as lysine to specificcorn products to enhanceprotein quality. The food in-dustry has the freedom toadd any vitamin or mineralto a product. However, theFDA does require companiesto show that a dietary in-sufficiency exists and there-fore requires fortification in otherwise standardizedproducts. Some products contain vitamins or min-erals not naturally found in the food or beverage,such as added vitamin D and vitamin B12 in soy milk. Other products boost existing vitamin or mineral content, such as extra vitamin C added to orange juice. Sport supplements, such as bars and shakes, are highly fortified with a variety of vitamins and minerals. Athletes should checklabels to ensure total daily con-sumption of any vitamin ormineral is not in excess ofupper dietary limits. Formore information about en-richment and fortification,visit the Food and Drug Ad-ministration’s Web site atwww.fda.gov.

1.1 Review of the DRI Values

DRI Value Definition

Dietary Reference Intake (DRI)Recommended Daily

Allowance (RDA)

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)

Adequate Intake (AI)

Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)

Umbrella term for all nutrient classifications, including RDA, EAR, AI, and UL.Average daily dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of

nearly an entire (i.e., 98%) healthy population. The established RDAs can vary based onlife stage, including age, gender, and, if appropriate, pregnancy and lactation.

Daily intake level of a vitamin or mineral estimated to meet the requirements, as defined bya specified indicator of adequacy, in half of the healthy individuals within a life stage orgender group.

Intake recommendation when insufficient scientific evidence is available to calculate anEAR/RDA. AI values are based on intake data of healthy individuals. However, the resultsof studies regarding the nutrient in question are not conclusive enough or more study isrequired before an EAR/RDA can be established.

The highest level of daily nutrient intake that poses no adverse health effects for almost allindividuals in the general population. At intakes above the UL, the risk of adverse effectsincreases.

Adequate Intake (AI)A reference intake fornutrients that is usedinstead of theRecommended DietaryAllowance. Wheninsufficient scientificevidence is available tocalculate an EstimatedAverage Requirement(EAR), then an AI isused. Similar to the EARand the RecommendedDietary Allowance(RDA), the AI values arebased on intake data ofhealthy individuals.

Tolerable Upper IntakeLevel (UL) The highestlevel of daily nutrientintake that poses noadverse health effectsfor almost all individualsin the generalpopulation.

enrichment The additionof vitamins andminerals to refined/processed products toincrease their nutritionalvalue.

fortification The processof adding vitamins orminerals to foods orbeverages that did notoriginally contain them.


The DRIs encompass theEARs, RDAs, AIs, and ULsfor each macronutrient,vitamin, and mineral basedon recent research andepidemiological data ofhealthy populations. Asmore information and dataare discovered, theserecommendations will beupdated and revised.


Enrichment and fortificationof foods and beverages areintended to help individualsmeet their daily nutrientneeds.



What are the basic nutrition guidelines?

The keys to healthful eating are to consume a dietthat provides adequate nutrients to maintain health,includes a variety of foods, is balanced, and is con-sumed in moderation. Government agencies havedeveloped several tools that provide general health-ful eating guidelines that include balance, variety,and moderation to help the American populationmaintain or improve health. The Dietary Guidelinesfor Americans and the MyPyramid food guidancesystem are two such tools that convert scientific ev-idence into practical applications that Americanscan use to eat more healthfully. These general guide-lines are applicable to sedentary and athletic indi-viduals alike.

What are the Dietary Guidelines for Americans?The Dietary Guidelines for Americans, developedjointly by the U.S. Department of Health and Hu-man Services (HHS) and the U.S. Department of Agri-culture (USDA), are revised and published every5 years. The first publication was in 1980. The mostrecent version of the Dietary Guidelines for Ameri-cans was published in 2005.2 The guidelines providescience-based advice for people 2 years and older ondietary and physical activity habits that can promotehealth and reduce the risk for chronic illnesses andconditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes,and hypertension. A healthful diet that is not ex-cessive in calories, follows the nutrition recommen-dations contained in the guidelines, and is combinedwith physical activity should enhance the health ofmost individuals.

The primary purpose of the Dietary Guidelinesis to provide the public with information about nu-trients and food components that are known to bebeneficial for health and to provide recommenda-tions that can be implemented into an eating and ex-ercise plan. The 2005 Dietary Guidelines cover nineinterrelated focus areas. When the guidelines are im-plemented as a whole, they encourage Americans toeat fewer calories, be more physically active, andmake wiser food choices.

The nine interrelated themes and the key rec-ommendations from the 2005 Dietary Guidelines re-port are as follows:2

1. Adequate Nutrients Within Calorie Needs■ Consume a variety of nutrient-dense foods

and beverages within and among the basicfood groups while choosing foods that limit

the intake of saturated and trans fats, cho-lesterol, added sugars, salt, and alcohol.

■ Meet recommended intakes within energyneeds by adopting a balanced eating pattern,such as the USDA’s MyPyramid food guid-ance system or the Dietary Approaches toStop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan.

2. Weight Management■ To maintain body weight in a healthy range,

balance calories from foods and beverageswith calories expended.

■ To prevent gradual weight gain over time,make small decreases in food and beveragecalories and increase physical activity.

3. Physical Activity■ Engage in regular physical activity and re-

duce sedentary activities to promote health,psychological well-being, and a healthybody weight (see ).a. To reduce the risk of chronic disease in

adulthood, engage in at least 30 minutes ofmoderate-intensity physical activity, abovethe usual activity, at work or at home onmost days of the week.

Figure 1.1

Walking for physical fitness. Obtaining 60 minutesof moderate-to-vigorous intensity activity on most days of theweek, combined with a diet that does not exceed calorie needs,helps manage weight.

Figure 1.1


What are the basic nutrition guidelines? 9

b. For most people, greater health benefits canbe obtained by engaging in physical activ-ity of more vigorous intensity or longerduration.

c. To help manage body weight and preventgradual, unhealthy body weight gain inadulthood, engage in approximately 60minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensityactivity on most days of the week, while notexceeding caloric intake requirements.

d. To sustain weight loss in adulthood, par-ticipate in at least 60 to 90 minutes of dailymoderate-intensity physical activity whilenot exceeding caloric intake requirements.Some people may need to consult with ahealthcare provider before participatingin this level of activity.

■ Achieve physical fitness by including cardio-vascular conditioning, stretching exercisesfor flexibility, and resistance exercises or cal-isthenics for muscle strength and endurance.

4. Food Groups to Encourage■ Consume a sufficient amount of fruits and

vegetables while staying within energyneeds. Two cups of fruit and 21⁄2 cups of veg-etables per day are recommended for indi-viduals consuming a 2,000-calorie diet, withhigher or lower amounts required dependentupon an athlete’s actual calorie needs.

■ Choose a variety of fruits and vegetableseach day. In particular, select from all fivevegetable subgroups (dark green, orange,legumes, starchy, and other vegetables) sev-eral times a week.

■ Consume three or more ounce-equivalentsof whole grain products per day, with therest of the recommended grains comingfrom enriched or whole grain products. Ingeneral, at least half the grains should comefrom whole grains.

■ Consume 3 cups per day of fat-free or low-fat milk or equivalent milk products.

5. Fats■ Consume less than 10% of calories from

saturated fatty acids and less than 300mg/day of cholesterol, and keep trans fattyacid consumption as low as possible.

■ Keep total fat intake between 20% and 35%of total calories, with most fats coming fromsources of polyunsaturated and monounsat-urated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, andvegetable oils.

■ When selecting and preparing meat, poultry,dry beans, and milk or milk products, makechoices that are lean, low-fat, or fat-free.

■ Limit intake of fats and oils high in satu-rated and/or trans fatty acids, and chooseproducts low in such fats and oils.

6. Carbohydrates■ Choose fiber-rich fruits, vegetables, and

whole grains often.■ Choose and prepare foods and beverages with

little added sugars or caloric sweeteners, suchas amounts suggested by the USDA’s MyPyra-mid food guidance system and DASH eatingplan.

■ Reduce the incidence of dental caries bypracticing good oral hygiene and consumingsugar- and starch-containing foods and bev-erages less frequently.

7. Sodium and Potassium■ Consume less than 2,300 mg of sodium

(approximately 1 tsp of salt) per day.■ Choose and prepare foods with little salt. At

the same time, consume potassium-richfoods, such as fruits and vegetables.

8. Alcoholic Beverages■ Those who choose to drink alcoholic

beverages should do so sensibly and in moderation—defined as the consumption ofup to one drink per day for women and twodrinks per day for men.

■ Alcoholic beverages should not be con-sumed by some individuals, including thosewho cannot restrict their alcohol intake,women of childbearing age who may be-come pregnant, pregnant and lactatingwomen, children and adolescents, individu-als taking medications that can interactwith alcohol, and those with specific med-ical conditions.

■ Alcoholic beverages should be avoided byindividuals engaging in activities that requireattention, skill, or coordination, such asdriving or operating machinery.

9. Food Safety■ To avoid microbial foodborne illness:

a. Clean hands, food contact surfaces, andfruits and vegetables. To avoid spreadingbacteria to other foods, meat and poultryshould not be washed or rinsed.

b. Separate raw, cooked, and ready-to-eatfoods while shopping, preparing, or stor-ing foods.



c. Cook foods to a safe temperature to kill micro-organisms.

d. Chill (refrigerate) perishable food promptlyand defrost foods properly.

e. Avoid raw (unpasteurized) milk or anyproducts made from unpasteurized milk,raw or partially cooked eggs or foods con-taining raw eggs, raw or undercooked meatand poultry, unpasteurized juices, and rawsprouts.

Although the Dietary Guidelines listed here weredeveloped with the American population’s health inmind, athletes can benefit from implementing theguidelines in their daily nutrition planning. By se-lecting a variety of nutrient-dense foods, as dictatedin the guidelines, athletes can meet their energy,macronutrient, and micronutrient needs for a highlevel of sport performance. The MyPyramid foodguidance system can be used to further plan an ath-

lete’s daily food intake by practically applying theinformation in the Dietary Guidelines.

What is the MyPyramid food guidance system?The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)released the MyPyramid food guidance system in2005 (www.MyPyramid.gov). The USDA’s Centerfor Nutrition Policy and Promotion, established in1994, developed the MyPyramid system to improvethe nutrition and well-being of Americans. TheMyPyramid system (see ) is a revision ofthe original Food Guide Pyramid released in 1992.The new pyramid was developed for two main pur-poses: (1) to improve the effectiveness in motivatingconsumers to make healthier food choices and (2) toincorporate the latest nutrition science informationinto the new system. MyPyramid and the DietaryGuidelines for Americans complement each otherand can provide basic guidelines and practical ap-

Figure 1.2

Anatomy of MyPyramidFigure 1.2


What are the basic nutrition guidelines? 11

plications for healthful eating to improve health andwell being.

The central message of MyPyramid is “Steps toa Healthier You.” Six key concepts help consumersput this message into practice.■ Activity: Is represented by the person climbing

the steps of the pyramid.■ Moderation: Graphically the food group areas

narrow from the bottom to the top ofMyPyramid. The wider base is depicted asfoods that contain little or no saturated fatsand sugars and the narrow portion containsfoods with higher amounts of fats and sugars.

■ Personalization: The www.MyPyramid.govpages help individuals personalize their ownMyPyramid by entering age, gender and physi-cal activity level.

■ Proportionality: The widths of the food groupson MyPyramid graphically display the propor-tions recommended in each food group category.

■ Variety: The six different color bands for the fivefood groups and oils section represent variety.Foods from each of the categories are neededeach day and the educational tools that comple-ment the graphic provide recommendations onhow to obtain variety within each food group.

■ Gradual Improvement: The slogan “Steps to aHealthier You” encourages individuals to takesmall steps to improve their diet and lifestyleeach day.Graphically, the MyPyramid food guidance sys-

tem is simple, descriptive, and allows consumers theopportunity to personalize the steps they can take toimprove their health and well-being. Each of the foodcategories and the physical activity portion ofMyPyramid are further described in print and elec-tronic format to help consumers make these changes.The concepts and main messages in each categoryare described briefly in the following sections.

The key message in the grain group of MyPyramidis that at least half of the total grains consumed shouldbe from whole grain sources. The goal is to eat threeor more ounce-equivalents of whole grain productseach day. Individuals that require more calories willneed to consume more than this amount daily. Exam-ples of whole grains include brown rice, bulgur, oat-meal, and whole wheat breads, crackers, and pastas.Consumers can check the food label for the words“whole grain” and the ingredient panel for the word“whole” or “whole grain” before the grain ingredient.

In the vegetable category, emphasis is placed notonly on consuming enough vegetables daily but also

on choosing different vegetables throughout the weekto obtain a greater variety of the nutrients providedfrom vegetables. The vegetables are listed in five sub-groups based on nutrient content: dark green, or-ange, starchy, dry beans and peas, and othervegetables. In order to make MyPyramid moreconsumer-friendly than the original pyramid, the rec-ommended daily amount is now listed in cups ratherthan number of servings.

Similar to the vegetable group, the key messagefor fruits is to consume the recommended amountsof fruit each day and to choose a variety of fruits.Fruits consumed fresh, canned, frozen, dried, or as100% juice all count toward the fruit recommen-dation. However, the new MyPyramid recommendslimiting fruit juices to less than half of the total dailyfruit intake. This recommendation is made becausefruit juices tend to be more calorie-dense and con-tain little fiber compared to whole fruits.

A variety of different foods are part of the oilsand fats section of MyPyramid. The key concept isto choose mainly monounsaturated and polyunsat-urated fats contained in foods such as fish, nuts,seeds, and vegetable oils. Oils used in liquid formsuch as canola, corn, olive, and sunflower are con-sidered unsaturated fats and commonly used in cook-ing. Other foods are also composed primarily of oilssuch as mayonnaise, salad dressings, and margarinesand may contain both unsaturated and saturatedfats. Saturated fats are also a part of this section ofMyPyramid. These are fats that are solid at roomtemperature, like butter and shortening or beef fatthat is visible on the outside of meat. Choosing lessoil and when using oils, choosing ones that are lowin saturated or trans fats, is recommended.

The milk group of MyPyramid contains liquidmilk products, yogurt, cheeses, and many foods madefrom milk. The key concept for the milk categoryis to consume three cups of fat-free or low-fat (1%)milk or an equivalent amount of yogurt or cheeseper day. Foods made from milk that retain calciumafter processing (such as cheese and yogurt) are partof this food group, but foods made from milk thatdo not contain appreciable calcium (such as creamcheese and butter) are not included in this group. In-dividuals who do not or cannot consume milk andmilk products should consume dairy alternative prod-ucts (soy, nut or grain milk, yogurt and cheese) andother calcium-rich foods daily.

The meat and beans group includes foods madefrom meat, poultry, fish, dry beans or peas, eggs,nuts, and seeds. The key concept for this group is



to make choices that are low-fat or lean when se-lecting meat and poultry. The dry beans and peas,including soy products, are part of this group as wellas the vegetable group. Dry beans and peas are nat-urally low in fat and nutrient-dense. Nuts, seeds, andsome fatty fishes contain higher fat content but thesefats are from healthy oils and should be chosen fre-quently as a substitute for meat or poultry.

The new component of the MyPyramid systemis physical activity. Encouraging physical activity ata level that can improve health and be incorporateddaily has been given high importance in the MyPyra-mid symbol. The key message in this category is toengage in regular physical activity and reduce seden-tary activities. Physical activity includes movementthat uses energy. Obtaining at least 30 minutes ofphysical activity every day is the minimum recom-mendation from the MyPyramid system. Intentionalexercise or physical activity that is moderate or vig-orous will count toward the 30 minutes daily. Forexample, moderate or vigorous activities include:walking briskly, hiking, gardening/yard work, golf(walking and carrying clubs), weight training, bi-cycling, swimming, aerobics, etc. Physical activitiesthat are not intense enough to meet the recommen-dations might include walking at a casual pace ordoing light household chores.

To personalize a plan, individuals can go towww.mypyramid.gov to get information that is spe-cific to their needs for energy, nutrient compositionand physical activity level. For example, a 32-year-old female recreational runner can enter her age, gen-der, and average amount of daily physical activityand the online MyPyramid program will calculatethe recommended servings in each of the five ma-jor food groups and information on the amount ofoils and discretionary calories per day. shows the food group recommendations, number offats and oils servings, discretionary calories, andstates what calorie level the pattern is based on forthis 32-year-old runner at the moderate activity level.Following the recommendations from this calcula-tion should help this female athlete maintain a health-ful weight and meet nutrient requirements. If energyexpenditure should increase (for example, if thisfemale runner decided to train for a marathon) shecould return to the Web site and enter the new in-formation using the 60 minutes or more physical ac-tivity level and a new calorie level and recommendedservings would be calculated. This individualizationis helpful because not all individuals at the same ageand gender have the same physical activity level and

Figure 1.3

energy needs. Athletes with extremely high exer-cise levels will need to consume more than theMyPyramid plan recommends because these athletesare exercising at daily levels significantly greater than60 minutes.

The new MyPyramid food guidance system pro-vides a wealth of information for consumers to ap-ply healthful eating and exercise patterns into dailylifestyle. Athletes can use this system to learn their per-sonalized nutrient needs. Many athletes who train ex-tensively daily will need a significantly higher numberof calories than the average person. These additionalcalories should be consumed in nutrient-dense foodsfrom the MyPyramid food groups. In summary,MyPyramid provides detailed guidelines for improv-ing overall health, as well as athletic performance, withadequate daily nutrition and physical activity.

How should athletes interpret the information on food labels?

The nutrition guidelines presented in this text are acombination of the current research in sports nu-trition and the practical application of that knowl-edge. A large part of the practical portion is athletes’awareness of how the foods they eat contribute totheir total daily needs. The food label allows athletesto obtain credible and reliable nutrition informationabout various food and beverage products, ultimatelyempowering them to make wise food choices on adaily basis. However, some athletes find the food la-bel confusing and difficult to interpret. This sec-tion will provide a brief overview of the food label,the components that pertain directly to sports nu-trition, and how to apply the label information toindividual scenarios. A full report and explanationof the food label and associated regulations can befound at www.fda.gov.

Who created the food label regulations?The Food and Drug Administration(FDA) is the governing body respon-sible for assuring the safety of foodssold in the United States, which in-cludes overseeing the proper labelingof foods. In 1990, Congress passed theNutrition Labeling and Education Act(NLEA) based on the demand for con-sistent consumer information and labeling of allfoods. With the passing (1990) and implementation(1994) of the NLEA, a series of changes were seen

Food and DrugAdministration (FDA)The governing bodyresponsible for assuringthe safety of foods soldin the United States.This includes oversightof the proper labeling offoods.


How should athletes interpret the information on food labels? 13

The new MyPyramid food guidance system allows individuals to personalize their food plan based on gender, age andlevel of physical activity.

Figure 1.3



on food packages. A nutrition label is now requiredon most food packages, with a few exceptions suchas small, individual food packages (modified labelrequired) and meat products (governed by the USDA,therefore no labeling is required). The nutrition la-beling of food products must follow specific FDAguidelines including the presentation of an ingredi-ents list, a “Nutrition Facts” panel, and, if applica-

ble, approved and established nutrientcontent claims or health claims. Thefollowing sections will discuss these la-beling components and their relevanceto an athlete’s diet.

How can the ingredient list be useful to athletes?An ingredients list is required on allfoods that contain more than one in-gredient. The ingredients must be listed

in descending order of predominance in the prod-uct. The order of predominance is determined byweight, with the ingredient that weighs the most listedfirst and the one that weighs the least listed last. Ath-letes can use this nutrition tool to evaluate the nu-trition quality of a product as well as to ensure theavoidance of any food/additive to which the ath-lete may be allergic or intolerant.

The nutrition quality of a product can be eval-uated by the presence of a specific ingredient as wellas the order of listed ingredients. For example, manyathletes are instructed to increase their daily intakeof fiber. Knowing that whole grain products will con-tain more fiber than refined flour products, ath-letes can use the ingredients label to choose breads,muffins, bagels, and pasta that contain “whole wheatflour” versus “enriched white flour.” Another com-mon example pertains to choosing a healthy cereal.Many cereals contain a large quantity of refined,added sugars. By studying the order of ingredientson the label and choosing a brand that does not have“sugar,” “sucrose,” “corn syrup,” or other typesof sugar in the first 2–3 ingredients, athletes can feelconfident that they have chosen a lower-sugar, andpotentially healthier, cereal.

How can the Nutrition Facts panel be useful to athletes?The Nutrition Facts panel is required on all foodproduct labels. This part of the label informs con-sumers about the specific nutrient content of foodsin quantifiable terms. Manufacturers must use theNutrition Facts panel within the specified FDA guide-

lines and must provide accurate information aboutthe nutrient content of the food. An example and de-scription of the Nutrition Facts panel is presented in

. Foods that are not required to carry aNutrition Facts panel include delicatessen-style foods,restaurant foods, fresh bakery products, foods thatprovide no significant nutrition such as instant cof-fee and most spices, and multiunit packages. Smallerpackages may require a modified Nutrition Factspanel, as shown in .

Starting just below the Nutrition Facts headingon each food label, the following required compo-nents are all applicable to athletes:■ Serving size and number of servings per con-

tainer: Athletes need to understand whatcounts as one serving. Often, athletes considerone package to be “one serving,” when in factthere could be multiple servings included in acontainer, as stated in the Nutrition Factspanel. Because the nutrition information ispresented for one serving, athletes will need tomultiply the nutrition information listed onthe Nutrition Facts panel by the number ofservings consumed in order to obtain an accu-rate estimate of total nutrient intake.

■ Calories and percentage of calories from fat:Reviewing the calorie content of foods eatenthroughout the day will allow athletes to en-sure adequate total energy consumption. Toobtain the percentage of calories from fat, the“calories from fat” can be divided by the total“calories” and then multiplied by 100. Ath-letes should aim for a diet that includes nomore than 30–35% of total calories from fat,indicating it is low-to-moderate in fat. Calcu-lating the percentage for each food chosenthroughout the day can help athletes makehealthy choices. Chapter 4 of this text will dis-cuss in greater detail the importance of fat andhow to calculate the percentage of caloriesfrom fat in several different ways.

■ Total fat and saturated fat: Fat is important inan athlete’s diet; however, it should be con-sumed in moderation. Athletes can comparedifferent brands or types of food to findlow/moderate fat options. Saturated fat isdetrimental to heart health, and therefore ath-letes should attempt to minimize their satu-rated fat intake.

■ Cholesterol: Cholesterol, also discussed inChapter 4 of this text, is not a required nutri-ent in the diet. Cholesterol is made in the body

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.4

nutrient content claimsNutrition-related claimson food labels thathighlight certaincharacteristics of thefood.

health claim Adescription placed on afood label thatdescribes potentialhealth benefits of afood or nutrient.



and therefore does not need to be consumeddaily. If it is consumed, athletes should keepintake to a minimum because dietary choles-terol has been shown to increase blood choles-terol levels, thus increasing the risk forcardiovascular disease.

■ Sodium: Classified as an electrolyte, sodium isan essential nutrient for athletes because it islost in sweat. Sodium has also been linked tohigh blood pressure, and therefore athletesshould consume enough to meet their needs

while also avoiding excessive intake. Sodiumwill be discussed in Chapter 7 of this text.

■ Total carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and sugar:Carbohydrates are the master fuel for all ath-letics and should compose a majority of anathlete’s diet. Dietary fiber plays a role inweight management and disease prevention,and aids in the maintenance of blood sugarlevels that deliver a consistent dose of energyto the body. The “dietary fiber” section on theNutrition Facts panel represents the totalquantity of fiber present in a product, but doesnot distinguish between soluble and insolublefibers. The “sugar” category is a combinationof naturally occurring and refined sugars. Be-cause there is no distinction, an athlete shouldreview the ingredients list for the presence offruits and fruit juices (naturally occurring sug-ars often accompanied by many other nutri-ents) or any refined sugar product (providingcalories and carbohydrates, but devoid ofother nutritional value). There is no PercentDaily Value (%DV, discussed in the followingsection) for sugars because there are no RDAor DRV values established specific to sugars.

Daily Values Footnote: Daily Values are shown for two caloric intake levels to emphasize the importance

% Daily Values: These percentages are based on thevalues given below in the footnote for a 2,000 caloriediet. Thus, if caloric intake is different, values need to beadjusted appropriately.

Calories Per Serving: Having the number of caloriesand the number of calories from fat next to each othermakes it easy to

Caloric Conversion Information: Handy reference values help to check the math on calculations.

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List of Nutrients

TitleNutrition FactsServing Size: 1 slice (34g/1.2 oz)Servings Per Container: 20

Amount Per Serving

Calories 90 Calories from fat 10

% Daily Value*

Total Fat 1g 2%Saturated Fat 0g 1%

Cholesterol 0mg 0%Sodium 160mg 7%Total Carbohydrate 15g 5%

Dietary Fiber 2g 8%Sugars 2g

Protein 4g

Vitamin A 0% • Vitamin C 0%

Calcium 0% • Iron 4%* Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000

calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs:

Calories: 2000 2,500

Total Fat Less Than 65g 80gSat Fat Less Than 20g 25g

Cholesterol Less Than 300mg 300mgSodium Less Than 2,400mg 2,400mgTotal Carbohydrate 300g 375g

Dietary Fiber 25g 30g

Calories per gram:Fat 9 • Carbohydrate 4 • Protein 4

Serving Size: The serving size is astandardized reference amount, butcheck twice to see if this is the amountusually eaten. The numbers are basedon this quantity.

determine if a food is high in fat.

of evaluating each diet in order to apply the informationon the label

The Nutrition Facts panel.Figure 1.4

Nutrition Facts panel on small packages. Foodproducts that have small packages can use an abbreviatedversion of the Nutrition Facts panel.

Figure 1.5



The role of carbohydrates in an athlete’s dietand the determination of individual needs arepresented in Chapter 3 of this text.

■ Protein: The total quantity of protein, anotherindispensable nutrient for athletes, is providedon the Nutrition Facts panel. Chapter 5 of thistext reviews the roles and sources of protein inthe athlete’s diet.

■ Vitamins and minerals: Only two vitamins (vi-tamins A and C) and two minerals (calciumand iron) are required on the food label. Ofcourse, all vitamins and minerals are impor-tant for athletes; however, these four nutrientsare generally consumed in suboptimal quanti-ties in the United States and therefore deservespecial attention. Information regarding all ofthe vitamins and minerals can be found inChapters 6 and 7 of this text.

■ Daily Values footnote and calorie conversion:The concept of Daily Values will be discussedin the following section. The calorie conver-sion information is a handy reference for ath-letes to allow them to perform their owncalculations based on individual needs andgoals.Many food manufacturers provide additional al-

lowable information on their food labels in an effortto educate the public and to sell their products. Asconsumers become more aware of the health bene-fits of specific foods and food categories, they be-come more interested and demanding of food labelinginformation. As information about the health ben-efits of nutrients becomes available, allowable nu-trients on the Nutrition Facts panel may increase.

How can the Percent Daily Value be useful to athletes?The Percent Daily Value (%DV) is listed on the foodlabel for a variety of macronutrients, vitamins, andminerals. The %DV can be used to determine howa particular product meets the needs of an athlete aswell as to compare the nutrient content of two dif-ferent products. For example, the DV for cholesterolis less than 300 milligrams. The %DV representswhat percentage of the daily total is provided in oneserving of a product. If the product provides 100 mil-ligrams of cholesterol, the %DV will be 33% be-cause 100 is one third of 300. The overall concept isthat athletes can tally up the percentages of all foodsconsumed throughout the day and aim for a grandtotal of 100%, indicating that all needs have beenmet. However, the caveat is that the %DV is basedon the needs of an individual following a 2,000-

calorie diet. Many athletes require substantially morethan 2,000 calories daily, and therefore obtaining100% of all nutrients may not necessarily be ade-quate. The Daily Value footnote, listed on most Nu-trition Facts panels, presents additional informationfor those following a 2,500-calorie diet; however,even the 2,500-calorie goals may not be enough formost athletes. In general, athletes may find it easierto know their individual daily needs and evaluate aproduct based on their own goals versus the %DVgoals. Tables 1.2 and 1.3 summarize the referenceamounts used to develop the %DV for macronutri-ents and micronutrients.

Whether or not the %DV can be useful for anathlete’s individual needs, the %DV can be used tocompare the nutrient density of various products. Asan example, athletes needing to consume more ironcan look at the %DV of several brands of cereal andknow that the brand with the highest %DV for ironcontains the greatest total quantity of iron, thereforemaking that brand the best choice. The benefit ofthis type of comparison is that athletes are not re-quired to memorize how much iron they need in aday; they merely need to look for the product withthe highest percentage (highest %DV). See for an example of this type of comparison.

How can nutrient content claims be useful to athletes?The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA)of 1990 included guidelines for food manufactur-ers to place nutrition-related claims on food labelsin addition to the Nutrition Facts section. Theseclaims highlight certain characteristics of the foodand are called nutrient content claims. Foods can belabeled with claims such as “low fat,” “reducedsugar,” or “high in fiber” only if they meet certaincriteria. The definitions of the approved nutrient con-tent claims are presented in Fortifying Your Nutri-

Figure 1.6

1.2 Daily Reference Values on Food Labels

2,000 Kcal Intake 2,500 Kcal Intake

Fat < 65 g < 80 gSaturated fat < 20 g < 25 gProtein 50 g 65 gCholesterol < 300 mg < 300 mgCarbohydrates 300 g 375 gFiber 25 g 30 gSodium < 2,400 mg < 2,400 mg

Source: Food and Drug Administration, www.fda.gov



tion Knowledge. These nutrition descriptor state-ments allow athletes to quickly identify the productsthat meet their individual needs or dietary goals. Forexample, if an athlete has high cholesterol levels, aproduct labeled “cholesterol free” would be easilyidentifiable.

Currently there are no approved regulations onnutrition descriptors or content claims regarding to-tal carbohydrates. Because of the growing trend ofconsumers choosing low carbohydrate foods in hopesof losing weight, food manufacturers are placingterms such as “low carb” and “net carbs” on foodlabels. The FDA is currently gathering evidence anddeveloping a statement outlining carbohydrate foodlabeling guidelines. Guidelines are likely to be sim-ilar to those established for such terms as “low fat”

or “reduced sugar.” In the meantime, athletes shouldrecognize that carbohydrates are the master fuelfor athletics, and therefore products touting a lowercarbohydrate content may not be an ideal choice.

How can health claims be useful to athletes?Health claims describe the potential health benefitsof a food or nutrient. The FDA strictly regulates al-lowable health claims on food labels and allows onlyhealth claims that have been well supported in thescientific literature. To date, the following 13 healthclaims have been approved (www.fda.gov):

1. Calcium and osteoporosis: Adequate calciummay reduce the risk of osteoporosis.

2. Sodium and hypertension (high blood pres-sure): Low-sodium diets may help lower blood pressure.

3. Dietary fat and cancer: Low-fat diets decreasethe risk for some types of cancer.

4. Dietary saturated fat and cholesterol and the riskof coronary heart disease: Diets low in saturatedfat and cholesterol decrease the risk for heart disease.

5. Fiber-containing grain products, fruits, and veg-etables and cancer: Diets low in fat and rich inhigh-fiber foods may reduce the risk of certaincancers.

6. Fruits, vegetables, and grain products that con-tain fiber, particularly soluble fiber, and the riskof coronary heart disease: Diets low in fat andrich in soluble fiber sourcesmay reduce the risk of heartdisease.

7. Fruits and vegetables andcancer: Diets low in fat andrich in fruits and vegetablesmay reduce the risk of cer-tain cancers.

8. Folate and neural tube de-fects: Adequate folate statusprior to and early in preg-nancy may reduce the risk ofneural tube defects (a birthdefect).

9. Dietary sugar alcohols anddental caries (cavities):Foodssweetened with sugar alco-hols do not promote toothdecay.

10. Dietary soluble fiber, suchas found in whole oats and psyllium seed husk,

1.3 Reference Daily Intakes for Athletes OlderThan 4 Years

Food Component RDI

Protein 50 gVitamin A 1000 REa

Vitamin D 400 IUb

Vitamin E 30 IUVitamin K 80 µgc

Vitamin C 60 mgd

Folate 400 µgThiamin 1.5 mgRiboflavin 1.7 mgNiacin 20 mgVitamin B6 2 mgVitamin B12 6 µgBiotin 0.3 mgPantothenic acid 10 mgCalcium 1000 mgPhosphorus 1000 mgIodide 150 µgIron 18 mgMagnesium 400 mgCopper 2 mgZinc 15 mgChloride 3400 mgManganese 2 mgSelenium 70 µgChromium 120 µgMolybdenum 75 mgaRE = retinal equivalentsbIU = international unitscµg = microgramsdmg = milligramsNote: RDI values were developed based on older RDAs anddo not reflect new DRI values.

Source: Food and Drug Administration, www.fda.govgaining the performance edge

The food label can be veryhelpful to athletes choosingto follow a more healthfuldiet. Athletes should reviewall the information on theNutrition Facts panel as wellas the ingredients list to aidin making informed foodand beverage choices.Nutrient content claims and health claims identifyproducts that might beappealing to individualathletes based on theirnutrition goals and needs;however, these statementsshould not take the placeof reviewing the Nutrition Facts panel andingredients list.



and coronary heart disease: Diets low in fat andrich in these types of fiber can help reduce therisk of heart disease.

11. Soy protein and coronary heart disease: Foodsrich in soy protein as part of a low-fat diet mayhelp reduce the risk of heart disease.

12. Whole grain foods and coronary heart diseaseor cancer: Diets high in whole grain foods andother plant foods and low in total fat, saturatedfat, and cholesterol may help reduce the risk ofheart disease and certain cancers.

13. Plant stanols and plant sterols and coronary heartdisease: Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterolthat also contain several daily servings of plantstanols/sterols may reduce the risk of heart disease.

14. Potassium and high blood pressure/stroke: Di-ets that contain good sources of potassium mayreduce the risk of high blood pressure and stroke.

New health claims can be approved at any timebased on scientific evidence, and therefore this listmay expand in the future.

What are the factors to consider whendeveloping an individualized sports nutritionplan for athletes?

As mentioned earlier, one of the exciting aspects ofthe field of sports nutrition is individualizing eat-ing plans for athletes. Each athlete is different—thereis not a “one-size-fits-all” type of meal plan, train-ing diet, or competition hydration schedule. Cer-tainly the basic sports nutrition concepts andguidelines can be applied universally; however, eachathlete will require a unique approach by tweakingthose guidelines to fit their individual needs. For ex-ample, all athletes should consume a combination

Nutrition FactsServing Size: 1 Cup (28g/1.0 oz.)Servings Per Container: About 18

with Amount 1/2 cupPer Serving Cereal Skim Milk

Calories 100 140

Fat Calories 0 0

% Daily Value*

Total Fat 0g* 0% 0%Saturated Fat 0g 0% 0%

Cholesterol 0mg 0% 0%Sodium 300mg 13% 15%Potassium 25mg 1% 7%Total Carbohydrate 24g 8% 10%

Dietary Fiber 1g 4% 4%Sugars 2gOther Carbohydrates 21g

Protein 2g

Vitamin A 15% 20%

Vitamin C 25% 25%

Calcium 0% 15%

Iron 45% 45%

Vitamin D 10% 25%

Thiamin 25% 30%

Riboflavin 25% 35%

Niacin 25% 25%

Vitamin B6 25% 25%

Folate 25% 25%

Vitamin B12 25% 35%

Nutrition FactsServing Size: 1 Cup (30g)Servings Per Container: About 15

withAmount 1/2 cupPer Serving Cereal Skim MilkCalories 60 100

Calories from Fat 10 10% Daily Value*

Total Fat 1g* 2% 2%Saturated Fat 0g 0% 0%

Cholesterol 0mg 0% 1%Sodium 125mg 5% 8%Potassium 230mg 7% 12%Total Carbohydrate 24g 8% 10%

Dietary Fiber 13g 52% 52%Sugars 0gOther Carbohydrates 11g

Protein 2g

Vitamin A 0% 4%

Vitamin C 15% 15%

Calcium 6% 20%

Iron 25% 25%

Vitamin D 0% 10%

Thiamin 25% 30%

Riboflavin 25% 35%

Niacin 25% 25%

Vitamin B6 25% 25%

Folic Acid 25% 25%

Phosphorus 15% 30%

Magnesium 15% 20%

Zinc 8% 10%

Copper 10% 10%

Comparing iron content of two cereals. These labels are from two different breakfast cereals: cornflakes on the left andwheat bran on the right. Comparing the iron content of both cereals is easy using the percent daily values of each.

Figure 1.6


What are the facators to consider when developing an individualized sports nutrition plan for athletes? 19

Your Nutrition Knowledge

Fortifying

Approved Nutrient Content ClaimsFree: Food contains no amount (or trivial or “physiologically inconsequential” amounts). May beused with one or more of the following: fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, sugar, and calorie. Syn-onyms include without, no, and zero.

Fat-free: Less than 0.5 g of fat per serving.Saturated fat-free: Less than 0.5 g of saturated fat per serving.Cholesterol-free: Less than 2 mg of cholesterol and 2 g or less of saturated fat and trans fat com-bined per serving.Sodium-free: Less than 5 mg of sodium per serving.Sugar-free: Less than 0.5 g of sugar per serving.Calorie-free: Fewer than 5 calories per serving.

Low: Food can be eaten frequently without exceeding dietary guidelines for one or more of these com-ponents: fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, and calories. Synonyms include little, few, and lowsource of.

Low fat: 3 g or less per serving.Low saturated fat: 1 g or less of saturated fat; no more than 15% of calories from saturated andtrans fat combined.Low cholesterol: 20 mg or less and 2 g or less of saturated fat per serving.Low sodium: 140 mg or less per serving.Very low sodium: 35 mg or less per serving.Low calorie: 40 calories or less per serving.

High: Food contains 20% or more of the Daily Value for a particular nutrient in a serving.Good source: Food contains 10–19% of the Daily Value for a particular nutrient in one serving.Lean and extra lean: The fat content of meal and main dish products, seafood, and game meat products.

Lean: Less than 10 g fat, 4.5 g or less saturated fat, and less than 95 mg of cholesterol per servingand per 100 g.Extra lean: Less than 5 g fat, less than 2 g saturated fat, and less than 95 mg of cholesterol perserving and per 100 g.

Reduced: Nutritionally altered product containing at least 25% less of a nutrient or of calories thanthe regular or reference product. (Note: A “reduced” claim can’t be used if the reference product alreadymeets the requirement for “low.”)Less: Food, whether altered or not, contains 25% less of a nutrient or of calories than the reference food.Fewer is an acceptable synonym.Light: This descriptor can have two meanings:

1. A nutritionally altered product contains one-third fewer calories or half the fat of the reference food.If the reference food derives 50% or more of its calories from fat, the reduction must be 50% ofthe fat.

2. The sodium content of a low-calorie, low-fat food has been reduced by 50%. Also, light in sodiummay be used on a food in which the sodium content has been reduced by at least 50%.Note: The term light can still be used to describe such properties as texture and color as long as thelabel clearly explains its meaning (e.g., light brown sugar or light and fluffy).

More: A serving of food, whether altered or not, contains a nutrient that is at least 10% of the DailyValue more than the reference food. This also applies to fortified, enriched, and added claims, but inthose cases, the food must be altered.

(continued)



of carbohydrates and protein after exercise to initi-ate the repair and rebuilding process. However, oneathlete may enjoy a turkey sandwich with a banana,while another athlete craves an omelet, toast, andorange juice. Both of these meals meet thecarbohydrate-protein combination requirement butalso take into consideration personal taste prefer-ences. This individualized approach is much morechallenging and requires a greater breadth of knowl-edge than “cookie-cutter” plans. Sports nutritionprofessionals with this philosophy will succeed dueto the recognition that their plans are based on solidresearch and current guidelines while also being prac-tical, easy to implement, and specific to an athlete’ssport and lifestyle.

Several factors must be considered when calcu-lating nutrient needs and developing a meal plan foran athlete, including the individual’s health history,the bioenergetics of the athlete’s sport, total weeklytraining and competition time, living arrangements,access to food, and travel schedules.

Why should a sports nutrition plan consider an athlete’s health history?First and foremost, an athlete must be healthy in or-der to train and compete to their potential. Propernutrition plays a vital role in preventing deficiency

and degenerative diseases, while also aiding in thetreatment of existing medical conditions. An ath-lete’s health history must be the “team captain” inthe sports nutrition game plan, with sport-specificplanning, training/competition schedules, livingarrangements, and personal preferences roundingout the starting line-up.

For example, an athlete with diabetes must care-fully balance his or her intake of carbohydrates withdaily doses of insulin to prevent hyper- or hypo-glycemia. Whereas most athletes would not thinktwice about drinking a large glass of juice in the morn-ing before a workout, a diabetic athlete consumingonly juice (a carbohydrate source without a pro-tein source to stabilize the digestion of food and bloodsugar levels) may experience blood sugar swings thatcan potentially impact performance. In addition toperformance in a single workout, long-term poorblood sugar management can lead to a plethora ofassociated medical conditions later in life.

An athlete’s health history must be consideredfirst and then subsequently, recommendations canintertwine with sport-specific suggestions. Chap-ter 10 reviews in further detail the health history andhealth parameters to consider with athletes duringa nutrition consultation.

Healthy: A healthy food must be low in fat and saturated fat and contain limited amounts of cho-lesterol (less than 60 mg) and sodium (less than 360 mg for individual foods and less than 480 mgfor meal-type products). In addition, a single-item food must provide at least 10% or more of oneof the following: vitamins A or C, iron, calcium, protein, or fiber. A meal-type product, such as afrozen entrée or dinner, must provide 10% of two or more of these vitamins or minerals, or protein,or fiber, in addition to meeting the other criteria. Additional regulations allow the term healthy tobe applied to raw, canned, or frozen fruits and vegetables and enriched grains even if the 10% nu-trient content rule is not met. However, frozen or canned fruits or vegetables cannot contain ingre-dients that would change the nutrient profile.Fresh: Food is raw, has never been frozen or heated, and contains no preservatives. Fresh frozen,frozen fresh, and freshly frozen can be used for foods that are quickly frozen while still fresh. Blanchedfoods also can be called fresh.Percent fat free: Food must be a low-fat or a fat-free product. In addition, the claim must reflect ac-curately the amount of nonfat ingredients in 100 g of food.Implied claims: These are prohibited when they wrongfully imply that a food contains or does notcontain a meaningful level of a nutrient. For example, a product cannot claim to be made with aningredient known to be a source of fiber (such as “made with oat bran”) unless the product con-tains enough of that ingredient (in this case, oat bran) to meet the definition for “good source” offiber. As another example, a claim that a product contains “no tropical oils” is allowed, but only onfoods that are “low” in saturated fat, because consumers have come to equate tropical oils withhigh levels of saturated fat.Source: Food and Drug Administration, http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼dms/lab-hlth.html. Accessed April 13, 2003.


What are the factors to consider when developing an individualized sports nutrition plan for athletes? 21

Why should a sports nutrition plan consider a sport’sbioenergetics and logistics?Energy metabolism is the foundation of sports nu-trition. Consideration of the cellular machinery andmetabolic pathways responsible for making the en-ergy needed to participate in a specific sport is crit-ical for the development of an individualized eatingplan. Chapter 2 of this text explains the different en-ergy pathways in detail, and Chapters 12, 13, and14 provide examples of how various sport activi-ties differ in using energy for exercise. For exam-ple, the calorie, macronutrient, and micronutrientneeds of a football player (intermittent exertion overthe course of several hours) will be different fromthe needs of a rower (continuous effort for typi-cally less than 10–20 minutes). Even within one sport,such as running, different events (100-meter sprintversus a marathon) will highlight various energy sys-tems (short, intense effort versus sustained moder-ate effort). In addition to the bioenergetics of a sport,nutrition plans for athletes must also consider thelogistics of training sessions and competitions. Somesports are very conducive for drinking and eatingduring activity (biking), whereas other sports makefluid and energy consumption close to impossible(open water swimming). Sports nutrition profes-sionals must devise plans that are specific for the en-ergy systems utilized during training and competitionas well as realistic to the nature of an athlete’s sport.

Why should a sports nutrition plan consider anathlete’s total weekly training and competition time?Athletes can range from the weekend warrior tothe full-time professional. Each athlete will dedicatea period of time each day to training and competi-tion. Obviously, the athletes who are more active willhave greater energy and nutrient needs. However,it is not always as simple as telling highly active ath-letes to “eat more.” Many athletes struggle to meettheir daily needs due to the time constraints of mealplanning and preparation, as well as short periodsof time between workouts, work, school, and otherlife commitments. Sports nutrition professionals needto be creative in helping athletes to determine howto consume adequate amounts of energy and nutri-ents while making meal planning easy, convenient,and quick.

A sports nutrition plan also includes the devel-opment of a fueling and hydration schedule for train-ing and competition. The timing of meals and snacksmust be strategically scheduled to provide enoughtime for food to digest before training sessions, and

to prevent too much time from elapsing after train-ing. Fluid requirements vary considerably amongathletes. Therefore, the construction of a hydrationschedule is individualized for the athlete and specificto the sport. The energy and nutrients consumed be-fore, during, and after exercise are part of an over-all daily sports nutrition plan that can literally makeor break an athlete’s performance. The more time anathlete spends training each week, the more strate-gic planning needs to occur to create an appropri-ate, individualized regimen. Chapters 12, 13, and 14provide practical applications that are sport-specificfor planning and implementing sports nutrition andhydration guidelines before, during, and after train-ing or competitive events ( ).

Why should a sports nutrition plan consider anathlete’s living arrangements, access to food, and travel schedule?A perfectly calculated nutrition plan is worthless ifthe athlete cannot execute the plan due to a lack ofcontrol over the foods available to him or her on adaily basis. For example, a college athlete who livesin a dorm is at the mercy of what is served in the uni-versity cafeterias. Therefore, the cafeteria menusshould be built into the sports nutrition plan for thisathlete. Sports nutrition professionals must fully un-derstand each athlete’s living arrangements and ac-cess to food before developing an individualizedprogram.

Access to food can also be a factor before, dur-ing, or after competitions. Many athletes are requiredto eat with the team at their training table before agame, thereby limiting their food choices to what

Figure 1.7

Athletes may travel to events and stay at thecompetition venue for several hours or all day. Athletes need to plan ahead to adequately fuel and hydrate throughout theevent day.

Figure 1.7



is provided by the team. Recreational athletes whoare participating in weekend events, such as runningor walking road races, often must rely on the prod-

ucts supplied on the course forhydration and fueling. De-veloping an appropriate raceday plan for these athletes in-volves investigating the foodsand beverages available on thecourse and then planning forthe athletes to practice withthese specific items through-out training to prevent anysurprises on race day. Con-suming the optimal blend ofnutrients after exercise is alsoof great importance. Each ath-lete will vary in their ability topack a postexercise snack ordecipher the most appropri-ate food/beverage option froma buffet of available items.

Proper nutrition while traveling is a challenge foreveryone—athletes and non-

athletes alike. Travel forces in-dividuals to change their routine, sometimes wreakinghavoc on an athlete’s good intentions and typical nu-trition habits. Athletes must be educated on howto make healthy choices and appropriate substitu-tions while on the road. Creative planning, pack-ing nonperishable foods for the trip, and learning tobe flexible will help athletes remain optimally fueledwhile traveling. Chapter 14 provides tips for healthyeating while on the road.

How can sports nutrition knowledge beconverted into practical applications?

One of the biggest challenges facing all health pro-motion professionals is helping people make per-manent behavior changes. When working with

individuals, possessing “book” knowledge is onlyone part of the equation; professionals must knowhow to assess a person’s readiness for change, en-gage in active listening, and then provide the ap-propriate information or guidance. This process isparticularly applicable to counseling athletes on di-etary changes to improve performance. Not onlyshould meal plans be based on individual needs, butthe construction of the plans also must take into con-sideration the athlete’s preparedness for change.Chapter 10 provides detailed information on theprocess of counseling athletes, including the use ofthe Transtheoretical Model,1 whichassesses a person’s readiness forchange.

The skill of active listeningcan be a powerful tool for help-ing athletes initiate change.Athletes want to know that asports nutrition professionalcares about them, their per-formance, and their capabili-ties for change. Sports nutritionprofessionals should refrainfrom developing a “dictator-ship” where athletes simply sitquietly and listen to the dietarychanges they “need” to makein order to improve their per-formance and/or health. Instead, athletes should beactive participants in their meal planning and goalsetting. Food selections should be based on an ath-lete’s likes and dislikes versus which foods are “best”for them—if an athlete does not enjoy the foods inthe established meal plan, adherence will be poor.Goals should be realistic and manageable to plantthe seeds for success and accomplishment that willmotivate athletes to continue working on healthyeating behaviors. Listen to athletes—know theirgoals, questions, and concerns—and then build anindividualized plan that is mutually acceptable andproductive.


Individualization in nutritionplanning for athletes isessential for success as a sports nutritionprofessional. Standardizedplans will contribute to thegreat success of someathletes, while leavingothers on the sidelines.Incorporating factors suchas an athlete’s healthhistory, the bioenergeticsand logistics of their sport,weekly training/competitiontime, living arrangements,access to food/beverages,and travel schedules intoan individualized nutritionprogram will ultimately leadto the athlete’s success andpeak performance.


Knowing the current sports nutrition research,established dietaryguidelines, andperformance-enhancingrecommendations is notenough; sports nutritionprofessionals must beskilled in helping athletesconvert the sports nutritionknowledge into practical,daily guidelines for foodand beverage intake.


Key Points of Chapter■ Sports nutrition can be defined as the conversion of

nutrition knowledge into a practical daily eating plan fo-cused on providing the fuel for physical activity, facili-tating the repair and rebuilding process following hardphysical work, and optimizing athletic performance incompetitive events, while also promoting overall healthand wellness.

■ In this text, the term athlete refers to any individualwho is regularly active, ranging from the fitness enthu-siast to the competitive amateur or professional.

■ Sports nutrition professionals must have a commandof general nutrition and exercise science, understandhow nutrition and physical training are intertwined, andpractice the practical application of sports nutritionknowledge.

■ The area of sports nutrition is a growing field, withmany opportunities for a rewarding and exciting career.

■ Foods and beverages are composed of six nutrientsthat are vital to the human body for producing energy,contributing to the growth and development of tissues,regulating body processes, and preventing deficiencyand degenerative diseases. The six nutrients are carbo-hydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.

■ The body derives its energy from carbohydrates, fats,and proteins, which are collectively known as the en-ergy nutrients. Their breakdown within the cells of thebody provides the energy to make ATP, which is thebody’s direct source of energy for not only sport per-formance, but also all biological work.

■ The Dietary Reference Intakes were developed to ex-pand on the Recommended Dietary Allowance valuesand to set new recommendations for nutrients that didnot have an RDA. The DRIs identify the referenceamount of a specific nutrient needed for individuals toprevent deficiency conditions in generally healthy indi-viduals. The DRIs include the RDA, EAR, AI, and UL foreach vitamin, mineral, and macronutrient.

■ Processing of foods often destroys or removes vita-mins. Enrichment is a process by which vitamins arerestored to foods after processing. Fortification is an-other way to improve the nutrient value of foods, andinvolves adding vitamins or minerals to foods in whichthe vitamins or minerals were not originally present.

■ The 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans emphasizethe fact that nutrition choices and physical activity in-teract to improve health and prevent chronic condi-tions. The guidelines focus on making smart choicesfrom all food groups, balancing food intake with physi-cal activity to maintain weight, and choosing nutrient-dense foods.

■ The central message of MyPyramid, released by theUSDA in 2005, is “Steps to a Healthier You.” Six keyconcepts help consumers put this message into prac-tice including activity, moderation, personalization, pro-portionality, variety and gradual improvement.

■ The food label allows athletes to obtain credible andreliable nutrition information about various food andbeverage products, ultimately empowering them tomake wise food choices on a daily basis.

■ Developing an individualized sports nutrition plan forathletes involves considering the individual’s healthhistory, the bioenergetics and logistics of the athlete’ssport, total weekly training and competition time, livingarrangements, access to food, and travel schedules.

■ When working with athletes, possessing “book” knowl-edge is only one part of the equation; professionalsmust know how to assess a person’s readiness forchange, engage in active listening, and then providethe appropriate information or guidance.

■ Sports nutrition professionals should listen closely tothe goals, questions, and concerns of athletes andthen build an individualized nutrition plan that is mutu-ally acceptable and productive. Athletes should be ac-tive participants in their meal planning and goal setting.

Study Questions1. What is sports nutrition? Is it applicable only to com-

petitive athletes? Defend your answer.2. What are the six nutrient categories? Which nutrients

are termed the “energy nutrients”?3. What is the difference between Dietary Reference In-

take (DRI) and Recommended Dietary Allowance(RDA)? What do EAR, AI, and UL stand for?

4. What do the terms enriched and fortified mean? Howare they different?

5. What information can be learned about a food fromits food label?

6. What is the MyPyramid food guidance system? In whatways does it apply to sports nutrition?

7. When developing an individualized nutrition plan for anathlete, what factors must be taken into consideration?

The Box Score 23


References1. Prochaska JO, Velicer WF. The transtheoretical model of

health behavior change. Am J Health Promotion.1997;12(1):38–48.

2. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines forAmericans 2005: Executive Summary. Available at:

www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines. Accessed March 20,2005.

3. United States Department of Agriculture. MyPyramid2005. Available at: http://www.mypyramid.gov. Ac-cessed April 27, 2005.




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