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JOB SATISFACTION OF LECTURERS AT TVET COLLEGES IN
BUFFALO CITY METROPOLITAN MUNICIPAL REGION IN THE
CONTEXT OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
By
Unity Christine Jegels
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
to be awarded at the
Nelson Mandela University
April 2019
Supervisor: Dr. Alan Weimann
ii
DECLARATION
I, Unity Christine Jegels, hereby declare that this work has not been previously
submitted in full or partial fulfilment of the requirement or candidature of any degree.
The treatise is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Masters in
Business Administration degree.
This treatise is the product of my independent work and investigation, except where
otherwise stated. All the sources used are documented in the attached reference
list and appropriately acknowledged.
I hereby give consent for my treatise, if accepted, to be available as library material
and for interlibrary loan.
_______________________________
Unity Christine Jegels
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I hereby express my sincere gratitude to everyone who supported me during the
MBA programme. To mention a few, I wish to acknowledge:
• The Almighty who gave me the strength of purpose and the unwavering will
to endure this amazing journey.
• My husband, David, son, Warren and daughters, Tarryn and Kristin for their
unstinting love, support and encouragement. I could not have done this
without you. The sacrifices have paid off.
• My brothers and sisters for believing in me and their reassurance that my late
Mum and Dad are equally proud of this achievement.
• The research supervisor, Doctor Alan Weimann, for his professional
guidance in directing my thinking by sharing his extraordinary knowledge and
experience. Your patience, support, understanding and reassurance carried
me.
• The statistician, Professor Roger Elliott for his valuable contribution to this
work.
• Mrs Luella van Wyk, of the NMU Business School, for her assistance,
encouragement and relentless motivation that I could do this!
• The survey respondents for their willing participation and contribution
towards making this study possible.
• My MBA colleagues who became like family and encouraged me every step
of the way until I reached this completion stage. Thank you for believing in
me.
• Family, friends and colleagues who patiently accepted that my social life was
on hold until completion of the treatise and their constant reminders that this
too shall pass!
Accept my sincere appreciation for making this treatise a reality.
iv
ABSTRACT
One of the most widely researched job attitudes and extensively investigated topics
in the history of industrial and organisational psychology is job satisfaction. The
primary objective of this study was to investigate the attributes of organisational
culture that impact the levels of employee job satisfaction.
This study explored the experience of job satisfaction in the context of the
organisational culture at TVET colleges. The current research investigated the
correlation between organisational culture and the prevalence of job satisfaction.
A descriptive-analytical study was conducted on sixty-one (61) lecturers selected
using convenience sampling. A valid and reliable questionnaire, based on a five-
point Likert scale, was used as a measuring instrument. The questionnaire surveyed
the sample demographics and statements on organisational culture as designated
by organisational leadership style and supervision, working conditions, promotion
and job security, organisational communication, remuneration and employee
benefits. SPSS software, Version 25, was used to analyse the data sets that were
collected.
Research findings indicated a significant relationship between job satisfaction and
the organisational culture elements of remuneration and employee benefits and
organisational communication.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ………………………………………………………….. …….......... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………………… iii
ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………. v
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………….. xi
LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………………………. xiii
CHAPTER 1: SCOPE OF THE STUDY …………………………………………….. 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………..... 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ……………………………………………………… 2
1.3 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS ………………………………………………. 3
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES …………………………………………………… 4
1.4.1 Primary Objectives …………………………………………………….. 4
1.4.2 Secondary Objectives ………………………………………………..... 4
1.5 HYPOTHESES …………………………………………………………………. 5
1.6 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY …………………………………………... 6
1.6.1 The Research Design ………………………………………………….. 7
1.6.2 The Research Approach ………………………………………………. 7
1.6.3 Sampling Design ……………………………………………………..... 7
1.6.4 Measuring Instrument …………………………………………………. 8
1.6.5 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………....... 8
1.7 VARIABLES OF THE STUDY ………………………………………………… 9
1.7.1 Dependent Variable ……………………………………………………. 9
1.7.2 Independent Variables ………………………………………………… 9
1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS ……………………………………………………... 9
1.8.1 Job Satisfaction ………………………………………………………... 9
1.8.2 The Concept of Organisational Culture ……………………………... 10
vi
1.9 ETHICS ……………………………………………………………………...... 11
1.10 CHALLENGES ……………………………………………………………...... 11
1.11 TIME FRAMES ……………………………………………………………...... 11
1.12 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY ………………………………………………...... 12
1.13 SUMMARY …………………………………………………………………..... 12
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………... 13
2.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………... 13
2.2 DEFINITION OF JOB SATISFACTION ……………………………………. 13
2.3 CONCEPTUALISATION OF JOB SATISFACTION ………………………. 14
2.4 IMPORTANCE OF A STUDY ON JOB SATISFACTION IN
RELATION TO ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE ………………………...... 15
2.5 JOB DISSATISFACTION ……………………………………………………. 16
2.6 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONSEQUENCES OF JOB SATISFACTION …… 17
2.6.1 Increased Employee Productivity …………………………………… 17
2.6.2 Improved Employee Commitment ………………………………...... 17
2.6.3 Employee Loyalty …………………………………………………...... 18
2.6.4 Increased Organisational Success ……………………………….… 18
2.6.5 Employees’ Personal Attributes ………………………………...…… 19
2.7 PREVIOUS STUDIES ON EFFECTS OF ORGANISATIONAL
CULTURE ON JOB SATISFACTION ………………………………...……. 19
2.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: HOW ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
AFFECTS EMPLOYEE JOB SATISFACTION ……………………………. 20
2.8.1 Types of Organisational Culture ……....……………………………. 20
2.8.2 Definition of Organisational Culture …………………………………. 21
2.8.3 Schein’s Organisational Culture Model ……………………………... 21
2.9 MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION ……………………………………....... 23
2.10 PERTINENT ASPECTS OF JOB SATISFACTION ……………………...... 24
2.11 IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP STYLE ON JOB SATISFACTION …………… 25
vii
2.11.1 Effective Leadership …………………..…………………………..... 27
2.11.2 Ethical Leadership …………………..………………………………. 27
2.11.3 Authentic Leadership …………….…………………………………. 27
2.12 IMPACT OF WORKING CONDITIONS ON JOB SATISFACTION ………. 28
2.12.1 Workplace Bullying ………………………………….……............... 29
2.12.2 Organisational Trust …………………………………………........... 30
2.12.3 Organisational Citizenship …………………………………….….... 31
2.13 IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION ON JOB
SATISFACTION ………………………………..…………………………….. 31
2.13.1 LMX Theory of Communication ………………………………..….. 32
2.13.2 Communication for functional groups and work teams ……….… 32
2.13.3 Communication as part of POS ……………..………………….…. 33
2.13.4 Role of Emotion Work in Job Satisfaction ……………………….… 33
2.14 IMPACT OF PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES ON JOB SATISFACTION 34
2.14.1 Staff Promotion as a Retention Strategy ………………….………. 35
2.14.2 Training to Support Employee Promotion …….………………....... 36
2.15 IMPACT OF REMUNERATION AND EMPLOYEE BENEFITS ………….. 37
2.15.1 Rewards and Recognition ………………………………….…….... 37
2.16 INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL PERSONALITY ON JOB SATISFACTION ………………………………………………………….…... 39
2.17 IMPACT OF CONFLICT ON JOB SATISFACTION …………………….... 39
2.18 ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT …………………………………….…. 40
2.19 OUTCOMES OF JOB SATISFACTION ……………………………………. 41
2.19.1 Intrinsic Motivation …………………………………………..…...…. 41
2.19.2 Extrinsic Motivation ……………………………..…………………... 41
2.19.3 Employee Retention ………………………………………….…….. 41
2.20 SUMMARY ……………………………………………………………….….... 43
viii
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY …………...……………………...… 44
3.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………….….. 44
3.2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS ……………………………………………..… 44
3.3 THE RESEARCH PARADIGM ………………………………………….…... 46
3.3.1 Positivistic Paradigm …………………………………………….…... 47
3.3.2 Interpretivist Paradigm …………………………………………….…. 47
3.3.3 Approaches Within the Two Main Paradigms ………..….……..….. 48
3.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ……………………………………..….…… 48
3.4.1 Sample Design and Sampling Techniques ………………..….…… 49
3.4.2 Probability Sampling …………………………………………...…….. 49
3.4.3 Non-Probability Sampling ……………………………………..…….. 50
3.5 SAMPLE FOR THIS STUDY ………………………………………..………. 51
3.5.1 Selecting the Sample ………………………………………..……….. 51
3.5.2 Sample Size …………………………………………………..………. 51
3.6 DATA COLLECTION ………………………………………………..……….. 52
3.6.1 Questionnaire Design ………………………………………..………. 52
3.6.2 Types of Questionnaires ……………………………………..………. 52
3.7 DESIGNING THE QUESTIONS …………………………………..……….... 53
3.8 COMPILING THE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THIS STUDY …………..….... 54
3.8.1 Sourcing the Survey Questions ………………………………..……. 55
3.9 DISTRIBUTION OF QUESTIONNAIRES …………………………..………. 56
3.9.1 Methods of Questionnaire Distribution Available ……..……..…….. 57
3.9.2 Motivation for Chosen Method of Distribution ………………..……. 57
3.9.3 Reasons for Not Choosing Other Distribution Methods ……..….... 58
3.10 PILOT STUDY …………………………………………………………..…….. 58
3.10.1 Support for a pilot study ………………………………..…….. 59
3.10.2 Outcomes of pilot study …………………………………..….. 59
3.11 COLLECTING THE DATA ……………………………………………..……. 60
ix
3.12 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA ……………………………………………..…. 60
3.12.1 Primary Data …………………………………………..………..…… 60
3.12.2 Secondary Data ………………………………………………….….. 60
3.13 DATA COLLECTION ……………………………………………………….... 61
3.13.1 Administrative Procedures ………………………………………..... 61
3.13.2 Distribution and Collection of Questionnaires ………………..…… 62
3.14 ANALYSIS OF DATA ……………………………………………………..….. 62
3.15 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT ……..…. 63
3.15.1 Technical Aspects of Reliability ………………………………..…... 63
3.15.2 Technical Aspects of Validity ……………………………………..... 63
3.15.3 Types of Validity ………………………………………………..……. 63
3.16 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS ……………..…… 64
3.16.1 Ethical Aspects for this Research .................................................. 64
3.17 SUMMARY ……………………………………………………………..……... 65
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF STATISTICAL RESULTS ………………………………………………………………………..……. 66 4.1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………..……. 66
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS APPROACH ………………………………………..……. 66
4.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION …..…… 67
4.3.1 Descriptive Statistics ……………………………………………..…... 67
4.3.2 Inferential Statistics ………………………………………………..…. 68
4.4 ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ………………………………………………...... 68
4.5 RESPONSE RATE ………………………………………………………..…. 69
4.6 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA …………………………………………………..…. 70
4.6.1 Ages of Respondents ……………………………………………..…. 70
4.6.2 Gender ………………………………………………………..……….. 71
4.6.3 Educational Levels ………………………………………..………….. 72
x
4.6.4 Employment Position ………………………………………………… 74
4.6.5 Total Work Experience ………………………………………………. 75
4.6.6 Service Duration at Current Institution …………………………….... 77
4.6.7 Nature of Appointments ……………………………………………... 78
4.6.8 Learning Programmes Offered at the Institution ……..………….… 80
4.7 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT ITEMS …………….…. 81
4.7.1 Organisational Leadership Style and Supervision ..………………. 81
4.7.2 Working Conditions …………………………………………………… 84
4.7.3 Organisational Communication ……………………………………… 87
4.7.4 Promotion Opportunities and Job Security ………………………… 90
4.7.5 Remuneration and Employee Benefits……….………………….…. 92
4.7.6 Personal Job Satisfaction ……………..…………………………..…. 95
4.8 QUALITY OF DATA ………………………………………………………..…. 97
4.8.1 Reliability of Measuring Instrument …………………………………. 97
4.8.2 Validity of Data ………………………………………………………… 99
4.9 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS ……………………………………………..... 105
4.9.1 Correlation Coefficient …………………………………………….... 105
4.10 ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION OF HYPOTHESES …………………... 108
4.10.1 Hypothesis 1 (H1) ……………………………………………..…... 108
4.10.2 Hypothesis 2 (H2) …………………………………………..……… 108
4.10.3 Hypothesis 3 (H3) …………………………………………..…….... 109
4.10.4 Hypothesis 4 (H4) ………………………………………………...... 109
4.10.5 Hypothesis 5 (H5) ……………………………………………..…… 109
4.11 SUMMARY …………………………………………………………………... 111
xi
CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ……………...…. 113
5.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………. 113
5.2 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ……………………………………………... 113
5.3 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS ………………………………………….... 113
5.4 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ……….... 117
5.4.1 Organisational Leadership and Supervision …………………..…. 117
5.4.2 Working Conditions ……………………………………………….… 118
5.4.3 Organisational Communication ……………………………………. 119
5.4.4 Promotion Opportunities and Job Security ……………………….. 119
5.4.5 Remuneration and Employee Benefits …………………………..... 120
5.5 SUMMARY OF EMPIRICAL FINDINGS …………………………………. 121
5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY …………………………………………..... 122
5.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ………………….... 123
5.8 CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………. 123
6. REFERENCES …………………………………………………………….... 125
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: COVER LETTER ………………………………………..……….... 135
APPENDIX B: MEASURING INSTRUMENT …...………………………..……... 136
APPENDIX C: ETHICS CLEARANCE ……………………………………..….….. 139
APPENDIX D: TURNITIN SIMILARITY REPORT ……...………………..…….... 141
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 3.1: TWO MAIN RESEARCH PARADIGMS …………………………….. 48
TABLE 4.1: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: AGE ………………………………….. 70
TABLE 4.2: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: GENDER ……………………………. 72
TABLE 4.3: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: EDUCATIONAL LEVELS…………… 73
TABE 4.4: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: EMPLOYMENT POSITION ………….. 74
TABLE 4.5: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: TOTAL WORK EXPERIENCE ……… 75
TABLE 4.6: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: SERVICE DURATION AT CURRENT
INSTITUTION ………………………………………………………….. 77
TABLE 4.7: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: NATURE OF APPOINTMENTS …… 79
TABLE 4.8: SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: LEARNING PROGRAMMES
OFFERED ……………………………………………………………… 80
TABLE 4.9: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: ORGANISATIONAL LEADERSHIP
STYLE AND SUPERVISION …………………………………………. 82
TABLE 4.10: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: WORKING CONDITIONS ……….. 85
TABLE 4.11: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: ORGANISATIONAL
COMMUNICATION …………………………………………………… 88
TABLE 4.12: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES
AND JOB SECURITY ……………………………..………………… 91
TABLE 4.13: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: REMUNERATION AND
EMPLOYEE BENEFITS …………………………………………….. 93
TABLE 4.14: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: PERSONAL JOB SATISFACTION 95
TABLE 4.15: CORRELATION SCORES AND INTERPRETATION …………… 98
TABLE 4.16: RELIABILITY OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT: CRONBACH’S
ALPHA ………………………………………………………………... 99
TABLE 4.17: CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORES AFTER DELETION: ORGANISATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE AND
SUPERVISION (OLS) ……………………………………………… 101
xiii
TABLE 4.18: CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORES AFTER DELETION:
PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB
SATISFACTION (POS) ……………………………………………… 102
TABLE 419: CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORES AFTER DELETION:
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION (OCO)…………………. 103
TABLE 4.20: CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORES AFTER DELETION:
REMUNERATION AND EMPLOYEE BENEFITS (REB)………... 104
TABLE 4.21: TABLE OF CORRELATIONS AND p-VALUES …..……………… 106
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1: THE HYPOTHESISED MODEL …………………………………….. 6
FIGURE 2.1: SCHEIN’S ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE MODEL ………………. 22
FIGURE 3.1: LOGIC OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS …………………………. 45
FIGURE 3.2: OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS …………………… 46
FIGURE 4.1: RESPONSE RATE: AGE GROUPS………………………………… 71
FIGURE 4.2: RESPONSE RATE: GENDER ……………………………………… 72
FIGURE 4.3: RESPONSE RATE: EDUCATIONAL LEVELS ……………………. 73
FIGURE 4.4: RESPONSE RATE: EMPLOYMENT POSITION …………………. 75
FIGURE 4.5: RESPONSE RATE: TOTAL WORK EXPERIENCE ……………… 76
FIGURE 4.6: RESPONSE RATE: SERVICE DURATION AT CURRENT INSTITUTION………….…………………….………………………… 78 FIGURE 4.7: RESPONSE RATE: APPOINTMENTS …………………………….. 79
FIGURE 4.8: RESPONSE RATE: LEARNING PROGRAMMES OFFERED…… 81
FIGURE 4.9: ORGANISATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE AND
SUPERVISION (OLS) RESPONSES …………………………….... 84
FIGURE 4.10: WORKING CONDITIONS (WCS) RESPONSES ………………… 86
FIGURE 4.11: ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION (OCO) RESPONSES… 89
FIGURE 4.12: PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB SECURITY (POS)
RESPONSES ………………………………………………………... 92
FIGURE 4.13: REMUNERATION AND EMPLOYEE BENEFITS (REB)
RESPONSES ………………………………………………………... 94
FIGURE 4.14: PERSONAL JOB SATISFACTION (PJS) RESPONSES ….…… 96
FIGURE 4.15: REVISED MODEL FOR JOB SATISFACTION …………………. 110
1
CHAPTER 1
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Job satisfaction is one of the most widely researched job attitudes and the most
extensively investigated topic in the history of industrial and organisational psychology
according to Judge, Heller and Klinger (2008: 362). The authors state that in the field
of study dealing with organisational sciences, job satisfaction occupies a place of
prominence in behavioural theories and models. The main reason for the increased
interest in the study of job satisfaction is because many scholars have found that job
satisfaction research has the added advantage of practical application in the
workplace for the enhancement of individuals’ professional and personal lives.
Lovas (2007: 216) states that organisational culture is one of the main features that
gives an organisation its overall unique identity. Organisational culture influences how
the members of that organisation behave towards one another, handle workplace
situations and react towards the external world that is made up of clients and
customers.
This research was conducted in the context that organisational culture is an important
factor that significantly impacts upon the degree to which an organisation is classified
as a happy and healthy working environment and whether it can be classified as a
sought-after workplace. According to Tsai (2011: 1) the extent to which employees
acknowledge and accept the philosophy and character of the organisation, influences
their work ethics, behaviour, attitudes and, consequently, the level of job satisfaction
experienced.
Job satisfaction is an intricate concept and, therefore, it is often interpreted in various
ways by different writers and has become one of the main factors that determine the
efficiency and effectiveness of employees of contemporary organisations. Judge and
Klinger (2008: 393), share the view that any study of job satisfaction is one of the most
widely investigated human attitudes, occupying a vital role in the study of human
behaviours.
2
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The research problem statement centres around how best to influence the existing
organisational culture to the extent that it positively impacts upon employee job
satisfaction (Yozgat, Yurtkoru & Bilginoglu, 2013: 518) especially in public sector
organisations where organisational culture is influenced and defined by the
environmental conditions, employee demographics and hygiene factors (Lovas, 2007:
217).
This study investigated if there was a link between the employee job satisfaction in
relation to the culture of the organisation. The study investigated how employees’ job
satisfaction spilled over into the employees’ personal lives and well-being.
It was envisaged that the study would find possible solutions to problems that have
been observed particularly in the public education sector. The problem encompassed
conduct such as employee apathy, late arrival for work, grievances, absenteeism,
deviant behaviour such as substance abuse, inefficiency, decreased productivity, high
staff turnover and low levels of loyalty to the organisation that could eventually lead to
the demise of an organisation (Saari & Judge, 2004: 397).
This study targeted the academic staff of a local Technical and Vocational Education
and Training (TVET) College and determined the role that the prevailing organisational
culture plays on the employees’ experiences of job satisfaction.
According to Tahir and Sajid (2014: 36) when teaching staff members have good
subject knowledge yet they suffer from job dissatisfaction, they could end up doing
more harm than good to the learners whom they teach. The authors continue by
asserting that dissatisfied staff do not perform their tasks wholeheartedly due to the
personal job dissatisfaction that they experience (Tahir & Sajid, 2014: 37).
Organisational culture, although difficult to change, can be influenced to achieve job
satisfaction and fulfill the goals of the organisation. The measurement of
organisational culture is a starting point in diagnosing and influencing any possible
changes in the organisation (Sempane, Rieger & Roodt, 2002: 23).
3
1.3 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The researcher’s experience in the TVET sector over several years led to an interest
in conducting research on this topic. The authors Tahir and Sajid (2014: 33) state that
the problem of low job satisfaction appears to be widespread and severe at public
education institutions where typically high levels of employee apathy, absence from
work and high staff turnover rates are often experienced (Tahir & Sajid, 2014: 33).
Lumley, Coetzee, Tladinyane and Ferreira (2011: 102) state that an individual that has
a high level of job satisfaction generally demonstrates a positive attitude to his/her job
while the individual that is dissatisfied will hold negative attitudes towards his/her job.
This study sought to investigate whether there is a link between employee job
satisfaction and the organisational culture. The study proposes recommendations to
leaders at TVET Colleges on how the organisational culture can be improved so that
job satisfaction can be increased at the institutions.
The questions that this study sought to answer were:
• Is there a relationship between the organisational leadership style and supervision
on the employees’ experience of job satisfaction?
• Is there a relationship between the working conditions encompassing
communication, promotion opportunities, remuneration and employee benefits and
the employees’ levels of job satisfaction?
• How can TVET colleges improve the organisational culture to positively influence
the levels of employee job satisfaction?
It is important that the challenge of employees who are dissatisfied in the job context,
is resolved because happy employees are committed to the workplace, demonstrate
higher productivity levels, lower staff turnover rates and for organisations (Coetzee,
Schreuder & Tladinyane, 2014: 6).
4
According to Coetzee, et al (2014: 2), the direct spin-off of job satisfied employees is
improved customer satisfaction, staff retention, increased profits and sustainability of
firms.
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of the study was to improve employees’ experience of job
satisfaction by highlighting the importance of a strategic alliance between
organisational management and human resources management so that a multi-
dimensional approach can be found that will ensure greater levels of job satisfaction
among personnel at the TVET colleges participating in the survey sample.
1.4.1 Primary Objectives
The primary objectives of this study were to investigate the attributes of organisational
culture that impact the levels of employee job satisfaction.
The study encompassed the following steps:
• Determine the effect of leadership style and supervision on employees’ experience
of job satisfaction;
• Investigate the effect of working conditions on employees’ experiences of job
satisfaction;
• Determine the effect of organisational communication on job satisfaction;
• Investigate the consequence of promotion opportunities on job satisfaction;
• Determine how remuneration and employee benefits influence job satisfaction and
job retention.
1.4.2 Secondary Objectives
To achieve the above-mentioned primary objectives, the following secondary
objectives were formulated:
• Conduct an extensive literature review on employee job satisfaction and the factors
that affect employee job satisfaction;
5
• Conceptualise job satisfaction and its resultant effects on the continued existence
of the workplace;
• Conduct an extensive literature review on how job satisfaction is affected by the
culture of the organisation;
• Develop a questionnaire as an instrument to measure the variables included in the
hypothesised relationships;
• Draw a convenience sample of a minimum of 50 respondents from two TVET
Colleges situated in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality (BCMM), Eastern
Cape
• Analyse the data using the Statistics Software computer program;
• Record and interpret the empirical results; and
• Draw conclusions, provide managerial recommendations and indicate research
gaps for future research.
1.5 HYPOTHESES
A quantitative study entails the formulating of appropriate hypotheses that illustrate
the possible causal relationships or assumptions guiding the research and gives the
reader insight into the underlying beliefs or ideas that support the research topic
(Maree, 2017: 33).
The first hypothesis, called the null hypothesis, claims that the true population
parameter value is equal to the hypothesised value or status quo and is indicated as
H0. The second or alternative hypothesis, written as H1, is a claim that the true
population parameter is different to the null hypothesis (Wegner, 2017: 200).
The alternative hypotheses for this study are expressed as follows:
H1: Leadership style and supervision influence job satisfaction.
H2: Working conditions have an effect on job satisfaction.
H3: Organisational communication influences job satisfaction.
H4: Promotion opportunities influence job safisfaction.
H5: Remuneration and employee benefits influence job satisfaction.
6
FIGURE 1.1
THE HYPOTHESISED MODEL
1.6 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
Collis and Hussey (2014: 55) distinguish between research methodology and research
method by stating that methodology refers to a research strategy while method is the
technique used for data collection and data analysis.
This study was supported by a survey that was conducted at public TVET college
institutions situated in the BCMM on a selected sample of respondents. For
convenience, respondents were surveyed at college campus sites where they work.
Leadership Style and
Supervision
Promotion
Opportunities
Working Conditions
Organisational
Communication
Remuneration and
Employee Benefits
Job Satisfaction
7
1.6.1 The Research Design
Glathorn and Joyner (2005: 97) describe research design as a plan that is specifically
compiled to study the research problem, provide an outline of how the research will
be conducted and provide details of the type of study to be undertaken.
According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 43) a research paradigm is a philosophical
framework that sets guidelines on how scientific research is to be conducted. There
are two paradigms available to researchers, namely positivism and interpretivism
(Collis & Hussey, 2014: 44).
1.6.2 The Research Approach
This research followed a positivistic, quantitative method to collect and analyse the
data. This approach was chosen because the research question is rooted in social
reality and objective investigation that lead to a deductive process which provided
explanatory theories and gives better understanding of the social phenomenon being
studied (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 43).
The positivistic paradigm requires the data to be measurable, accurate, specific and
precise. Thus, data integrity in terms of reliability and a higher response rate are
important (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 52).
1.6.3 Sampling Design
Collis and Hussey (2014: 57) describe sampling design as a subset of the population
that is selected to draw conclusions for the entire population. The authors discuss two
types of sampling, namely probability sampling and non-probability sampling. This
study used non-probability sampling.
Convenience sampling was applied during this study. The college’s employee
database served as a sampling frame from which respondents were chosen. Wegner
(2017: 163) states that this sampling method ensures greater representativeness of
the population and results in a smaller sampling error.
The convenience sample consisted of sixty-one (61) lecturing staff members at a
TVET college in the Buffalo City Metropolitan municipality. The researcher conducted
8
a cross-sectional study by collecting data over a short time, analysing, interpreting and
reporting the results due to time constraints and limited resources (Wegner, 2017:
410).
1.6.4 Measuring Instrument
A self-administered, paper-based survey was used to collect the quantitative data
which measured the variables applicable to this study on job satisfaction. The items
of the questionnaire were of equal value and were made up of a five-point Likert scale.
The purpose of the questionnaire was to stimulate responses on the experience of job
satisfaction in the context of the culture of the organisation.
The questionnaire was designed so that respondents completed it in under thirty (30)
minutes to keep costs and time consumption at a minimum. The researcher had
relative ease of access to research participants as the researcher worked in the TVET
sector for many years and had valuable contacts to support and facilitate the research.
Maree (2017: 92) states that surveys allow for relatively quick collection of large data
sets about people and are more cost effective than experiments. Wegner (2017: 17)
suggests that surveys are useful for the gathering of primary data through direct
questioning of respondents to capture attitudinal-type data on opinions, awareness,
perceptions and preferences of the respondents.
This study used a cross-sectional survey in which a sample of participants represented
the targeted population of TVET college lecturers.
1.6.5 Data Analysis
The primary data, generated from the questionnaires completed by the sample of
respondents, were analysed using the Statistics Software computer software program.
Elements tested included validity and reliability of the measuring instrument. Results
were tabulated, statistically analysed, interpreted and comprehensively reported.
9
Exploratory and inferential analysis was used to generalise the results obtained from
the sample group to the population. A detailed report on the descriptive and empirical
statistics was provided.
1.7 VARIABLES OF THE STUDY
According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 201) a variable is an attribute or characteristic
of the phenomenon that is the subject of the study. Variables can be measured,
counted, studied and observed by the researcher who uses the emperical evidence
gathered to test a hypothesis.
1.7.1 Dependent Variable
A dependent variable is affected by one or more independent variables. In this
particular study job satisfaction was the dependent variable that was affected by the
independent variables.
1.7.2 Independent Variables
An independent variable is the item that does the affecting of the dependent variable,
resulting in a significant effect on the dependent variable. In this study, five (5)
independent variables were identified. These were Organisational Leadership Style
and Supervision, Working Conditions, Promotional Opportunities and Job Security,
Organisational Communication and Remuneration and Employee Retention.
1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Brief definitions of the terminology used in this study are provided for common
understanding of the topic of this research.
1.8.1 Job Satisfaction
There are numerous definitions and explanations that generally convey the meaning
of job satisfaction. Aziri (2011: 78) maintains that job satisfaction originates from a
sense of achievement and success at fulfilling one’s job requirements experienced by
individuals in the workplace.
10
Job satisfaction relates to more than merely work performance as it implies and
includes the interaction between workers and the work environment within the culture
of the organisation (Yozgat et al., 2013: 518).
The authors continue by stating that job satisfaction derives from how effectively and
successfully an individual can accomplish a task assigned to him/her in the context of
the working conditions and within reasonable constraints that the employee may
encounter during work (Yozgat et al 2013: 518).
Very often job satisfaction is measured in a simplistic way by asking employees one
global question, namely: “Generally, how satisfied are you with your job?” (Werner,
Bagrain, Cunningham, Pieterse-Landman, Potgieter & Viedge, 2011: 106).
Saari and Judge (2004: 396) concede that this approach to determine job satisfaction
is not useful because the individual’s unpredictable thoughts and emotions at the time
of responding to the question will have an influence on the response given to the
question. Therefore, a specific study of the employees’ job satisfaction experiences,
in relation to the organisational culture, may provide more meaningful and significant
findings (Saari & Judge, 2004: 396).
1.8.2 The Concept of Organisational Culture
Organisational culture is made up of the collective experiences, beliefs, attitudes and
values held by the people within an organisation. Organisational culture is defined as
a collection of norms and values shared by employees, as well as the way they interact
with each other and with the external world (Kumari, 2011: 13).
Tsai (2011: 2) describes organisational culture as all-encompassing, prevalent
throughout the organisation and, therefore, it can have the effect of strengthening or
weakening employee-related variables within an organisation. It is important that
leaders of organisations adopt a leadership model that focuses equally on expressing
a concern for workers while also increasing the overall productivity of workers (Tsai,
2011: 2).
11
Schein (2004: 237) states that organisational culture is a social construct which
describes the character of the institution and that the culture derives from the history
of the organisation, its situational environment, physical location, specific events that
shaped the organisation, group identity and collective attitudes of the employees
working within that specific environment.
1.9 ETHICS
The researcher considered ethical issues regarding the research methodology.
Ethical considerations ensure that the privacy of respondents’ is protected, the
anonymity of organisations and individuals is guaranteed and that the dignity of the
research participants will not be compromised. The researcher strove to gain the
informed consent and voluntary participation of participants and safeguarded the
confidentiality of the research data.
1.10 CHALLENGES
The researcher foresaw possible challenges with selecting a sample that would be
large enough to be representative of the population while being able to isolate the
phenomena being studied from all other factors that might influence the results (Collis
& Hussey, 2014: 63).
A limitation of the study was that it focused on only TVET lecturers at colleges in
BCMM whereas there were eight (8) TVET colleges in the Eastern Cape out of a total
of fifty (50) TVET colleges in South Africa.
1.11 TIME-FRAMES
Time allocated for the different stages in the research process was estimated as:
Literature study and corrections: one month. A substantial study of the literature and
writing up the literature review was done.
Data collection: one month. This period included the pilot phase for the questionnaire
and the actual fieldwork of distributing and collecting the questionnaires.
Analysis and interpretation of data: two months.
12
Interpretation, integrating the results and writing the report: two months.
1.12 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY
The treatise is structured as follows:
Chapter 1
The chapter provides an introduction, background and scope of the study, problem
statement, research objectives, primary objective and secondary objectives,
significance of the study and the chapter outline.
Chapter 2
Chapter 2 reviews previous literature relating to the variables that are the focus of the
study. The chapter reviews literature relating to the relationships between the
variables as well as the theoretical perspectives underpinning this study.
Chapter 3
This chapter presents the research methodology and research design used during the
study. It provides details of the population size, sample frame and sampling
procedure, the research instruments, data collection procedure and the data analysis
methods used.
Chapter 4
Chapter 4 consists of a presentation of the empirical results of the study in relation to
the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments and the hypotheses are given
in this chapter.
Chapter 5
This chapter discusses the research results, as well as recommendations and
provides a conclusion to the entire study.
1.13 SUMMARY
This aim of this chapter was to present the scope of the study and introduce the
intentions of the research.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
There are various meanings and records of what job satisfaction is and how the
experience of job satisfaction is influenced by various factors. Hoppock (1935) as
cited by Aziri (2011: 77), provides the first description of job satisfaction as being
any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances
that enable one to say that one is satisfied with one’s job.
It is somewhat difficult to provide an exact definition of job satisfaction because it is
made up of a complex collection of beliefs, perceptions, emotions and feelings that
are intangible and unseen variables (Shivendra & Kumar, 2016: 90).
This chapter will focus on key concepts such as the definition of employee job
satisfaction, the factors that influence the organisational culture and how the
organisational culture influences employee job satisfaction.
This chapter further shows the elements of organisational culture and factors that
contribute to employees’ experiences of job satisfaction. Based on these concepts,
factors that contribute to employee job satisfaction will be outlined.
2.2 DEFINITION OF JOB SATISFACTION
Jonathan, Darroux and Thibeli (2013: 86) cite the definition that was formulated by
Locke (1976) that claims that job satisfaction is an organisational construct, derived
from the pleasurable and positive emotional state that an employee experiences
when he/she appraises his/her job experience. According to Chien (2015: 1681)
the concept of job satisfaction was defined by Locke as “a pleasurable or positive
emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences.”
Saari and Judge (2004: 396) cite the definition of job satisfaction by Locke as one
of the most appropriate and widely used in research because it implies that
employees have particular feelings and opinions about the work experience and,
therefore, affect the emotions and intellect of the individual. They expand their
argument to state that when assessing one’s job, one engages in both thinking and
14
feeling about the job situation as these processes are inextricably linked (Saari &
Judge, 2004: 396).
According to Aziri (2011: 78) job satisfaction derives from a worker’s sense of
achievement and the feeling of success at fulfilling a job and can be directly linked
to positive productivity and feelings of personal well-being.
Bhatti and Quershi (2007: 55) share the opinion that employee satisfaction is a
measure of how happy workers are with their jobs as well as the working
environment and that employees are more loyal and productive when they are
satisfied. They maintain that employee satisfaction levels will vary from one
employee to another.
Another assertion is that employees’ experiences of job satisfaction increase when
they have positive working relationships with their colleagues, they earn good
salaries and employment benefits, have decent working conditions, have career
advancement opportunities and an offer of prospects for education and training
(Sageer, Rafat & Agarwal, 2012: 32).
2.3 CONCEPTUALISATION OF JOB SATISFACTION
Various authors have conceptualised theories of what job satisfaction is. Most of
the definitions derive from practice and research based on literature.
Armstrong (2006: 264) defines job satisfaction as the feelings and attitudes that
employees experience regarding the work that they are engaged in. He continues
to state that when employees have a positive, good and favourable attitude about
their work, this translates into job satisfaction; whilst negative, bad and unfavourable
attitudes towards one’s work becomes indicative of being dissatisfied with the job.
Noori, Fatemi and Najjari (2014: 2) express the view that job satisfaction is a
multidimensional construct that is affected by numerous factors ranging from the
characteristics of the individual employees, the dynamics and facets of the work
context.
Chien (2015: 1681) agrees that job satisfaction should be perceived in a
multidimensional perspective when it relates to the individual employee’s work
15
experience matching the expectations the employee has with regard to the particular
job.
2.4 IMPORTANCE OF A STUDY ON JOB SATISFACTION IN RELATION TO
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
Job satisfaction is a measure of how successfully an individual can accomplish any
task assigned to him/her, considering the conditions under which the work occurs
and within reasonable constraints that the employee may encounter during
fulfilment of the task (Yozgat, et al, 2013: 519).
Additional research by Rue and Byars, 2003 (as cited in Aziri, 2011: 81) indicates
that the factors that influence the employees’ experiences of job satisfaction can be
extended to include the following:
• The concern that a manager shows towards the employees that he/she
oversees.
• Working conditions, social relationships and compensation paid to
employees.
• Employees’ perceptions and expectations about promotion and
advancement opportunities.
• Employees’ levels of aspiration and achievement of their needs.
• Job design in terms of how employees perceive the value, scope and
depth of the work.
Sageer et al. (2012: 33), maintain that employee satisfaction shows a positive
correlation to employees being motivated, wholly engaged, displaying good
organisational citizenship, life satisfaction and being of sound mental health.
According to Khalid, Irshad and Mahmood (2012: 128) job satisfaction drives
employees to develop positive attitudes towards their particular jobs and the
organisation they work for, while job dissatisfaction leads to negative attitudes
towards both the organisation and the job.
Akram, Malik, Nadeem and Atta (2014: 734) offer an explanation that intrinsic
factors such as the workers’ positive personal feelings of being recognised,
achieving job advancement, feeling a sense of responsibility in belonging to a work
group are all strongly related to job satisfaction.
16
The authors further state that extrinsic factors such as working conditions,
remuneration and job perks also contribute to the workers’ experiences of job
satisfaction.
2.5 JOB DISSATISFACTION
A study of job satisfaction and its associated issues warrants a brief look at job
dissatisfaction. The issue of whether the factors that cause job satisfaction may
also give rise to job dissatisfaction comes to mind and warrants some discussion.
Research conducted by Okan and Akyuz (2015: 157), points to the reality that
factors that lead to dissatisfaction in the workplace are usually not related to the
individuals’ job performance but rather to how the individuals are treated in the
workplace. These factors relate to the context of the work and range from the
execution of company policy, supervision, working conditions, remuneration,
relationships with a supervisor and peers, status and security (2015: 157). A study
conducted by Pelit, Ozturk and Arslanturk (2011: 784) found that issues around
unfair remuneration rank as a negative aspect that directly gives rise to high levels
of job dissatisfaction.
When employees experience job dissatisfaction it is often demonstrated as
tardiness such as arriving late for work or leaving earlier than the end of the working
day frequent and unnecessary absenteeism, high staff turnover rates, deliberate
sabotage of work processes, recurrent strikes and persistent citing of grievances
(Rue & Byars, 2003 as cited in Aziri, 2011: 81).
Accordingly, Belias, Koustelios, Vairaktarakis and Sdrolias (2015: 315) agree that
when employees’ levels of job satisfaction decrease, employees are more likely to
experience stress, disappointment and aggressive behaviour that stems from
negative attitudes towards their working conditions, colleagues and superiors. The
researchers further state that employees who are experiencing job dissatisfaction
tend to experience more anxiety, become less committed, pessimistic and,
therefore, are more likely to have intentions to quit the job.
Saari and Judge (2004: 399) support the view that employees’ job dissatisfaction
strongly relates to the display of withdrawal or negative behaviours that are
characterised by lateness, increased absenteeism, unionisation, disputes and
17
grievances, drug abuse, high employee turnover rates and employees even taking
the decision to retire prematurely.
The negative effect of employees experiencing job dissatisfaction often manifests
itself in high levels of absenteeism, apparent stress, lack of commitment and staff
attrition (Sageer et al., 2012: 33). Tett and Meyer (1993) as cited in Akram et al.
(2014: 734) refer to an employee’s conscious intent and resolve to leave an
organisation as the ‘turnover’ intention, brought on by employees experiencing job
dissatisfaction. The organisation loses when an employee leaves the job, especially
if the company has invested vast company resources such as time and money in
developing the employee through extensive training, and making employees market
ready and employable (Balakrishnan & Vijayalakshmi, 2014: 69).
2.6 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONSEQUENCES OF JOB SATISFACTION
Satisfied workers influence several aspects of organisational life and often affect the
continued existence and growth of the organisation (Aziri, 2011: 78). Some
consequences of high levels of employee job satisfaction are listed below:
2.6.1 Increased Employee Productivity
Previous research indicates that the correlation between levels of job satisfaction
and employee productivity is not strong because employees’ job satisfaction is also
affected by other variables such as being rewarded accordingly and fairly for their
efforts and work done (Aziri, 2011: 84; Saari & Judge, 2004: 397).
According to Robbins (2001) cited in Tahir and Sajid (2014: 35) it is understood that
satisfied workers are generally inclined to be more creative, innovative, flexible,
punctual and show a higher work ethic and better morale, thus producing a healthier
and more stable workforce.
2.6.2 Improved Employee Commitment
Pomirleanu and Mariadoss (2015: 34) maintain that job satisfaction is of particular
interest to organisations because it directly links to organisational commitment,
performance, employee turnover intentions, employees’ inclination and tendency to
remain longer in an organisation, as well as reducing conflict and ambiguity in the
employee’s role fulfilment.
18
Eliyana, Yusuf and Prabowo (2012: 142) identify various aspects of employee
commitment, explaining that commitment to the organisation influences the
employees’ decisions on whether to leave the organisation or remain. Employees
who experience emotional obligations towards the organisation remain in that
organisation because they want to remain. There are those employees who feel a
strong, constant obligation to remain with the organisation because they need to,
whilst employees who experience a strong normative commitment towards the
organisation stay because they feel that they should as it is the right thing to do
(Allen & Meyer (1996) cited in Eliyana et al., (2012: 142).
2.6.3 Employee Loyalty
Aziri (2011: 84) asserts that employee commitment increases the employees’ loyalty
and allegiance to the workplace and states that loyalty is one of the most significant
factors that organisational leadership needs to pay attention to. The author
highlights circumstances where an employee feels an emotional connectedness to
the organisation and, therefore, a deeper sense of loyalty.
Aziri further states that normative loyalty is demonstrated by situations where
employees feel so grateful for the work opportunity that they owe it to the company
to be loyal (2011: 84). Aziri’s categorisation of the third type of employee loyalty is
based on the employee’s perception that he/she is unable to find employment
anywhere else and that this is the only organisation to work at (2011: 84).
2.6.4 Increased Organisational Success
Organisational success that is measured by increased profits, growth and
development of the organisation, derives from customer loyalty which comes
directly from customer satisfaction experiences and is a consequence of the value
chain created by satisfied, loyal and efficient employees in the workplace (Sageer
et al., 2012: 33).
According to Sageer et al. (2012: 33), various studies show that those organisations
that maintain high levels of employee job satisfaction will succeed in reducing
employee turnover rates, keep labour costs low and, therefore, improve customer
satisfaction as a resultant consequence.
19
2.6.5 Employees’ Personal Attributes
Arguments put forward by Akram et al. (2014: 733-734) indicate that an employee’s
perception of his/her job experience, whether it be satisfaction or dissatisfaction, will
have a direct bearing on his/her personal family life and work outcomes. Previous
researchers (Greenhaus & Buetell, 1985; Frone, 2000; Madsen, John & Miller,
2005) all cited by Akram et al. (2014: 734), concur that any conflict that arises
between work-life and family-life negatively impacts upon the employee’s well-
being, health and also the employee’s work performance.
According to Shivendra and Kumar (2016: 90) the individual employee’s age, state
of health, personality, disposition and ambitious aspirations also influence employee
job satisfaction. The authors continue by stating that one’s social status, family
relationships, trade union affiliations and political views all play a decisive role in
how one experiences job satisfaction (Shivendra & Kumar, 2016: 91).
Tahir and Sajid (2014: 39) maintain that when workers achieve high levels of job
satisfaction, this will decrease the incidence of workers’ absenteeism, attrition,
apathy and disspiritedness that are often attributed to the attitudes of those workers
who do not regard their jobs as being satisfying.
When employees experience significantly high levels of job satisfaction, this
translates into employee engagement that is evidenced by them being involved,
committed and dedicated to the job (Macey & Schneider, 2008: 5).
2.7 PREVIOUS STUDIES ON EFFECTS OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
ON JOB SATISFACTION
Research by Gunlu, Aksarayli and Percin (2009: 695) found that the levels of
employees’ commitment to the organisation are positively related to the levels of job
satisfaction experienced by the employees. The researchers suggest that both job
satisfaction and commitment to the organisation result in a sense of comfort, an
increase in job security and a stronger desire to continue working for the particular
organisation.
In situations where employees experience high levels of job satisfaction they are
inclined to show greater commitment to the organisation and demonstrate optimum
levels of efficiency and productivity (Rue & Byars, 2003 as cited in Aziri, 2011: 81).
20
Zolbanin and Sarathy (2014: 5) state that job satisfaction becomes an internalised
experience for the employee, demonstrated through feelings, attitudes and
preferences that an employee will show towards his/her job.
2.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: HOW ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
AFFECTS EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION
Schein (2004: 67) states that organisational culture is an abstract concept and
therefore, difficult to understand, yet it is interesting that people behave differently
in different organisations because of organisational culture. According to Schein
(2004: 72) each organisation is affected by direct and indirect factors that include
exemplary behaviour, opinions, status and appointments. The indirect aspects are
the mission and vision of the organisation, corporate identity and rituals that are of
a formative nature but do not influence the organisational culture directly.
A supportive organisational culture is an environment that motivates and
encourages employees to perform optimally and ensures that workers achieve
higher productivity levels as pointed out by Uddin, Luva and Hossian (2013: 63).
Research done on organisational culture types and organisational psychology
focuses on how culture impacts upon employees’ psychology and performance as
the two issues need to reach a state of equilibrium to enable an organisation to
achieve its maximum level of effectiveness and efficiency (Uddin et al., 2013: 63).
2.8.1 Types of Organisational Culture
Belias et al. (2015: 316), cite the writings of Cameron and Quinn (2006) that deliniate
four types types of organisational culture that specifically relate to relations among
employees. These are:
• Hierarchical culture wherein formal rules and policies are followed.
• Market culture where the organisation operates as a highly competitve
institution where winning or coming out tops is a common goal and
organisational character.
• Clan culture is characterised by a family-oriented, friendly, warm,
atmosphere with superiors playing the role of mentors that encourage high
levels of employee commitment to their jobs and the organisation.
21
• Adhocracy culture that is characterised by innovation, creativity, risk taking
in a dynamic, supportive working environment.
The classification provided above leads to the conclusion that organisational culture
is based on commonly shared values, behaviours and beliefs of individuals within a
given organisation and, therefore, provides the organisation with direction, a sense
of order and a strong basis for common understanding of issues within the particular
organisation (Belias et al., 2015: 316-317).
2.8.2 Definition of Organisational Culture
The subjective nature of culture makes it challenging to give a precise definition of
organisational culture, but there is a general consensus that organisational culture
is traditionally determined and socially constructed, based on beliefs, behaviours,
values and morals associated with different levels of the organisation and it includes
all aspects of organisational life (Uddin et al., 2013: 64). The writers further state
that organisational culture manifests itself in the natural setting, rites and rituals,
climate and values, stories, beliefs and principles shared by the staff of the particular
organisation.
Schein (2004: 231) defines organisational culture as an interactive, dynamic,
revolving force that engages the behaviour and attitudes of both employees and
management. Previous research by Sempane et al (2002: 23) indicates that job
satisfaction does not happen in isolation as it depends on organisational variables
such as organisational structure, size of the organisation, remuneration levels,
working conditions and leadership. These are some of the elements that make up
the organisational culture of an organisation (Sempane et al., 2002: 23).
2.8.3 Schein’s Organisational Culture Model
The organisational model developed by Schein (Mulder, 2013: 40) is also known as
the onion model due to its layered presentation that resembles the layers of an
onion.
A graphic representation of Schein’s organisational culture model and explanation
follows.
22
FIGURE 2.1
SCHEIN’S ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE MODEL
D
(Mulder, 2013: 39)
(a) Artefacts and Symbols
The outer layer consists of artefacts, symbols and objects that are the visible and
identifiable details such as the building architecture, organisational structure,
specific corporate uniform and unique organisational processes that separate the
organisation from others and give it a distinct identity (Mulder, 2013: 39). Schein as
cited by Mulder (2013: 41), states that the outer layer is easy to change and adapt
to organisational transformation (Mulder, 2013: 39).
23
(b) Espoused values
The middle layer consists of the espoused values, standards and rules of conduct
that are promoted, championed and adopted within the organisation. This layer of
the organisational culture is where organisational plans, strategies, policies,
objectives, tactics, beliefs, viewpoints and philosophies are formulated and
propagated (Mulder, 2013: 38). It is important that the ideas of managers and staff
must be in line with the philosophies of the organisation (Mulder, 2013: 40).
(c) Assumptions
The inner, core layer is made up of basic, underlying assumptions that are deeply
entrenched in the organisational culture and are experienced as unconscious, self-
evident behaviour depicting the way things are done according to all the people
belonging to the organisation (Mulder, 2013: 40). This layer is characterised by
heroes and role models that are admired for the important role they have played in
the organisation (Mulder, 2013: 40).
2.9 MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION
Many researchers share the opinion that job satisfaction is a global concept that
comprises of five aspects, namely, salary, promotions, supervision, co-workers and
the job content (Judge & Klinger, 2008: 395). The authors further state that
researchers commonly distinguish between intrinisic and extrinisic factors of job
satisfaction. Salary and promotions are considered to be extrinsic factors while
supervision, co-workers and job content are regarded as intrinsic factors of job
satisfaction (Judge & Klinger, 2008: 395).
The literature research shows that the two most extensively validated employee
surveys used by many researchers are the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and the
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (Saari & Judge, 2004: 400). The MSQ
is available in a long and short version and has proved to be more versatile and to
provide reliable measures.
The JDI is used to assess employees’ levels of satisfaction within five different job
areas, namely, pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision and the job itself. It has
24
proved to be a reliable survey with evidence that can be validated (Saari & Judge,
2004: 400).
Due to the multidimensional nature of organisational culture, this study looked briefly
into limited aspects of the effect that organisational culture may exert on employee
job satisfaction.
2.10 PERTINENT ASPECTS OF EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT
The concept of employee engagement, first created by researchers with the Gallup
Research Group, derives from how employees perceive the relationship beween
their work life and personal life (Harter, Schmidt, Agrawal & Plowman, 2012: 4).
Harter, et al (2012: 8) assert that employee engagement derives from feelings of
being immersed, captivated and energetically engrossed in one’s work. The authors
continue that employee engagement affects the individual employee’s behaviour,
level of internal motivation and self drive (Harter, et al, 2012: 8).
Penger and Cerne (2014: 512-513) describe employee engagement as a state of
mind that makes employees demonstrate greater levels of enthusiasm, display
responsive attention, a deeper sense of purpose and a high caliber of dedication to
work by becoming emotionally and physically involved in the work tasks that they
perform.
Employee engagement is aptly demonstrated by employees who show self-
determination and take pride in delivering prime quality goods and products and
providing higher quality services to clients and customers (Penger & Cerne, 2014:
513).
Employee engagement is a spin off of job satisfaction that benefits the organisation
by reducing the rate of staff turnover, improving the performance of individual
employees, ensuring better quality health and well-being due to employees being
able to adapt easier to workplace environmental changes and other innovative
initiatives (Popli & Rizvi, 2016: 967).
Employees who experience full engagement at work are found to be more
innovative, display higher work commitment levels, demonstrate greater
25
trustworthiness, goodwill and helpfullness towards the organisation and deliver
good performance of tasks (Bates & Weighart, 2014: 47).
Saks (2006: 601) supports the understanding that an employee’s experience of
proper supervisory support, perceived organisational support (POS), as well as
rewards and recognition are reliable indicators of the level of employee
engagement.
Research conducted on employee engagement levels shows that every individual
is responsible for his/her engagement. There is a strong, positive connection
between employee engagement and employee retention and this is primarily driven
by the influence that managers have on employees (BlessingWhite Research, 2011:
1).
A more interesting finding is that there is a strong correlation between levels of
engagement and the age of employees, the employement level, the role within the
organisation and how long one has been with the organisation. Older employees in
strategic positions of power and authority in the organisation and who have worked
for a longer period for the organisation are more likely to be more engaged than
younger recruits within organisations (BlessingWhite Research, 2011: 2).
2.11 IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP STYLE ON JOB SATISFACTION
Numerous studies have been conducted on how leadership behaviour influences
employees’ levels of job satisfaction, paying particular attention to the influencial
role of leaders when it comes to how teams function, interpersonal employee
relationships, the effect on team members’ morale, trust and loyalty regarding team
dynamics (Yuliarini, Mat & Kumar, 2012: 94).
The leadership style that a leader demonstrates determines and influences the
levels of employee satisfaction experienced in the work place (Sageer et al., 2012:
36). The authors maintain that leaders with a democratic leadership style are more
effective at promoting better working relations through mutual respect and
participative decision-making, while leaders that are authoritarian and dictatorial
create a tense work environment that greatly contributes to employee
dissatisfaction.
26
Bates and Weighart (2014: 48) describe good leadership as the ability of the leader
to stimulate and influence the followers into being creative, innovative and astute
problem-solving thinkers with a high level of engagement. The authors speak
further of leaders having an executive presence that can be explained as exemplary
leadership behaviour, appropriate knowledge and skills that make them effective
leaders (2014: 48). Effective leaders possess character and substance that forms
the basis for foundational values and the qualities of maturity and virtue that are
developed in one’s adult years (Bates & Weighart, 2014: 48).
Penger and Cerne (2014: 511-512) express the sentiment that the way in which the
employees’ perceive the support that they get from workplace leaders affects their
job satisfaction, especially when leaders are experienced and perceived as role
models who should set a good example of high moral standards, honesty and
integrity that the employees can easily identify with and strive to emulate.
Popli and Rizvi (2016: 965-966) maintain that leadership style of any organisation
is one of the main drivers of employee job satisfaction. When leaders encourage
employee engagement it becomes a major strategy for the success of any
organisation, especially in the context of increasing global competition and slower
global growth prospects.
According to Welbourne (2007: 48), organisational leaders themselves also need to
be engaged so as to lead by example. Engaged leaders are able to create a working
environment that is less stressful, work places in which all employees experience
less burn-out, less confusion and fewer barriers to achieving the main job objectives.
This engaged approach benefits the entire organisation by promoting more skilled
employees, increased service levels, upward career mobility within the organisation
and employees who are willing to go the extra mile, even when tasks assigned to
them are not part of the official job description (Welbourne, 2007: 48).
In-depth studies on leadership have been done by countless scholars and as this
study is not specifically on leadership, a brief discourse on the categorisation and
description of leadership follows to provide context to how leadership affects job
satisfaction of employees at an organisation.
27
2.11.1 Effective Leadership
Bates and Weighart (2014: 48-49) describe an effective leadership style as the
attributes an individual leader demonstrates to pursuade, engage, motivate and
inspire others to get the work done, whether through verbal or non verbal
communication or other constructive interventions.
Saks (2006: 603) states that workplace supervisors and leaders who foster better
relationships with employees generally increase the levels of employee job
satisfaction and the outcome is higher productivity levels. As a result, workers are
less likely to leave the organisation. Popli and Rizvi (2016: 968) support the view
that the behaviour and actions of a workplace leader influences employee attitudes,
workers’ behaviours and overall organisational outcomes.
2.11.2 Ethical Leadership
Leaders with high ethical standards distinguish themselves by displaying traits that
are consistent with moral principles such as honesty, integrity, fairness and
trustworthiness. These ethical qualities foster long-term effectiveness, efficiency,
innovation and successful organisational outcomes since these characteristics
require leading in a manner that respects the rights and dignity of others (Okan &
Akyuz, 2015: 158-159).
2.11.3 Authentic Leadership
Authentic leadership has a positive effect and allows followers to develop self-
confidence, trust, resilience and optimism, thus positively affecting employee
attitudes and behaviours. (Penger & Cerne, 2014: 510).
Authentic, supportive leaders positively increase employees’ enthusiasm for work
and positively influence how employees will experience job satisfaction (Gardner,
Avolio, Luthans, May & Walumbwa, 2005: 345).
Authentic leadership augurs well for stimulating the employees’ job satisfaction,
work engagement, job performance and organisational citizenship behaviours
(Penger & Cerne, 2014: 510-511).
Establishing a good working relationship with a supervisor or senior staff member is
essential because employees need to gain general understanding and receive
28
professional feedback and constructive criticism from the person in the position of
the first line of command (Sageer et al., 2012: 35).
2.12 IMPACT OF WORKING CONDITIONS ON JOB SATISFACTION
Working conditions should not be discounted when looking at factors that influence
employees’ experiences of job satisfaction. According to Noori et al. (2014: 3),
working conditions form part of the context of the job, ranging from the physical
circumstances under which one works to the psychological situations that contribute
to job satisfaction and/or prevent job dissatisfaction.
Decent and favourable working conditions result in the individual employee’s
experience of safety, security, comfort and calmness, while having the correct,
suitable equipment and tools, reasonable working methods, appropriate facilities,
amenities and modern technology available, leads to positive feelings toward the
job and contributes to inspire worker productivity, regular work attendance and
punctuality (Sageer et al., 2012: 35-36).
Darmondy and Smyth (2016: 118), whose research was primarily conducted in the
context of primary schools in Ireland, share the view that a positive working
environment, collegial co-operation from parents of learners, the learners’ attitudes
and sufficient resources for teaching and administration, played a critical role in
promoting the teachers’ levels of job satisfaction.
Organisations that provide a co-operative workplace that makes employees feel
valued contribute immensely to job satisfaction. An ideal working environment is an
environment that is free from harassment, encourages employee involvement in
realistic goal setting, encourages the employees to participate in organisational
planning and problem-solving. (Kumari, 2011: 13).
A study conducted by Pelit, et al. (2011: 784), found that physical working conditions
as well as personal relations with colleagues are amongst the most positive aspects
of job satisfaction.
Research on flexible workplaces conducted by Van der Voordt (2003: 133-134),
explains the effects of sharing activity-related places in an open-plan office as
compared to traditional, fixed place, cellular offices. The positive findings of the
study include increased productivity of personnel as they found it more pleasurable
29
to work in a modern, professional organisation (Van der Voordt, 2003: 134)
providing a positive feeling of freedom (2003: 143). The open-plan office
environment offers opportunities for easier communication and social interaction
amongst employees (2003: 144).
The opposite can also be true where the sharing of an open office often results in
an untidy, unkempt workspace that some people may not find conducive to effective
productivity. Some employees expressed experiencing an intrusion of their
personal space because of a lack of privacy and the noise distraction (Van der
Voordt, 2003: 144) as well as being unable to control the quality of air, room
temperature and light settings (2003: 145).
Other elements that may affect the conditions as these occur in the working world
are highlighted for discourse.
2.12.1 Workplace Bullying
Workplace bullying is considered by many researchers as a harassment and social
exclusion where individuals are subjected to indirect and subtle psychological
violence (Giorgi, Leon-Perez & Arenas, 2015: 227). Valentine, Fleischman and
Godkin (2015: 144) state that workplace bullying is a deviant behaviour that is
particularly challenging, highly counterproductive and may go unnoticed while it has
far-reaching effects on the workplace.
Even though there is no concise definition of the concept of workplace bullying,
some examples include mistreatment of employees, victimisation, workplace
aggression, abusive supervision, unkind remarks, vulgarity, unwarranted criticism,
social isolation, disrespect and intentional, systematic persecution of an employee
that often results in severe social, psychological and psychosomatic problems for
the victim (Bartlett & Bartlet, 2011, cited in Valentine et al., 2015: 144).
Giorgi et al. (2015: 227), cite examples of workplace bullying as instances where an
individual may frequently be humiliated, ridiculed, ignored, treated with hostility,
harassment, sarcasm, name calling or excessive teasing. The writers state that
these behaviours may be done in a very subtle and ambiguous manner and,
therefore, may not even be perceived as outright bullying.
30
Generally, workplace bullies intentionally harm others by being offensive,
humiliating, threatening or even displaying physical aggression to force the victim to
act in a predetermined manner (Boddy, 2011 cited in Valentine et al., 2015: 144).
While some workers may bully co-workers, workplace bullies often function from a
position of power or higher authority; thus causing more psychological harm to the
victim (Bowling & Beehr, 2006: 1001). The negative effects include less committed
workers and a higher likelihood to quit the job (Valentine et al., 2015: 147).
Being bullied often results in a marked drop in job satisfaction when an individual is
exposed to bullying behaviour at the workplace (Giorgi et al., 2015: 229).
Other detrimental results of workplace bullying are described as poor physical
health, anxiety, depression that is usually stress-related and increased feelings of
vulnerability that stem from guilt and shame at feeling embarrassed at work (Bowling
& Beehr, 2006: 1001; Hogh & Dofradottir, 2012: 491).
In contrast to the negative sentiments expressed about bullying, Giorgi et al., (2015:
229) state that bullying may, in some rare cases, contribute positively to job
satisfaction. This happens when an employee perceives being on the receiving end
of negative acts such as being the butt of personal jokes as a sign that he/she has
been accepted and is part of the in-group within the organisation.
The feelings of being accepted as one of the in-crowd that the bullied employee
feels becomes incongruent with the usually negative feelings brought about by
bullying. The feelings of isolation and out-group status of the bullied victim is then
perceived as a necessary sacrifice with no harm or malicious intent but as a
necessary sacrifice for increased employee performance, career advancement,
greater resilience and strength of character (Giorgi et al., 2015: 229).
2.12.2 Organisational Trust
The trust that an employee shows towards an organisation is a measure of the
employee’s confidence in the workplace and relates to whether employees are
treated fairly, rewarded appropriately and not exploited for their labour (Gillespie &
Dietz, 2009: 128).
31
The trust that employees show towards the organisation consists of aspects such
as the setting of boundaries and operation parameters especially relating to
relationships in the workplace (Farndale, Hope-Hailey & Kelliher, 2011: 7).
2.12.3 Organisational Citizenship
Organisational identity and organisational politics are constructs that influence how
employees strive for personal achievements, organisational success, job
satisfaction, organisational success and how an individual’s identity is formed
(Basar & Basim, 2015: 664-665). Basar and Basim maintain that employees
demonstrate an internalised identity with the organisation’s values and goals and a
deep sense of belonging to the organisation (2015: 665).
According to Popli and Rizvi (2016: 967) the incidence of continued, positive
organisational citizenship behaviour is greatly enhanced by a higher degree of job
satisfaction that leads to better job performance, productivity and emotional job
commitment resulting in the overall business success of the organisation.
2.13 IMPACT OF ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION ON JOB
SATISFACTION
A working environment that promotes and encourages communication to be
conducted with openness, truthfulness and where continuous feedback is provided,
fosters higher levels of job satisfaction (Penger & Cerne, 2014: 512). The authors
claim that positive, interpersonal employee relationships need to be nurtured in a
psychologically safe environment. This allows employees to be less inhibited, be
their authentic selves and have the confidence to try new things without fear of
negative consequences (2014: 513).
Kumari (2011: 13) claims that organisations which provide opportunities for
employees to participate in organisational planning and problem-solving, show
respect for diverse ideas and opinions, give and take honest, constructive feedback
and arrange mentoring and information sharing sessions are progressive in their
approach to organisational communication.
Communication is the life-blood of all organisations, occurs on multi-dimensional
levels and gives character to the relationships in the context of the organisation.
32
2.13.1 LMX Theory of Communication
According to Hsieh (2016: 93) Leader Member Exchange (LMX) theory refers to the
quality of the relationship between supervisors and employees, based on emotional
support and the provision of work-related resources. The theory is grounded on the
premise that employees will behave positively towards the supervisor who is
perceived as supportive, kind, caring and understanding and ensures that all the
requisite work resources are provided.
In instances where there are high levels of LMX, organisational leaders will find that
subordinates are committed, competent and diligent. The subordinates will
demonstrate greater job satisfaction and a harmonious relationship with the leader
or supervisor (Hsieh, 2016: 94).
2.13.2 Communication for Functional Groups and Work Teams
Effective communication is helpful when execution of tasks requires the forming of
work teams. Communication amongst peers differs from that between employee
and supervisor according to Hsieh, 2016: 94).
Sageer et al. (2012: 35), assert that human beings demonstrate a natural tendency
to want to work together and interact with others, therefore, the forming of groups
and teams is a common and useful practice in the workplace. The authors continue
that the formation of work teams or work groups significantly influences job
satisfaction due to the influence of group dynamics and group cohesiveness that is
driven by a natural need for affiliation, sense of identity and relating to others
(Sageer et al., 2012: 35).
Leadership influences the commitment, motivation, team identity and the way a
team functions. Employee satisfaction in work teams is a consequence of how the
team relates to authority and can be demonstrated by the psychological contract
that exists between employees and the organisational leadership (Yuliarini et al.,
2012: 94).
Cho and Park (2011: 553) claim that when mutual trust exists among colleagues,
the capacity to solve problems increases. They found that information sharing is
easier and employees are motivated to work together thus increasing job
performance and job satisfaction (Cho & Park, 2011: 553).
33
2.13.3 Communication as part of POS
Previous research by Pomirleanu and Mariadoss (2015: 35), reveals that perceived
organisational support (POS) is offered when the organisational leaders provide
employees with social, communal support, relevant information and appropriate
resources that lead to positive employee behaviours at the workplace.
POS is a precursor for the experience of job satisfaction since employees will
perceive that they are valued by the organisation when the supervisor treats them
fairly, communicates with care and concern and supports the workers professionally
and in their personal lives (Pomirleanu & Mariadoss, 2015: 33).
Employees perceive the manager’s or supervisor’s support as an acknowledgement
and an appreciation of the employee’s contribution to the workplace and that his/her
well-being is of importance and matters to management (Eisenberger,
Stinglhamber, Vandenberghe, Sucharski & Rhoades, 2002: 566).
Employees who experience supportive work environments that encourage
employees to be authentic, show initiative and are offered personal and professional
development, do achieve higher levels of productivity and engagement thus leading
to intrinsic motivation (Penger & Cerne, 2014: 514).
2.13.4 Role of Emotion Work in Job Satisfaction
According to Zapf and Holz (2006: 3) ‘emotion work’ refers to work circumstances
where employees are required to show expected emotions such as being civil,
polite, friendly and exude poise and confidence, regardless of the employee’s real
emotional state at the time.
The service industry environment, in particular, requires employees to regulate their
emotions to be in line with those required at the workplace, often giving rise to
dissonance and discord between the real and the expressed emotions (Bozionelos,
2016: 137).
Grandey (2003: 87) asserts that having to wear an emotional mask creates strain
for the employee because it demands immense mental effort to continuously
suppress the real emotions by adjusting and balancing one’s actual emotions with
the required emotions, calling this process ‘surface acting’.
34
The incongruity of the real emotions, when compared to the expected emotions,
may cause stress that reduces the employee’s well-being and results in employees
being pretentious, presenting a false persona and not being one’s true self
(Hulsheger & Schewe, 2011: 365).
The opposite of emotion work, known as ‘deep acting’, occurs when an employee’s
real emotions and the emotions that are job-linked are brought in line and become
consonant with each other with no distinguishable conflict between the real and the
displayed emotions (Grandey, 2003: 88).
Well-grounded deep acting is less stressful for the individual as it becomes a way
of life and is ingrained in how the individual conducts him/herself at all times; to the
extent that it becomes second nature and is experienced as genuine emotion
(Hennig-Thurau, Groth, Paul & Gremler, 2006: 88; Totterdell & Holman, 2003: 57).
Various authors share the view that deep acting, in which the employee becomes
totally absorbed in the emotional role that is expected and required of him/her,
increases employees’ experience of job satisfaction. It was also found that clients
react positively to situations of deep acting in the service environment (Blau, Bentley
& Eggerichs-Purcell, 2012: 628; Chou, Hecker & Martin, 2012: 502). Additionally,
employees’ need to consciously regulate their emotional behaviour when interacting
with colleagues, to be in line with the prescripts of societal and organisational norms
(Tschan, Rochat & Zapf, 2005: 196).
Liu, Liu and Wu (2012: 520) state that coworkers that are familiar with one another
usually have a special, politically correct communication code that promotes and
encourages less intense emotions and manner of behaving towards each other in
their daily interactions at the workplace.
2.14 IMPACT OF PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES ON JOB SATISFACTION
Researchers in management studies state that employees are regarded as a
resource that is important enough to give businesses a competitive edge and that
employee empowerment, promotion and development are key success factors of
organisational commitment with resultant benefits to both the employees and the
employers alike (Pelit et al., 2011: 785).
35
Employee empowerment is an integral aspect of working conditions due to the
formal and informal power factors found in the workplace. According to
Priyadharshany and Sujatha (2015: 26-27) employee empowerment implies access
to the essential resources, organisational support and sharing of information within
the constructs of gender and race. Employees who are given promotion
opportunities, encouraged to be flexible, innovative, creative and adaptable in the
work environment feel more empowered than those who are deprived of the
opportunities (Priyadharshany & Sujatha, 2015: 27).
The authors further state that positive relationships and connections with peers,
subordinates, supervisors or working in groups and teams fosters informal
empowerment (Priyadharshany & Sujatha, 2015: 27).
According to Pelit et al. (2011: 785), the promotion and empowerment of employees
relate directly to how employees perceive aspects of management practices such
as motivation, job enrichment, delegation, training, effective communication,
feedback and the creation of an atmosphere of trust in a participative decision-
making environment. The authors state that employee empowerment improves job
satisfaction as it allows employees to get closer to organisational decision-makers,
increases initiative, self-reliance and efficient participation in the completion of the
organisational goals and objectives (Pelit et al., 2011: 786).
Therefore, Pelit et al. (2011: 787), remark that employee promotion and
empowerment are behavioural aspects that have a psychological dimension on how
employees experience job satisfaction (2011: 788) and that promotion and
empowerment contributes positively to the morale and motivation of employees
(2011: 793).
2.14.1 Staff Promotion as a Retention Strategy
The internal promotion of talented and capable personnel is a primary concern for
most organisations because the reasons for people to stay are not always the same
as the reasons for people to leave an organisation (Hausknecht, Rodda & Howard,
2009: 270).
According to Browell (2003), as cited in Mohlala, Goldman and Goosen (2012: 2),
employee promotion and retention intends keeping those employees that fill key,
critical positions that contribute to the success of the business. Such employees
36
are considered to be too valuable to lose to competitors because they are a source
of competitive advantage for the firm (Mohlala et al., 2012: 2).
If an organisation is unable to keep top performers the situation leads to
understaffing, less qualified personnel and deminishes the organisational ability to
remain competitive in the market and meet its current and future business needs
and, therefore, upward mobility of personnel becomes a useful option that is applied
(Hausknecht et al., 2009: 269).
McKeown (2002: 8) and Mohlala et al. (2012: 2), share the view that employee
promotion should be aimed at retaining primarily the top performers because of their
value-adding capacity, inspiring other employees, contributing to the overall
success of the organisation and keeping employee turnover to an acceptable level.
From the perspective of the organisation, the importance of retaining valuable
workers through promotion, is critical to maintaining a competitive advantage for the
organisation and supports the smooth, efficient operation of any business
(McKeown, 2002: 2). Therefore, it is important for the organisation to follow good
staff promotion practices that are based on the value-adding contribution of
employees (Cardy & Lengnick-Hall, 2011: 213).
2.14.2 Training to Support Employee Promotion
Yuliarini et al (2012: 93) state that the provision of relevant and appropriate training
to employees exerts a positive impact on the employees’ capacity to be promoted
to higher employment levels in the organisation. Training enhances productivity,
leading to higher levels of employee job satisfaction as evidenced by higher levels
of competency and being able to perform tasks better and quicker (Yuliarini et al.,
2012: 94).
Yuliarini et al. (2012: 94), argue that, in situations where employees are not given
opportunities for training and career development, there is a causal link to job
dissatisfaction, frustration and a resultant shorter job tenure. The frustration stems
primarily from the employee’s lack of being promotabile to qualify for upward
movement (Yuliarini et al., 2012: 94).
37
2.15 IMPACT OF REMUNERATION AND EMPLOYEE BENEFITS
Employees will remain longer with an organisation if they have a sense of belonging
and connectedness to the organisation. It is of critical importance that they are fairly
remunerated for their labour and contribution to the continuity of the organisation,
thus lowering the organisation’s staff turnover rate (Kujawa, 2015: 48).
In a study by Srivastava and Bhatia (2013: 21) the findings indicated that employees
believed that salary increments were the foremost motivational factor that should be
revised immediately. This was followed by promotion of personnel. Another
conspicuous finding was that it was challenging to find policy statements that would
satisfy all workers as the needs of individuals differed widely (Srivastava & Bhatia,
2013 :21).
A study by Moon, Beck and Laudicina (2014: 162) revealed that remuneration
incentives were considered as important enough to encourage employees to work
beyond retirement age. Examples of incentives include offering the employees
comprehensive health insurance plans, longevity pay, increased employer
contributions towards retirement benefits and personalised individual work
schedules.
2.15.1 Rewards and Recognition
According to Kujawa (2015: 51) organisations that implement purposeful rewards
and recognition programmes use this as an investment strategy in an effort to
engage workers and boost long-term revenue returns. It is of critically important
that a rewards and recognition programme gets the necessary support and buy-in
from the leaders of the organisation and that workers are consulted too (Kujawa,
2015: 51).
Brunges and Foley-Brinza (2014: 677) maintain that effective reward and
recognition programmes, including monetary recognition that benefits and favours
the employee, ensure job satisfaction because this is an opportunity to recognise
the professional excellence of particular, individual employees.
Kujawa (2015: 48) continues that recognition and rewards primarily lead to
organisations retaining employees for longer periods of service, but are also used
to motivate and encourage specific employee behaviours to the advantage of the
38
organisation. The author maintains that organisational rewards and recognition
programmes should compensate employees in a manner that makes the employees
live better and increases their standard of living in return for fulfilling the main
objectives and purpose of the organisation (Kujawa, 2015: 48).
Srivastava and Bhatia (2013: 22) recommend that a rewards and recognition
programme should include non-monetary incentives to ensure that the profits of the
organisation are not depleted by the payment of monetary incentives. However,
when choosing non-monetary rewards, the incentives should be meaningful,
important and significant to the employees and serve as a performance motivator
(Srivastava & Bhatia, 2013: 18).
Srivastava and Bhatia (2013: 18) offer the following examples of non-monetary
rewards for employees:
• Public recognition and achievement awards that acknowledge performance
such as the allocation of prizes, plaques, trophies and commendations or
citations for individual workers or teams.
• Professional development and training opportunities in the form of
professional training workshops, educational seminars that improve
employee efficiency and experience.
• Flexible work schedules that allow employees to work from home or a remote
location; especially when employees need time to attend to personal private
matters.
• Social events, held in-house or out-of-office, that enable employees to take
a break from official work and provide opportunities for social interaction.
• Company in-house perks such as on-site gymnasium and spa facilities that
employees may enjoy before or after official working hours.
Although some of the rewards mentioned above may not appeal to all employees,
these indicate the care and concern that the employer has for the well-being of the
employees (Srivastava & Bhatia, 2013: 20). Employees may be offered an
opportunity to choose the reward that matters most to the individual (Kujawa, 2015:
51).
39
Owing to the subjective nature and the multidimensional features of job satisfaction,
the next section was included to enrich the study and investigate associated
elements that directly and/or indirectly contribute to the experiences of job
satisfaction.
2.16 INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL PERSONALITY ON JOB SATISFACTION
The experience of job satisfaction is influenced by the effects of individual
differences such as personality characteristics, including age and gender, coping
skills and levels of perceived stress according to Zurlo, Pes and Capasso (2016: 28-
29). The authors say that how the employee will experience job satisfaction or
dissatisfaction is a product of the interplay of personality and several situational
variables (Zurlo et al., 2016: 29).
2.17 IMPACT OF CONFLICT ON JOB SATISFACTION
According to Trachtenberg, Anderson and Sabatelli (2009: 472) work-related
conditions do have an impact on an employee’s family life and vice versa. Conflict
between work-life and family-life arise from the inconsistency of the demands of the
employee’s role at work and relate to the domestic family environment.
The concept of work-family conflict is a two-way stream that moves from work to
family and from family to work and is characterised by strain and behaviour
depending on an employee’s role in life, including being a parent, spouse, caregiver
to an elderly parent and his/her recreational activities (Gozukara & Çolakoğlu, 2015:
14). The authors state that work-family conflict arises when work demands interfere
with family responsibilities, while family-work conflict occurs when work activities are
curbed by family responsibilities (2015: 14). An employee who is conflicted in this
way increasingly struggles to find a balance between the two (Gordon, Whelan-
Berry & Hamilton, 2007: 353).
A positive organisational culture and a supportive manager or supervisor do
significantly reduce work-family conflict making employees enjoy satisfaction both
at work and in their family life (Smith, 2005: 155).
Thus, an employee who is treated well at work will demonstrate a more positive
attitude towards the organisation and his/her superiors (Eisenberger et al., 2002:
567). Manager support alleviates the employees’ work-family conflict and family-
40
work conflict and improves the experience of job satisfaction (O'Driscoll, Poelmans,
Spector, Kalliath, Allen, Cooper, 2003: 328).
2.18 ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT
Organisational commitment is the psychological attachment that an employee
develops towards the organisation and can be measured by determining how
employees relate to the organisational objectives and whether they show a desire
to belong to the organisation, as well as a keen willingness to make extra efforts on
behalf of the organisation (Esfahani, Emami & Tajnesaei, 2013: 511).
According to Jonathan et al. (2013: 86), an employee’s commitment reflects a
desire, need and compulsion to continue working at an organisation because of an
emotional attachment that leads to an obligation to remain with the organisation and
the belief that leaving the organisation would come at a high cost to the individual
employee.
A study by Maxwell and Steele (2003: 362) revealed that organisational commitment
is positively linked to employee performance and is influenced by the magnitude of
the job, rewards and the level of importance that the employee enjoys at the
workplace.
Hall and Lawler (2000: 273) maintain that employee satisfaction and productivity
levels increase when there is a high level of job involvement that stems from a
demanding and challenging job content.
Other scholars agree that employee job involvement decreases absenteeism and
increases worker productivity; thus maximising employee efficiency, productivity
and contributing to the effective functioning of the organisation (Koys, 2001: 104;
Robbins, 2005: 113).
When employees are fully engaged with what their job requires there is a higher
level of commitment that leads to improved organisational metrics (Brunges & Foley-
Brinza, 2014: 670) and gives the organisation a systematic competitive advantage
(Welbourne, 2007: 50).
41
2.19 OUTCOMES OF JOB SATISFACTION
Aspects of job satisfaction have been classified into three main categories, namely,
intrinsic, extrinsic and general satisfaction (Weiss et al., 1967 as cited in Jonathan
et al., 2013: 86).
General satisfaction consists of both intrinsic and extrinisic motivation added
together. Therefore, organisations should aim to offer a fair mix of both intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards to keep employees motivated and satisfied (Jonathan et al., 2013:
86).
2.19.1 Intrinsic Motivation
An employee is intrinsically satisfied if he/she is motivated by the challenging and
demanding activities that make up the job itself (Hall & Lawler, 2000: 273)
irrespective of whether there is any external reward attached to it (Jonathan et al.,
2013: 86).
2.19.2 Extrinsic Motivation
Jonathan et al. (2013: 86), denote extrinsic motivation as the situation where an
employee’s behaviour is influenced by the monetary compensation or other material
rewards offered by the organisation. For this reason, regular work performance
assessments and evaluations, followed by appropriate feedback, timely
interventions and the removal of structural and strategic impediments will help in the
retention of employees (Welbourne, 2007: 51).
2.19.3 Employee Retention
Workplaces that invest large sums of money in recruiting, selecting, training and the
development of employees manage to secure a high investment in human capital
and get good returns on their investment, thereby creating a pool of high quality,
productive, talented workers that are valuable for the sustainability of the
organisation (Cardy & Lengnick-Hall, 2011: 213; Mohlala et al., 2012: 2).
Moon, et al. (2014: 162), maintain that when older employees postpone their
retirement and delay exiting the workplace, the attitude of younger employees
towards them must be carefully considered. The stereotyping of senior employees,
based on ageism, becomes relevant because the physical capabilities, ability to
42
learn new skills, ability to interact well with others and fit into the organisational
culture become issues of debate (Moon, et al., 2014: 163).
Research by Hassell and Perrewe (2005: 459) indicates that younger employees
perceive older employees to be less productive, less motivated, incapable of
physically demanding tasks, inclined to resist changes to new, advanced technology
and generally to suffer from poorer health.
Additional research findings suggest that the opposite is true regarding older
employees who portray more loyalty, better commitment, added reliability, more
accuracy, better interpersonal skills, extensive knowledge, experience and less
absenteeism than younger employees (Guest & Shacklock, 2005: 715; Van Dalen,
Henkens & Schippers, 2010: 311).
When organisations have an aged workforce it becomes essential that there should
be contingency plans for transferring knowledge and skills from the soon-to-retire
employees to younger employees to ensure that an optimal skills transfer takes
place smoothly (Mohlala et al, 2012: 3). The grooming of younger employees can
be accomplished by pairing retiring staff with younger, less experienced employees,
serving a dual purpose of knowledge transfer and career development (Mohlala, et
al., 2012: 4).
Employees show a higher inclination to remain with a particular organisation
because of better opportunities for personal growth, development and upward
career mobility in the present-day era of increased globalisation and greater mobility
of human resources (Balakrishnan & Vijayalakshmi, 2014: 69).
Tnay, Othman, Siong, Lim and Lim (2013: 201) quote research results where the
study found that the majority of employees chose career opportunities and learning
and personal development as the most important reasons for increased job
satisfaction and gave these as reasons for staying with an organisation. They
consequently improve employee retention.
According to Ali (2005: 241) when employees are dissatisfied they eventually leave
the workplace if the reasons for their dissatisfaction are not considered or given
attention. The failure to retain employees leads to organisational losses of human
43
capital and to the organisation having to recruit new employees to replace those
who leave (Ali, 2005: 241).
Tnay et al. (2013: 202), suggest that organisations should focus on employee
retention and pay attention to the levels of satisfaction with the remuneration the
employees receive, supervisory support and organisational commitment.
2.20 SUMMARY
This chapter outlined the key concepts about employee job satisfaction, factors that
influence organisational culture and how organisational culture influences the
employees’ experiences of job satisfaction.
Terminology and concepts were defined based on previous research and the review
of appropriate literature. The author focused on relevant studies on job satisfaction
in the context of organisational culture. Essential elements and the characteristics
of organisational culture were outlined with the express intention of exploring the
effects on employee job satisfaction.
Criteria to assess organisational culture included aspects such as employee
engagement, leadership styles, working environment and conditions of service,
bullying in the workplace and perceived organisational support. The author
expanded the topic to include definitions, types of organisational culture, influences
of organisational citizenship, job commitment, rewards, the effects of empowerment
and training on employees’ experiences of job satisfaction. Schein’s Organisational
Culture model served as a reference for the evolution of organisational culture.
The spin-off and consequences of a positive relationship between organisational
culture and employee satisfaction were delineated as being increased employee
commitment, higher levels of productivity, unwaivering loyalty, staff retention and
improved personal well-being of employees.
The next chapter will provide a discussion of the research methodology for this
study.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides insight into the methodology that was followed in conducting
research into job satisfaction in the context of organisational culture. This chapter
also discusses the selected research design, research methodology, ethical
considerations, data collection and data analysis. The researcher provides a
justification for the research technique chosen for this study and how the techniques
and methodology were used to address the research problem.
The chapter presents the methods used to collect primary research data, the method
for selecting a sample, the variables about which data will be collected using self-
completion questionnaires and the analysis of the data.
3.2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process develops according to a rational sequence of events and
conforms to standard logic because it is an empirical project (Collis & Hussey,
2014:9). The process starts with the research proposal which is a significant
document that shows the researcher’s thinking, outlines the research methodology,
time frame and structure of the treatise (Mouton, 2015: 47).
Research starts with an idea that develops into a research problem or question. This
is followed by the research design as explained in the research proposal. Once the
researcher decides on the process to follow, the treatise writing commences
(Mouton, 2015: 47). A detailed graphic of a quantitative research process is provided
as an illustration of the quantitative research process.
45
FIGURE 3.1
LOGIC OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(Mouton, 2015: 47, adapted)
Collis and Hussey (2014: 3) summarise the research process as the way in which
the data were collected and analysed. The authors state that the research process
is a neat, orderly process with one stage logically giving rise to the next stage and
providing a graphic representation of the research process as presented below
(Collis & Hussey, 2014: 9).
46
FIGURE 3.2
OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Choose a research topic and search the literature
↓
Review the literature and identify the research question(s)
↓
Design the research and write the research proposal
↓
Collect the research data
↓
Analyse and interpret the research data
↓
Write up the treatise or research report
(Collis and Hussey, 2014: 9)
3.3 THE RESEARCH PARADIGM
Collis and Hussey (2014: 10, 43) explain a research paradigm as a framework that
is based on the philosophies and assumptions of individuals and primarily directs
how scientific research should be conducted.
Collis and Hussey (2014: 47) describe the philosophical assumptions that
encompass the role of values, research language and research process in terms of
a research paradigm. Aspects of ontology, epistemology, teleology and
methodology are briefly explained. Ontology is concerned with that which is real,
objective and external to the researcher (Maree, 2017:70).
47
Epistemology is concerned with that which is accepted as valid knowledge, meaning
that only phenomena that are observable and measurable are validly regarded as
knowledge (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 47).
Teleology deals with the practice of science while methodology is how the research
is conducted (Maree, 2017: 70).
Various scholars differentiate between two main research paradigms, namely
positivism and interpretivism.
3.3.1 Positivist Paradigm
The positivist paradigm originated in the natural sciences. The paradigm assumes
that social reality is a singular, objective, deductive process that provides
explanatory theories to help us understand social phenomena (Collis & Hussey,
2014: 43).
This study focused specifically on the job satisfaction of lecturers as experienced in
the context of the organisational culture of the institution. In this instance, job
satisfaction is the endogenous or dependent variable.
3.3.2 Interpretivist Paradigm
Collis and Hussey (2014: 45) maintain that interpretivism is supported by the view
that social reality is subjective because of the influence of the researcher’s
perceptions. The authors continue by stating that an interpretivist study aims to
describe, translate and provide meaning to phenomena that happen naturally in the
social world.
Creswell (2014: 137) agrees that it is not possible to separate the reality of the social
world from what is in the researcher’s mind and that investigating a social reality is
influenced by the researcher’s demeanour.
Corbin and Strauss (2008: 312) infer that an interpretive research paradigm
necessitates research where the findings are derived from the interpretation of
qualitative research data. The authors state that the primary purpose of doing
48
qualitative research is to discover theories and not to test hypotheses (2008: 317)
and that a qualitative methodology does not attempt to control variables but rather
to discover the variables (Corbin & Strauss, 2008: 318).
3.3.3 Approaches Within the Two Main Paradigms
There are common terms that are used to distinguish between the approaches that
are used within the two main paradigms as presented in Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1
TWO MAIN RESEARCH PARADIGMS
Paradigm Positivism Interpretivism
Data type Quantitative Qualitative
Purpose Tests hypotheses or
specific research
questions
Discovers ideas
Approach Measure and test Observe and interpret
Data collection method Structured Unstructured
Researcher
independence
Researcher is uninvolved
and results are objective
Researcher is intimately
involved and results are
subjective
Sample Large samples to allow
for generalisation of
findings
Small samples found in
natural setting
Most often used in Descriptive and causal
research designs
Exploratory research
designs
(Collis & Hussey, 2014: 46)
3.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Martin and Guerin (2006: 170) state that research methods refer to a specific
technique that the researcher uses to collect data. This section discusses the
49
various research systems, practices, procedures and methods at the disposal of the
researcher.
3.4.1 Sample Design and Sampling Techniques
According to Kothari (2004: 14) sample design is a definite plan that a researcher
draws up for selecting a sample from a given population before any data are
collected. Sampling techniques are classified as probability sampling or non-
probability sampling.
3.4.2. Probability Sampling
Each element of the population has a known probability of being included in the
sample based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling,
cluster sampling and area sampling.
A brief discussion of the various probability sample designs that are available
follows.
(a) Random Sampling: occurs where every member of the population has an
equal chance to be included in the sample (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 197).
Researchers use a table of random numbers. Each item is assigned a number
consisting of five digits. Numbers are selected working from a starting point and then
following a systematic interval pattern through the table. As the numbers in the table
are completely randomly arranged each item has an equal probability of being
selected. Successive selections are independent of one another (Kothari, 2004: 15).
(b) Systematic Sampling: is the most practical sampling method. The population
(N) is divided by the required sample size (n) and the sample is chosen by taking
every nth name on a list or sample frame. The starting point is randomly selected
and the researcher continues until the required sample size is reached (Collis &
Hussey, 2014: 200; Kothari, 2004: 15).
(c) Stratified Sampling: is a preferred sampling technique when the population is
not homogeneous. The population is stratified into non-overlapping strata and
random sample items are selected from each stratum (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 200).
50
(d) Cluster Sampling: encompasses clustering the population and selecting
groups rather than individual research units for inclusion in the sample (Collis &
Hussey, 2014: 200). Clustering makes the sampling procedure relatively easier and
increases the efficiency of field work when personal interviews are conducted
(Kothari, 2004: 16).
(e) Area Sampling: happens when the entire geographical area under study is
divided into smaller, non-overlapping areas. This allows for research units to be
selected from all areas. This is a useful method when a list of the population is not
available (Kothari, 2004: 16).
3.4.3 Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is centered around convenience sampling, judgement
sampling and quota sampling techniques.
(a) Convenience Sampling: is also called purposive sampling, whereby the
researcher makes a deliberate choice of population components who are easily
accessible (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 132). Convenience sampling may give biased
results particularly where the population is not homogeneous (Kothari, 2004: 15).
(b) Judgement Sampling: is when the research units, that are deemed to be
representative of the population are chosen purely on the researcher’s judgement.
This method is often used in qualitative research (Kothari, 2004: 15).
(c) Quota Sampling: is used when a judgement sample is selected to represent
a proportion of the entire population. Respondents are selected until the required
quota is reached (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 200).
In practice, researchers often mix the various sampling methods in the same study.
Researchers choose random sampling to eliminate bias and estimate the sampling
error.
51
3.5 SAMPLE FOR THIS STUDY
The population of this study comprises of all the lecturers at the fifty (50) TVET
colleges in South Africa of which eight (8) TVET colleges are in the Eastern Cape
province. The sample was selected from two TVET colleges situated in the Buffalo
City Metropolitan Municipality (BCMM).
3.5.1 Selecting the Sample
Etikan, Musa and Alkassim (2016: 1) maintain that convenience samples are often
referred to as ‘accidental’ samples because subjects are situated spatially or
administratively close to where the researcher is conducting the data collection. The
authors state that convenience sampling is neither purposeful nor strategic and that
the sample is more likely to be biased and, therefore, should not be taken to be
representative of the entire population (Etikan et al., 2016: 2).
For this study, convenience sampling was used because the population of possible
respondents in the Eastern Cape TVET colleges is small and the researcher was
intensively studying a predetermined characteristic, namely job satisfaction. Time
and financial constraints in conducting this research were also determining factors.
Convenience sampling enabled accessibility to the research subjects in terms of
geographical proximity, easier availability and a willingness by the prospective
respondents to participate in the study at the given time.
3.5.2 Sample Size
The sample consisted of sixty-one (61) respondents selected from the teaching
corps at the selected TVET colleges. The researcher sought and received prior
permission from the heads of the local institutions to conduct the study. Permission
was received from one college on the express proviso that the research report would
be made available to the institutions. The other college did not participate in the
study. No reasons were given.
52
3.6 DATA COLLECTION
Research instruments for data collection include questionnaires, interviews and
observation. Annum (2015: 12) maintains that it is the researcher’s responsibility to
ensure that the research instrument that is used is appropriate, valid and reliable so
that the researcher achieves the expected results.
Collis and Hussey (2014: 196) assert that the two main methodologies linked to a
positivistic study are experiments and surveys and that experimental studies are
avoided in business research for ethical and practical reasons. Therefore, surveys
are deemed to be the most appropriate for collecting primary research data.
3.6.1 Questionnaire Design
According to Annum (2015: 12), a questionnaire is drawn using systematically
selected questions that are specifically chosen to elicit participants’ responses for
the collection of data. According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 205), questionnaires
are research instruments that are used to determine what the respondents think, do
or feel about a particular subject with reference to the research questions.
For this study the researcher compiled a self-completion, paper-based
questionnaire.
3.6.2 Types of Questionnaires
Questionnaires may be designed in a structured, closed format or an unstructured
open-ended format. Collis and Hussey (2014: 205) state that questions must be
selected to prompt reliable responses from the respondents. The aim of a
questionnaire is to find out the respondents’ thoughts and opinions about the
research questions. The next section distinguishes between structured and
unstructured questionnaires.
(a) Structured Questionnaires
According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 207) a researcher who follows a positivistic
research paradigm uses pre-planned questionnaires. The structured questionnaire
is usually a self-completion document that is made up of closed questions. Each
53
question has predetermined answers for the respondent to choose from. Open-
ended questions that allow the respondent to answer in his or her own words may
be included.
Annum (2015: 15) posits that closed questions are of a dichotomous nature and
require the respondent to give short answers. Alternatively, the respondent may be
asked to select and check an item from given limited multilple choice alternatives.
An advantage of self-completion questionnaires is that it is easier for the researcher
to compare answers because each respondent is asked the same questions.
(b) Unstructured Questionnaires
Annum (2015: 15) describes this type of questionnaire as being made up of open-
ended, unrestricted questions where the respondent gives free responses, framed
in his/her own words, thus giving the respondent an opportunity to express his/her
opinion.
The unstructured questionnaire supports a process of discovery as the range of
questions may vary from one respondent to the next (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 208).
The authors continue that this approach may hamper control of the range of
questions and may later negatively affect the analysing of the data and even result
in interviewer bias (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 208).
3.7 DESIGNING THE QUESTIONS
Collis and Hussey (2014: 210) emphasise that when following a positivistic
paradigm, the designing of questions is important because the research is based on
the hypotheses to be tested. The quantitative data that is generated will be analysed
using statistical methods.
For this study, the researcher designed a structured questionnaire, anchored to a
five (5) point Likert Scale. The respondents were required to indicate their level of
agreement with the statements provided in the questionnaire. The measurement
scale ranged from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. The measuring instrument
was made up of thirty-seven (37) questions, inclusive of the biographical details.
54
The dependent and independent variables were given expression in the
questionnaire to address the hypotheses.
The dependent variable, Employee Satisfaction was dealt with in five items. A Likert
Scale of five options was used for each of the item questions.
3.8 COMPILING THE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THIS STUDY
Annum (2015: 12) defines a questionnaire as a document used in a fact-finding
strategy, that includes interviews, questionnaires, observation and reading. This
study collected data using a questionnaire as this was a positivistic study that
collected quantitative data.
The researcher compiled a structured questionnaire that comprised of five
independent variables that characterise the workplace culture and influence the
dependent variable, Job Satisfaction. The questionnaire was kept as short as
possible, being made up of one page to record biographical details and the survey
that spanned two pages, using closed questions that were of a non-sensitive nature
(Collis & Hussey, 2014: 206).
Section A of the questionnaire gathered biographical data pertaining to the
respondents. This ranged from age, gender, educational qualifications, position
held, total work experience, service duration at the institution, nature of appointment
and the learning program the respondent was currently offering at the institution.
The questions in Section B were based mostly on the literature study and adapted
from previous questionnaires on job satisfaction. The questions represented the
independent variables that had been hypothesised in the first chapter. These were
Organisational Leadership Style and Supervision; Working Conditions;
Organisational Communication; Promotion Opportunities and Job Security and
Remuneration and Employee Benefits. The dependent variable, Personal Job
Satisfaction was also tested.
55
3.8.1 Sourcing the Survey Questions
Mouton (2015: 102) observes that most of the existing questionnaires, scales and
tests that are accessible to researchers were probably developed in Europe and the
United States of America. Therefore, local researchers should avoid using the
previously designed measuring instruments directly in the South African multicultural
and multi-ethnic context without adapting the research instruments.
Respondents were required to indicate their level of agreement with the statements
provided in the questionnaire, ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’.
Respondents had to mark the appropriate boxes to indicate their response to each
question or statement.
Questions from two previously designed questionnaires on employee job
satisfaction were adapted to serve the intended purpose of this study. These were
the short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) developed by
Martins and Proenca (2012: 7) and an online survey developed by Smith (2018).
When combined, the scales from the two questionnaires had fifty-six (56) items that
were scaled down to thirty (30) items for this study.
The researcher sourced ideas from the literature review, to adapt the questions and
contextualise the statements in the questionnaire. The questions were coded to
facilitate easier analysis of the responses.
The subsections of the questionnaire were compiled from the sources as indicated
below.
(a) Organisational Leadership Style and Supervision
The measurement items for Organisational Leadership Style and Supervision were
adapted and sourced from previous questionnaires developed by Martins and
Proenca (2012), Smith (2018) and literature by Popli and Rizvi (2016: 965).
56
(b) Working Conditions Working Conditions were measured using previous questionnaires developed by
Martins and Proenca (2012), Smith (2018) and the literature of Van der Voordt
(2003: 133).
(c) Organisational Communication
The researcher adapted questionnaire items that were sourced from Martins and
Proenca (2012), Penger and Cerne (2014: 512) and Smith (2018) to measure the
effectiveness of Organisational Communication.
(d) Promotion Opportunities and Job Security
Promotion Opportunities were measured using items adapted from questionnaires
developed by Martins and Proenca (2012) and Smith (2018) as well as an item from
literature by Jonathan et al (2013) and Yulinari et al (2012). The measurement of
Job Security used items from Martins and Proenca’s (2012) questionnaire.
(e) Remuneration and Employee Benefits
These items were measured using items that were adapted from the Martins and
Proenca (2012) and Smith (2018) questionnaires. Journal articles by Brunges and
Foley-Brinza (2014), Kujawa (2015: 51) and Srivasta and Bhatia (2013) were
consulted to formulate questionnaire items in this section.
(f) Personal Job Satisfaction
In constructing the items to measure the dependent variable, Personal Job
Satisfaction, the researcher relied on journals consulted during the literature review,
namely Jonathan et al. (2013), Martins and Proenca (2012), Sageer et al. (2012),
Yulinari et al. (2012) and the questionnaire compiled by Smith (2018).
3.9 DISTRIBUTION OF QUESTIONNAIRES
The researcher chose group distribution as an appropriate method for issuing the
questionnaires. The sample size and location of the prospective respondents
57
prompted this choice. Collis and Hussey (2014: 206) caution researchers to factor
in the costs of distributing and collecting questionnaires when considering the
different options that are available to researchers.
3.9.1 Methods of Questionnaire Distribution Available
Collis and Hussey (2014: 206) list options for questionnaire distribution that are
available to researchers. These options included:
• Posting the questionnaires to respondents and providing a postage prepaid
envelope for the return of the completed questionnaires.
• Telephonic surveys which require the researcher to complete the
questionnaire while the respondent provides verbal, telephonic answers.
• Online surveys using web-based tools such as SurveyMonkey, Kwiksurvey
and Freeonlinesurveys where an online survey is created and emailed to
potential respondents for them to complete.
• Face-to-face surveys where questionnaires are given to respondents at their
workplaces, on the street or any other convenient locality.
• Group distribution where the survey is conducted at a few locations with the
sample group assembled in the same room at the same time.
• Individual distribution requires the researcher to hand out individual
questionnaires and collect them at workplaces, restaurants, on trains or
buses.
3.9.2 Motivation for the Chosen Method of Distribution
The potential respondents were located at specific campus sites located within a
radius of thirty (30) kilometres in the Buffalo City Municipality. The researcher used
the group distribution method, conducting the survey at the respondents’ workplaces
during non-teaching times. The researcher could thus target the most appropriate
sample of respondents.
By choosing the group questionnaire distribution process the researcher
investigated the potential challenges of the other distribution methods mentioned
58
previously. The disadvantages of using any of the other distribution methods are
presented below.
3.9.3 Reasons for Not Choosing Other Distribution Methods
The researcher was mindful of the following complexities of the other distribution
methods available to dispense the questionnaires.
• The effort and costs of folding, inserting questionnaires into envelopes and
prepaid postage dissuaded the researcher from using this method especially
since a low response rate would negate the costs incurred.
• Telephone surveys are time-consuming and incur high costs. The researcher
would need to consult a relatively large sample frame to choose respondents
and have access to recording equipment.
• Online surveys are popular, trendy and commonly used but some
researchers find that locating sufficient respondents is time-consuming.
Certain service providers charge high fees for providing the online service.
• Face-to-face interviews and individual surveys were not considered due to
time constraints and the limitations of doing one-on-one interviews with
individual respondents.
3.10 PILOT STUDY
Dikko (2016; 521) defines a pilot study as a mini version of a research or a pre-test
of a research instrument conducted in preparation for a full-scale study. The author
further states that pilot studies help to detect possible flaws in the measurement
instrument and whether concepts have been properly understood by the
respondents.
Collis and Hussey (2014: 205) advise researchers of the importance of testing the
questionnaire through a pilot phase before distributing the questionnaire to actual,
potential respondents. The practice gives the researcher a chance to identify any
possible problems or glitches that may occur. The ideal situation is to test the
questionniare on respondents similar to those in the sample.
59
3.10.1 Support for a Pilot Study
Woken (2005: 6) provides supportive reasons for conducting a pilot study as being
a chance to test and evaluate the planned statistical and analytical procedures. The
researcher gets an opportunity to redesign some parts of the research instrument,
and to make alterations in data collection to overcome possible difficulties, based on
the results of the pilot study. The author continues that doing a pilot study saves the
researcher time and money since the results of the pilot study provide enough data
for the researcher to decide whether to go ahead and produce clear results with the
main study (Woken, 2005: 6).
Woken (2005: 6) recommends that research students who have limited experience
in research practice should undertake a pilot study that is limited to a few
respondents, as this will benefit the researcher in determining how the questions are
understood and interpreted by the respondents.
3.10.2 Outcomes of Pilot Study
The researcher did a pilot study and administered the questionnaire to ten (10)
colleagues. The pilot study was meant to evaluate the questionnaire regarding the
clarity of instructions, language usage, time required to complete the questionnaire
and to eliminate any ambiguous questions.
It emerged that the researcher had to add specific instructions to section B of the
questionnaire as some of the pilot phase respondents were unclear of whether they
should tick or mark their answers with a cross. The initial questionnaire was then
amended with clearer, more specific instructions for potential respondents.
The pilot study questionnaires were collected, captured on an Excel spreadsheet
and given to the statistician. The statistical analysis revealed that the questionnaire
was fit for purpose.
60
3.11 COLLECTING THE DATA
Kothari (2004: 17) states that of the several ways to collect the appropriate data the
researcher’s choice is influenced by costs, time and available resources at the
disposal of the researcher.
Collis and Hussey (2014: 196) differentiate between quantitative data which is in a
numerical form and qualitative data that is in a non-numerical format such as text or
images. The authors continue by stating that surveys and experimental studies are
the two main research methodologies associated with a positivistic paradigm (2014:
196).
3.12 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
Data may be classified, depending on the source of the data, as primary or
secondary data. The concepts are explained in more detail below.
3.12.1 Primary Data Collis and Hussey (2014: 59) define primary data as data that are generated from
an original source such as the researcher’s observation of experiments,
questionnaire surveys and interviews with focus groups. These are done to test
whether the hypotheses the researcher has postulated may be accepted or not. Hox
and Boeije (2005: 593) state that primary data are collected for the specific research
problem being studied, using procedures that fit the specific research problem.
3.12.2 Secondary Data According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 59; 196) secondary data are collected from
existing sources such as archived publications, internal organisational records,
corporate reports, commercial data bases, government and industry statistics and
may be found in electronic, web based publications or printed, hard copy formats.
61
Hox and Boeije (2005: 596) state that secondary data is useful as the researcher
uses information that has been previously collected, recorded and archived. The
secondary data is sourced from official statistics, administrative records or other
accounts kept by organisations.
3.13 DATA COLLECTION
In this study, primary data were used to gain an in-depth understanding of job
satisfaction of lecturing staff at TVET colleges and test the hypotheses presented in
the study. This section will elaborate on the methods that were used to collect the
data.
Hox and Boeije (2005: 394) highlight five forms of primary data collection methods
namely, experiments, open-ended interviews, surveys, structured diaries, focus
groups and web surveys. As previously mentioned this study used structed
questionnaires for data collection purposes. The researcher had to observe the
practices detailed below in the collection of primary data.
3.13.1 Administrative Procedures Permission to conduct the research in a purposive sample of lecturers was sought
from the principals at the two selected TVET Colleges. Only one principal
responded positively and gave written consent for the research to continue at the
institution. Thus, the research was conducted at one TVET college. The researcher
set up an administrative system for the issuing, completion, collection and filing of
questionnaires.
A covering letter, with clear instructions and guidelines for completion of the
questionnaires, was provided with each questionnaire. Arrangements were made
with the Statistical Consultative Service of the Nelson Mandela University for the
statistical processing of the data.
62
3.13.2 Distribution and Collection of Questionnaires
According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 206) group distribution is recommended
when the survey is conducted in a single location or at a small number of locations.
For this study, the researcher targeted six (6) small locations.
The researcher distributed printed questionnaires to the respective institutional
campuses. Respondents were approached in groups, during their non-teaching
time and the instructions for the completion of the questionnaire were explained to
avoid any queries that could arise later.
Respondents were given five (5) working days within which the completed
questionnaires had to be returned. The researcher returned to the respective
research locations after five (5) working days and collected the duly completed
questionnaires. Of the eighty (80) questionnaires that were issued, sixty-one (61)
were returned. This translates into a 76% return rate. The duly completed
questionnaires were then sequentially numbered with a unique number. The
researcher captured the results onto an Excel spreadsheet. The Excel spreadsheet
was subsequently forwarded to a statistician for data analysis.
3.14 ANALYSIS OF DATA
In this study, data were analysed using the Statistics Software SPSS Version 25,
program. Elements that were tested in data analysis were validity, reliability and
quantitative data analysis. Content validity was used to measure if the instrument
measured what it was supposed to measure. Both exploratory and confirmatory
data analysis were utilised to report on descriptive and inferential statistics.
63
3.15 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Dikko (2016: 521) states that research instruments used for data collection must
pass the tests of reliability and validity before they are deemed to be good measuring
instruments. The next section pays closer attention to these requirements.
3.15.1 Technical Aspects of Reliability
Reliability, as explained by Weiner (2007: 3), is the degree to which the researcher
can depend on a measurement technique to secure consistent results when the
research application is repeated. Collis and Hussey (2014: 52) define reliability as
the accuracy and precision of the measurement and the degree to which there would
be no deviation or variance in the results if the research were repeated. The authors
continue by stating that in positivistic studies reliability is high, but may be open to
interpretation under an interpretivist study (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 53).
Dikko (2016: 521) states that reliability is achieved when the same test, whether with
different wording or sequencing of questions, is administered at a different time, to
the same respondents, the test yields the same data.
3.15.2 Technical Aspects of Validity
Validity is the degree to which the measuring instrument succeeds in quantifying
what it is designed to measure (Weiner, 2007: 5). Collis and Hussey (2014: 53)
define validity as the extent to which a test measures that which the researcher
wants it to measure and the results reflect the phenomena under study.
Maree (2017: 38) expresses the view that with a study that is based on quantitative
data, it is important that the results are valid and reliable. This is measured by way
of trustworthiness regarding the credibility, confirmability, transferability,
dependability and authenticity of the data.
3.15.3 Types of Validity
(a) Content Validity: measures whether the research instrument has covered the
concept adequately (Dikko, 2016: 521).
64
(b) Criterion Validity: is the extent to which a measure is related to an outcome
and is divided into comparative and predictive validity (Dikko, 2016: 521).
(c) Construct Validity: is the extent to which a test or measurement tool can
identify and measure the variables that it proposes to identify and measure (Dikko,
2016: 521).
Zikmund, Babin, Carr and Griffin (2014: 303) state that external validity is measured
by the ability to generalise data across different persons, settings and time and
achieve the expected outcomes.
The sample for this study was small, therefore, the researcher could not conduct an
exploratory analysis but content validity was tested.
3.16 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS
Ethical issues and considerations are concerned with permission to carry out
research, the participation of respondents, the community and public as well as the
process used to analyse data (James & Busher, 2015: 90). Ethics means that the
researcher must ensure that all relevant and ethical guidelines are followed and that
respondents are assured of confidentiality, anonymity, protection from harm and
access to results (Maree, 2017: 121).
3.16.1 Ethical Aspects for this Research The ethical standards of the study were assessed in accordance with the prescribed
Form-E ethics clearance process of the Nelson Mandela University (Annexure 3).
The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical requirement to report
the findings in a comprehensive and honest way.
A cover letter, attached to the questionnaires, encouraged respondents’
participation in the research, explained the nature of the study, guaranteed the
respondents’ confidentiality and provided the researcher’s contact details.
Consent, permission and approval was obtained from the principal of the institution
where the research was conducted. Prospective respondents were assured that
65
their participation was entirely voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study
if they felt the need to do so. Respondents were not subjected to any risk of unusual
stress, embarrassment or loss of self-esteem.
Respondents were encouraged to verify the authenticity of the study by contacting
the research supervisor, if necessary. The researcher ensured that the respondents
would remain anonymous. The right to professional privacy, anonymity and
confidentiality of information obtained from the respondents was guaranteed by a
written statement in the cover letter.
3.17 SUMMARY
This chapter provided an in-depth discussion of the research methodology followed
in this study. The research paradigm and research methods were discussed. The
chapter highlighted how the measuring instrument was constructed, piloted and
tested for reliability and validity. Matters of ethical consideration and how the data
was to be analysed were also outlined.
This chapter identified the study as a positivistic study and that the survey was
conducted using a sample of sixty-one (61) respondents. The data collected through
the questionnaires were captured and prepared for statistical analysis.
This next chapter will provide reports and present the statistical results of the data
that were collected. The empirical results, showing the impact of organisational
leadership style and supervision, working conditions, organisational communication,
promotion opportunities and job security as well as remuneration and employee
benefits on the job satisfaction of the individual, will be provided.
66
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF STATISTICAL RESULTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter presented an overview of the research design and
methodology used in this study. The sample, sampling technique and data
collection method used were explained. The study entailed measuring the job
satisfaction experienced by lecturers at TVET College campuses situated in the
BCM Municipality, in the context of the organisational culture. The researcher
targeted eighty (80) respondents and sixty-one (61) questionnaires were returned.
This equated to a response rate of 76.3%.
The focus of Chapter 4 is to present the research results, provide the descriptive
analysis of the data that were collected and deliver the empirical statistical results.
The statistical techniques used to analyse the data that were collected in the
empirical investigation will be explained and the results presented.
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS APPROACH
Data were analysed with the assistance of a statistician, using the computer
software programme Statistics Software (SPSS) Version 25. The descriptive
statistics were calculated to determine measures of central tendency, frequency
distribution and standard deviations of the data to assess the significance of the
survey items.
The findings represent a total sample of n = 61. Respondents were required to
indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with the statements posed in the
questionnaire. The questionnaire intended to find the extent to which the
respondents experienced job satisfaction in the context of the culture of the
workplace. The researcher used a five (5) point Likert rating scale where 1 =
strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree and 5 = strongly agree.
To ease the data analysis and interpretation of results, the responses were
condensed into three (3) categories rather than the initial five (5) points. The strongly
67
disagree and disagree responses were summarised together as ‘disagree’ and
allocated the statistical value one (1). The strongly agree and agree were grouped
together and presented as ‘agree’ with a value of three (3). The third category of
responses, representing the responses that neither agreed nor disagreed, were the
‘neutral’ category with a value of two (2). The figures denoting the results were
rounded off to one (1) decimal.
It is important to note that even though the statistical results were condensed to
three (3) scores, the mean scores and the standard deviation were calculated based
on the original 5-point scale in which the original data were collected.
4.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Martin and Guerin (2006: 174) describe data analysis as the process that
researchers use to order, structure, evaluate, judge and interpret the data and
research findings. The authors state that data analysis follows a logical sequence
and that the methods of data analysis are determined by the proposed research
goals, research methodology and the sample size.
Best and Khan (2006: 354) posit that the analysis and interpretation of data allows
the researcher to apply deductive and inductive logic to the research. It is for this
reason that statisticians differentiate between descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics. A brief description of the two types of statistics follows.
4.3.1 Descriptive Statistics
Collis and Hussey (2014: 226) define descriptive statistics as a collection of
statistical methods that are used to summarise, describe and display quantitative
data in tables, charts and other suitable graphical forms. This enables the discerning
researcher to identify patterns, accept or reject hypotheses and draw conclusions
that were not apparent from the raw data that were collected (Collis & Hussey, 2014:
227).
Martin and Guerin (2006: 174) state that descriptive statistics summarise the raw
data as percentages, modes, means and medians which are simpler and easier to
68
understand. For this study the researcher presented the descriptive statistics as
means and standard deviations.
4.3.2 Inferential Statistics
According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 261), inferential statistics are an assortment
of statistical models and methods that use quantitative data about a random sample
to make assumptions and draw conclusions about the target population. The authors
continue that the sample statistics are used to infer estimates of theoretical
population parameters.
Martin and Guerin (2006: 175) refer to tests for correlation, factor analysis,
regression and analysis of variance as examples of empirical tests that are
conducted to determine relationships among variables and make predictions for the
entire population.
The value of inferential statistics is that the researcher can use the sample statistics
to infer and predict how the population would respond or behave under similar
conditions (Martin & Guerin, 2006: 175).
4.4 ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
The questionnaire for this study was designed to collect data on the following
aspects:
• Demographics
• Organisational leadership style and workplace supervision
• Working conditions
• Organisational communication
• Promotion opportunities and job security
• Remuneration and employee benefits
• Personal job satisfaction
Based on the literature review and the objectives of this study, personal job
satisfaction was identified as the dependent variable and the other five factors were
termed the independent variables. Statistically, it is expected that any variance in
69
the dependent variable can be explained using one or more of the independent
variables. It is also expected that the independent variables will have an influence
on the dependent variable.
The researcher presented the quantitative data for statistical analyses. The
statistician analysed the data using the programme Statistics Software (SPSS)
Version 25, which generated frequency tables, charts and a range of statistical
inferential results.
The presentation of the empirical results began with a summary of the demographic
information of the respondents. This was followed by a presentation of the results
relating to the elements of validity and reliability of the measuring instrument.
Correlation analysis was conducted to determine the possible existence of
relationships between the variables. The p-values were calculated to test the
hypotheses that were formulated at the start of this study.
4.5 RESPONSE RATE
Maree (2017: 71) states that the response rate of any survey is a critical factor in
determining whether the conclusions from the study can be regarded as being valid
and representative of the population. The author continues that should a researcher
fail to consider the sample size this may reduce internal and external validity of the
research.
During this study, questionnaires were given to a target population of eighty (80)
prospective respondents. The final sample consisted of sixty-one (61) respondents
which signified a seventy-six percent (76%) response rate.
Collis and Hussey (2014: 198) state that researchers need to select samples that
are large enough to adequately address the research questions, represent the
population and allow for statistical inferences to be made. The authors continue that
very small samples may prevent certain important statistical tests from being carried
out successfully, thus placing limitations on the study.
70
The length and layout of the questionnaire, structure of the questions and the time
taken to complete the questionnaire were factors that were considered as causal
reasons that determined the response rate.
4.6 DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
The first section of the research instrument provided for the demographic details of
the respondents. The demographics included details of age, gender, educational
level, position of employment, work experience, nature of appointment and field of
work of the respondents. Demographic data were collected to understand the
sample representation.
A detailed presentation of the demographics follows in this section.
4.6.1 Ages of Respondents
The ages of the respondents ranged from thirty-five (35) years and below to sixty-
one (61) years and over. Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1 illustrate the age composition of
the sample.
TABLE 4.1
SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: AGE
Category Count Percentage
35 years or younger 10 16.4
36 – 45 years 19 31.2
46 – 60 years 29 47.5
61 years or older 3 4.9
Total 61 100
Table 4.1 illustrates that ten (10) respondents were aged thirty-five years and
younger while nineteen (19) respondents were between the ages of thirty-six (36)
and forty-five (45) years. Twenty-nine (29) respondents were aged forty-six (46) to
71
sixty (60) years and three (3) respondents fell into the sixty-one (61) years and older
age category.
Figure 4.1 shows that respondents in the thirty-five (35) years and younger age
group constituted 16.4% of the sample and those in the age group thirty-six (36) to
forty-five (45) years constituted 31.2%. The concentration of employees was found
in the forty-six (46) to sixty (60) years category where the representation was 47.5%
of the sample. The last age category of sixty-one (61) years and older constituted
4.9% of the sample.
FIGURE 4.1
RESPONSE RATE: AGE GROUPS
4.6.2 Gender
Table 4.2 shows that thirty-two (32) females and twenty-nine (29) males participated
in the study.
16.4%
31.2%47.5%
4.9%
35 years or younger 36 - 45 years 46 - 60 years 61 years or older
72
TABLE 4.2
SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: GENDER
Category Count Percentage
Females 32 52.5%
Males 29 47.5%
Totals 61 100%
The gender representation was expressed as 52.5% female respondents and 47.5%
male respondents. There were marginally more females than male respondents in
this sample.
FIGURE 4.2
RESPONSE RATE: GENDER
4.6.3 Educational Levels
The educational qualifications of the respondents ranged from respondents who had
attained a high school certificate to post-graduate levels of study. Table 4.3 and
Figure 4.3 illustrate the educational qualifications of the sample.
47.5%52.5%
Males Females
73
Table 4.3 shows that one (1) respondent had a high school certificate, twenty-eight
(28) respondents had diplomas, fourteen (14) had attained degrees and eighteen
(18) respondents were in possession of post-graduate qualifications.
TABLE 4.3
SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: EDUCATIONAL LEVELS
Category Count Percentage
High School Certificate 1 1.6
Diploma 28 45.9
Degree 14 23.0
Post-graduate Qualification 18 29.5
FIGURE 4.3
RESPONSE RATE: EDUCATIONAL LEVELS
Figure 4.3 indicates that 1.6% of the respondents had a school leaving certificate
and that the majority of the respondents, namely 45.9% had acquired a diploma as
1.6%
45.9%
23.0%
29.5%
High School Certificate Diploma Degree Post-graduate Qualification
74
their highest qualification. Of the respondents, 23.0% had degrees and 29.5% had
attained post-graduate qualifications.
4.6.4 Employment Position
Respondents were required to indicate the position that they held at the institution
ranging from junior lecturer to head of department. This categorisation was required
because the study targeted mainly the lecturing staff.
Table 4.3 provides details of the positions at which the respondents were employed.
TABLE 4.4
SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: EMPLOYMENT POSITION
Category Count Percentage
Heads of Department 5 8.2
Heads of Programme 5 8.2
Senior Lecturers 26 42.6
Junior Lecturers 25 41.0
Totals 61 100
Table 4.4 shows that 25 respondents were employed as junior lecturers and 26 were
senior lecturers. The senior personnel, namely heads of programmes and heads of
departments were represented by 5 respondents each which was 8.2% of the
sample for each group.
Figure 4.4 depicts the survey response rate according to the position that the
respondents occupied at the institution. The analysis further indicated that 41%
were junior lecturers and 42.6% were senior lecturers.
75
FIGURE 4.4
RESPONSE RATE: EMPLOYMENT POSITION
4.6.5 Total Work Experience
Table 4.5 shows the total work experience which was measured in classes ranging
from one (1) year to seventeen (17) and more years.
TABLE 4.5
SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: TOTAL WORK EXPERIENCE
Category Count Percentage
1 to 5 years 6 9.8
6 to 10 years 13 21.3
11 to 16 years 5 8.2
17 years and above 37 60.7
Totals 61 100
The results showed that 6 respondents had a total working experience of between
one (1) and five (5) years. The next category of six (6) to ten (10) years working
8.2%8.2%
42.6%
41.0%
Heads of Deparment Heads of Programme
Senior Lecturers Junior Lecturers
76
experience reflected 13 respondents while 5 respondents had eleven (11) to sixteen
(16) years working experience. The majority of the respondents, equaling thirty-
seven (37) had had a working experience of seventeen (17) years and more. The
statistics indicated that the sample consisted of more respondents who had worked
for more than seventeen (17) years.
The vast number of respondents with more than seventeen (17) years of experience
was evidence that the organisation had a wealth of experienced personnel and
augurs well for immense human capital wealth within the organisation.
Figure 4.5 indicates that the majority of the respondents, that is, 60.7%, had total
work experience of seventeen (17) years and more. This was followed by 21.3% of
the respondents who had worked for periods ranging from six (6) to ten (10 years).
Respondents who had work experience of one (1) to five (5) years stood at 9.8%
and those with eleven (11) to sixteen (16) years working experience were 8.2% of
the sample.
FIGURE 4.5
RESPONSE RATE: TOTAL WORK EXPERIENCE
9.8%
21.3%
8.2%60.7%
1 to 5 years 6 to 10 years 11 to 16 years 17 years and above
77
4.6.6 Service Duration at Current Institution
Details of service duration at the institution were sought from the respondents to
give expression to employee retention.
TABLE 4.6
SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: SERVICE DURATION AT CURRENT INSTITUTION
Category Count Percentage
Less than 1 year 8 13.1
1 to 5 years 13 21.3
6 to 10 years 23 37.7
11 to 16 years 7 11.5
17 years and more 10 16.4
Totals 61 100
The sample statistics revealed that 8 respondents had been employed for less than
one (1) year and 13 were employed for a period of one (1) to five (5) years. The
majority of the respondents, numbering 23, had been employed for a period ranging
from six (6) to ten (10) years. In the eleven (11) to sixteen (16) years category, there
were 7 respondents while 10 respondents had been employed for seventeen (17)
years or longer at the current institution.
Figure 4.6 provides a graphic representation of the respondents’ tenure at the
institution.
78
FIGURE 4.6
RESPONSE RATE: SERVICE DURATION AT CURRENT INSTITUTION
According to Figure 4.6 the results for employment tenure at the institution showed
that 13.1% of the respondents had been at the institution for less than one (1) year.
Another 21.3% had worked at the institution for between one (1) year and five (5)
years. The majority of the respondents, namely 37.7% had worked for between six
(6) and ten (10) years while 11.5% of the respondents had worked for periods
ranging between eleven (11) and sixteen (16) years. Employees with seventeen
(17) years and more working at the same institution were 16.4% of the sampled
group.
4.6.7 Nature of Appointments
Information about the nature of the appointments in place at the organisation
appears in Table 4.7 and Figure 4.7. The appointments ranged from employment
on a permanent basis to short-term contracts, that is, for a period of less than one
(1) year.
13.1%
21.3%
37.7%
11.5%
16.4%
Less than 1 year 1 to 5 years 6 to 10 years
11 to 16 years 17 years and above
79
The survey revealed that forty-four (44) respondents were permanently employed,
three (3) were employed temporarily and nine (9) were on long-term contracts that
ranged from two (2) to five (5) years. The sample had five (5) respondents who
were employed on short-term contracts of one (1) year or less.
TABLE 4.7
SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: NATURE OF APPOINTMENTS
Category Count Percentage
Permanent 44 72.1
Temporary 3 4.9
Long-term contract (2-5 years) 9 14.8
Short-term contract (less than 1 year) 5 8.2
Totals 61 100
FIGURE 4.7
RESPONSE RATE: APPOINTMENTS
72.1%
4.9%
14.8%8.2%
Permanent Temporary
Long-term contract (2-5 years) Short-term contract (less than 1 year)
80
According to Figure 4.7 the majority of respondents, namely 72.1% were
permanently employed at the institution. The remaining repondents were
contractually employed ranging from 4.9% on temporary contracts, 14.8% on long-
term contracts and 8.2% on short-term contracts with a duration of less one (1) year.
4.6.8 Learning Programmes Offered at the Institution
The institution offered a variety of learning programmes as per the mandate of the
Department of Higher Education and Training. Table 4.8 and Figure 4.8 present the
demographics of the respondents according to the various learning programmes
offered.
TABLE 4.8
SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS: LEARNING PROGRAMMES OFFERED
Category Count Percentage
National Certificate Vocational (NCV) 36 59.0
National Technical Education (NATED) 10 16.4
Occupational Training (OT) 9 14.8
Other 6 9.8
Totals 61 100
The sample representation revealed that thirty-six (36) personnel offered the NCV
programme. Ten (10) respondents represented the NATED programme, nine (9)
were from the OT programme and six (6) respondents were classified as other
programmes.
81
FIGURE 4.8
RESPONSE RATE: LEARNING PROGRAMMES OFFERED
Figure 4.8 revealed that 59% of respondents offered the NCV learning programme
while 16.4% were from the NATED programmes. The OT programme had 14.8%
of the respondents and 9.8% of the respondents were not attached to any of the
programmes listed and were, therefore, classified as other.
4.7 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT ITEMS
This section was designated as Section B of the questionnaire. A detailed
description of the responses to the measurement items follows. It is worth noting
that even though the 5-point scale was collapsed to a 3-point scale, the mean scores
and standard deviations were calculated using the original 5-point measurement
scales.
4.7.1 Organisational Leadership Style and Supervision
Organisational Leadership Style and Supervision (OLS) was identified as an
independent variable that influences the experience of job satisfaction. The results
were:
59.0%16.4%
14.8%9.8%
National Certificate Vocational (NCV) National Technical Education (Nated)
Occupational Training (OT) Other
82
TABLE 4.9
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: ORGANISATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE AND
SUPERVISION
Qu
estion
Cod
e
Statement
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tra
l
Ag
ree
Me
an
Sta
nd
ard
Devia
tio
n
Percentages
B1 OLS1 The organisational
leadership style is
democratic and promotes
transparency.
31.1 39.3 29.6 3.0 1.7
B2 OLS2 Leadership promotes
fairness, courtesy and
honesty.
24.6 43.9 31.5 3.0 1.7
B3 OLS3 My supervisor treats me
in a professional manner.
11.5 18.0 70.5 3.7 1.9
B4 OLS4 My supervisor provides
constructive, reliable and
valid feedback during and
after evaluation.
21.3 19.7 59 3.4 1.8
B5 OLS5 I am consulted in
decision-making that
affects my work.
32.8 37.7 29.5 3.0 1.7
Average Mean Score 3.2
Table 4.9 and Figure 4.9 depict the responses to the statements on Organisational
Leadership Style and Supervision experienced by the respondents. It emerged that
for the statement on the organisational leadership being of a democratic nature and
promoting transparency, 39.3% chose not to agree nor disagree while 31.1%
disagreed and 29.6% agreed.
83
Regarding the statement on organisational leadership promoting fairness, courtesy
and honesty, 24.6% of the respondents disagreed with the statement.
Conversely, 31.5% agreed with the statement while 43.9% of respondents neither
agreed nor disagreed. The researcher surmises that the high percentage of
respondents who were neutral on the matter did not think that these values needed
to be promoted by leadership as these were moral issues that an individual should
practice despite the culture of the organisation.
A significant result of 70.5% was observed for the respondents who agreed that the
supervisors treated them in a professional manner. Respondents who remained
neutral were 18.0% of the sample while 11.5% disagreed with the statement. This
result augurs well for the supervisors at the organisation as the professional
approach supports good working relationships.
A noteworthy finding was that 59,0% of the respondents agreed that after they were
evaluated, the feedback received from supervisors was constructive, reliable and
valid. Respondents who chose to remain neutral numbered 19.7% while 21.3%
disagreed with the statement.
Several respondents, namely 29.5%, agreed with the statement that they were
consulted in decision-making that impacted their work, 37.7% remained neutral and
32.8% disagreed.
84
FIGURE 4.9
ORGANISATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE AND SUPERVISION (OLS)
RESPONSES
The mean scores for Organisational Leadership and Supervision ranged from 3.0 to
3.7. The average mean score of 3.2 indicated a positive contribution to job
satisfaction.
4.7.2 Working Conditions
Working Conditions incorporated aspects ranging from the actual physical
infrastructural environment, equipment, working tools, recognition of race, gender
diversity and sensitivity to discrimination and harassment. The results of the survey
were:
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
Disagree Neutral Agree
31.1%
39.3%
29.6%24.6%
43.9%
31.5%
11.5%18.0%
70.5%
21.3% 19.7%
59.0%
32.8%37.7%
29.5%
The organisational leadership style is democratic and promotes transparency
Leadership promotes fairness, courtesy and honesty
My supervisor treats me in a professional manner
My supervisor provides constructive, reliable and valid feedback after evaluation
I am consulted in decision-making that affects my work
85
TABLE 4.10
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: WORKING CONDITIONS Q
ue
stion
No
Cod
e
Statement
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tra
l
Ag
ree
Me
an
Sta
nd
ard
Devia
tio
n
Percentages
B6 WCS1 The physical work
environment is safe,
secure, neat and clean.
27.9 26.2 45.9 3.2 1.7
B7 WCS2 I am provided with
adequate, appropriate
tools and equipment.
27.9 26.2 45.9 3.2 1.7
B8 WCS3 The organisation is
flexible regarding my
having to attend to family
responsibilities.
19.7 19.7 60.6 3.5 1.8
B9 WCS4 Diversity in race and
gender are recognised in
the workplace.
18.0 32.8 49.2 3.4 1.8
B10 WCS5 The workplace is free
from all forms of
discrimination and
harassment.
34.4 26.2 39.4 3.1 1.7
Average Mean Score 3.3
Table 4.10 and Figure 4.10 indicate that generally the respondents expressed
consensus with the statements about the working conditions at the institution,
showing a positive inclination towards agreeing with the statements. The results
revealed that 45.9% of the respondents agreed that the work environment was safe,
secure and clean.
86
There were 45.9% of the respondents who stated that they had been provided with
the requisite working tools and equipment for the execution of their tasks.
FIGURE 4.10
WORKING CONDITIONS (WCS) RESPONSES
A significantly positive result was obtained from the 60.6% respondents who agreed
that the organisation was flexible regarding the staff attending to family
responsibilities. This result indicated the empathetic consideration for personal
circumstances of employees. The respondents who disagreed and those who
remained neutral were 19.7% each, respectively.
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
Disagree Neutral Agree
27.9% 26.2%
45.9%
27.9% 26.2%
45.9%
19.7% 19.7%
60.6%
18.0%
32.8%
49.2%
34.4%
26.2%
39.4%
The physical work environment is safe, secure, neat and clean(venues, ablution facilities, parking, grounds)I am provided with adequate, appropriate tools and equipment toexecute my work tasksThe organisation is flexible regarding me having to attend to familyresponsibilitiesDiversity in race and gender are recognised in the workplace
The workplace is free of all forms of discrimination and harassment
87
Regarding the workplace recognition of diversity in race and gender 49.2% of
respondents agreed while 18.0% disagreed and 32.8% neither agreed nor
disagreed.
An interesting result was observed for the non-incidence of discrimination and
harassment in the workplace. The difference between those who disagreed (34.4%)
and those who agreed (39.4%) was negligible. More than a quarter of the
respondents, namely 26.2%, neither agreed nor disagreed on this item.
The mean scores for Working Conditions ranged from 3.1 to 3.5 with an average
mean score of 3.3. This indicated a moderate tendency to agree that the working
conditions contributed positively to job satisfaction.
4.7.3 Organisational Communication
Table 4.11 and Figure 4.11 illustrate the extent to which the respondents agreed or
disagreed with the effectiveness of workplace communication practices.
The survey examined communication at the level between superiors and
subordinates as well as the level of communication amongst peers.
The results of the respondents’ views on the effectiveness of the organisational
communication strategies showed that 42.6% of the respondents expressed a
neutral opinion compared to 32.8% who agreed that employees were kept informed
of matters that affected them. The respondents who believed that employees were
not informed of matters that affected them numbered 24.6%. The high incidence of
respondents who chose to remain neutral on this matter led the researcher to the
supposition that the respondents felt a general apathy towards the organisational
communication strategies currently in place.
Communication between employees and senior management being professional
drew results that showed that 41.0% disagreed, a further 41.0% neither agreed nor
disagreed and a mere 18.0% expressed agreement with the statement. This
response raises concern as it indicates a possible impediment on the efficiency of
organisational communication between seniors and subordinates.
88
TABLE 4.11
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION Q
ue
stion
No
Cod
e
Statement
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tra
l
Ag
ree
Me
an
Sta
nd
ard
Devia
tio
n
Percentages
B11 OCO1 Employees are kept
informed of matters that
affect us.
24.6 42.6 32.8 3.0 1.7
B12 OCO2 Communication between
employees and senior
management is
professional, effective
and mutually beneficial.
41.0 41.0 18.0 2.7 1.6
B13 OCO3 Organisational strategic
goals are clearly
communicated to all
employees.
41.0 31.1 27.9 2.8 1.6
B14 OCO4 I get adequate
opportunities to interact
with fellow employees on
a formal level at staff
meetings.
21.3 29.5 49.2 3.3 1.8
B15 OCO5 Communication between
peers is professional,
effective and mutually
beneficial.
16.4 18.0 65.6 3.6 1.8
Average Mean Score 3.1
The results for organisational strategic goals being clearly communicated to all
employees revealed that 41.0% of respondents were of the view that this was not
the case. A further 31.1% chose to give a neutral response while 27.9% agreed that
89
organisational strategic goals were clearly communicated to employees. An
overwhelming majority of respondents, namely 72.1% who disagreed or gave a
neutral response may possibly indicate that the respondents have an issue with how
the organisational strategic goals are communicated.
FIGURE 4.11
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION (OCO) RESPONSES
The survey results revealed that communication between peers was more positive
than that between employees and senior management as 49.2% of the respondents
agreed that they had adequate opportunities to interact with fellow employees on a
formal basis.
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
Disagree Neutral Agree
24.6%
42.6%
32.8%
41.0%41.0%
18.0%
41.0%
31.1%27.9%
21.3%
29.5%
49.2%
16.4% 18.0%
65.6%
Employees are kept informed of matters that affect us
Communication between employees and senior management isprofessional, effective and mutually beneficial
Organisational strategic goals are clearly communicated to allemployees
I get adequate opportunities to interact with fellow employees on aformal level at staff meetings
Communication between peers is professional, effective and mutuallybeneficial
90
There were 21.3% respondents who disagreed with the statement and 29.5% had a
neutral response.
The 65.6% agreement with the statement that communication between peers was
professional, effective and mutually beneficial was a positive response.
Disagreement was expressed by 16.4% respondents and 18.0% neither agreed nor
disagreed.
The mean scores for Organisational Communication ranged from 2.7 to 3.6 with an
average mean score of 3.1 which indicated a slight tendency to agree that effective
organisational communication contributed positively to job satisfaction.
4.7.4 Promotion Opportunities and Job Security
The survey considered aspects of promotion opportunities and job security, as
experienced by the respondents.
The results revealed that 62.3% of the respondents agreed that they were confident
they would retain the individual positions for which they were employed. This means
that the majority of respondents expressed unwavering confidence in job retention.
Respondents who disagreed with the statement represented 11.5% of the
respondents and 26.2% neither agreed not disagreed.
Respondents demonstrated 55.8% agreement with the statement that they were
confident about job security at the institution while 31.1% were neither in agreement
nor disagreement and 13.1% disagreed with the aspect of being confident about job
security.
On the aspect of the institution providing equal opportunities for personal
professional development, 19.7% disagreed while 39.3% agreed. Most of the
respondents (41.0%) were neutral on this matter. The high percentage of
respondents who neither agreed nor disagreed led the researcher to surmise that
respondents had not been exposed to opportunities for professional development
during their tenure at the organisation.
91
Table 4.12 and Figure 4.12 provide graphic representations of the results obtained.
TABLE 4.12
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB
SECURITY
Qu
estion
No
Cod
e
Statement
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tra
l
Ag
ree
Me
an
Sta
nd
ard
Devia
tio
n
Percentages
B16 POS1 I am confident that I will retain
my post.
11.5 26.2 62.3 3.6 1.8
B17 POS2 I am confident that my job is
secure.
13.1 31.1 55.8 3.5 1.8
B18 POS3 The institution provides equal
opportunities for personal
professional development.
19.7 41.0 39.3 3.2 1.7
B19 POS4 The institution provides equal
opportunities for promotion
and career advancement.
39.3 32.8 27.9 2.8 1.6
B20 POS5 The institution provides
financial and other support for
workers to pursue further
education and training.
18.0 37.7 44.3 3.3 1.7
Average Mean Score 3.3
The aspect examining whether the institution provided equal opportunities for
promotion and career advancement yielded results that showed that 39.3%
respondents disagreed while 27.9% agreed. The researcher theorises that the
32.8% respondents who neither agreed nor disagreed had not experienced
promotion or career advancement during their term of employment at the institution.
Similarly, the researcher presumes this of the 37.7% respondents who were neutral
on the issue of the organisation providing financial and other support for further
education and training when compared to the 44.3% respondents who responded
positively to the matter.
92
FIGURE 4.12
PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB SECURITY (POS) RESPONSES
The mean scores for Promotion Opportunities and Job Security ranged from 2.8 to
3.6 with an average mean score of 3.3 which indicated a moderate tendency to
agree that the promotion opportunities and job security contributed positively to job
satisfaction.
4.7.5 Remuneration and Employee Benefits
The independent variable dealing with remuneration and employee benefits drew
the most negative responses from the survey participants as evidenced by the
results given in Table 4.13 and Figure 4.13.
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
Disagree Neutral Agree
11.5%
26.2%
62.3%
13.1%
31.1%
55.8%
19.7%
41.0% 39.3%39.3%
32.8%27.9%
18.0%
37.7%
44.3%
I am confident that I will retain my post
I am confident that my job is secure
The institution provides equal opportunities for personal professional development
The institution provides equal opportunities for promotion and career advancement
The institution provides financial and other support for workers to pursue furthereducation and training
93
TABLE 4.13
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: REMUNERATION AND EMPLOYEE BENEFITS Q
ue
stion
No
Cod
e
Statement
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tra
l
Ag
ree
Me
an
Sta
nd
ard
Devia
tio
n
Percentages
B21 REB1 I am very satisfied with
my current remuneration.
59.0 29.5 11.5 2.3 1.5
B22 REB2 I am very satisfied with
the current employee
benefits offered.
44.3 21.3 34.4 2.8 1.6
B23 REB3 I am satisfied with the
current system used to
award performance
bonuses.
45.9 44.3 9.8 2.6 1.6
B24 REB4 Management gives
workers the necessary
recognition for work
efficiency.
54.1 27.9 18.0 2.5 1.5
B25 REB5 The contribution I make to
the continued existence of
the institution, is
recognised.
41.0 36.0 23.0 2.8 1.6
AVERAGE MEAN SCORE 2.6
A mere 11.5% of the respondents agreed that they were very satisfied with the
current remuneration they received, while 59.0% disagreed and 29.5% selected the
neutral response.
The statement on employee benefits drew a more positive response with 34.4%
respondents agreeing that they were very satisfied with the employee benefits
94
offered at the institution. A total of 44.3% respondents disagreed and 21.3% were
neutral on the matter.
The views of the respondents on the system used to award performance bonuses
tended to be negative as 45.9% disagreed, 44.3% were neutral and 9.8% agreed
with the current system used at the institution.
FIGURE 4.13
REMUNERATION AND EMPLOYEE BENEFITS (REB) RESPONSES
A measure of concern became apparent when 54.1% of respondents disagreed with
the statement that management gave workers the necessary recognition for work
efficiency. Only 18% of the respondents agreed that they received the necessary
recognition and 27.9% were neutral.
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
Disagree Neutral Agree
59.0%
29.5%
11.5%
44.3%
21.3%
34.4%
45.9% 44.3%
9.8%
54.1%
27.9%
18.0%
41.0%
36.0%
23.0%
I am very satisfied with my current remunerationI am very satisfied with the current employee benefits offeredI am satisfied with the current system used to award performance bonusesManagement gives workers the necessary recognition for work efficiencyThe contribution I make to the continued existence of the institution is recognised
95
The mean scores for Remuneration and Employee Benefits ranged from 2.3 to 2.8
with an average mean score of 2.6 which indicated a moderate tendency to disagree
that remuneration and employee benefits contributed positively to job satisfaction.
4.7.6 Personal Job Satisfaction
This measurement item allowed respondents to evaluate their own perceptions of
job satisfaction pertaining to the institution. Table 4.14 and Figure 4.14 illustrate the
extent to which respondents agreed that they were satisfied with their jobs.
TABLE 4.14
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: PERSONAL JOB SATISFACTION
Qu
estion
No
Cod
e
Statement
Dis
ag
ree
Neu
tra
l
Ag
ree
Me
an
Sta
nd
ard
Devia
tio
n
Percentages
B26 PJS1 I am fully committed to my
workplace.
1.6 8.2 90.2 4.2 2.0
B27 PJS2 I am happy at work all the
time.
16.4 41.0 42.6 3.3 1.8
B28 PJS3 I have a good working
relationship with my
peers.
1.6 19.7 78.7 3.9 1.9
B29 PJS4 At work, my morale and
self-esteem are high.
16.4 37.7 45.9 3.3 1.8
B30 PJS5 I would gladly advise a
friend to apply for a
position at this institution.
21.3 44.3 34.4 3.1 1.7
AVERAGE MEAN SCORE 3.6
96
The responses showed a tendency towards agreeing with most of the statements
except the statement regarding whether the individuals’ experienced feelings of high
morale and self-esteem at work.
A high percentage of respondents (90.2%), agreed that they were fully committed to
the workplace.
Respondents replied positively with 78.7% stating that they experienced good
working relationships with their peers, thus contributing to a meaningful workplace
experience. In response to whether they were happy at work all the time 16.4%
respondents disagreed and 42.6% agreed. The respondents who neither agreed
nor disagreed numbered 41.0%.
FIGURE 4.14
PERSONAL JOB SATISFACTION (PJS) RESPONSES
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
90.0%
100.0%
Disagree Neutral Agree
1.6%8.2%
90.2%
16.4%
41.0% 42.6%
1.6%
19.7%
78.7%
16.4%
37.7%
45.9%
21.3%
44.3%
34.4%
I am fully committed to my workplaceI am happy at work all the timeI have a good working relationship with my peersAt work, my morale and self-esteem are highI would gladly advise a friend to apply for a position at this institution
97
The mean scores ranged from 3.1 to 4.2 with an average mean score of 3.6 which
signifies that the responses to the survey were mostly positive and that respondents
enjoyed a moderately high level of job satisfaction.
4.8 QUALITY OF DATA
De Vos, Strydom, Fouche and Delport (2011: 72) emphasise the importance of
accurate measurement of research exploration. The authors perceive reliability and
validity as the most important concepts of any study. They also recommend that a
researcher must ensure that the measurements used in data collection have
acceptable levels of reliability and validity prior to implementing the study. Maree
(2017: 38) states that when doing a quantitative study the researcher needs to
demonstrate a knowledge of the criteria of validity and reliability of data as part of
the rigorous research study.
4.8.1 Reliability of Measuring Instrument
According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 275) researchers use rating scales to
measure hypothetical constructs which are abstract concepts that are not directly
observable. The authors continue that it is imperative that the scale measures the
respondents’ views reliably. The authors state that a measure is deemed to be
reliable when, if the research is repeated, the same results are found.
Weiner (2007: 3) describes reliability as the consistency of a measurement
technique to produce dependable and constant results whenever the application is
repeated. Collis and Hussey (2014: 52) agree that for a research result to be
reliable, a repeat study should produce the same result. The authors continue that
this is one aspect that lends credibility to research findings, the other being validity.
Annum (2015: 13) indicates that the reliability of the research results depends on
the appropriateness of the measurement that is used to collect the specific data.
Therefore, it becomes of utmost importance to examine the extent to which an
instrument is likely to derive the expected results. The capacity to replicate a
research study and get the same results is of prime importance when measuring
reliability of a measuring instrument (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 52).
98
External reliability is tested by asking the same group of respondents who completed
a questionnaire to answer it again a few days later and the same results are
produced (Annum, 2015: 13).
Collis and Hussey (2014: 275) support the view that internal reliability is important
when using multiple-item scales where split-half reliability is tested by dividing the
scale items into two equal groups and checking the correlation coefficient of the two
groups.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is one of the most widely used tests for checking
internal reliability where each item is correlated with every other item that relates to
the construct across the sample and the average inter-item correlation is taken as
the index of reliability (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 275).
Correlation coefficient is measured within the range -1 to +1 where 1 represents a
perfect positive linear association, 0 represents no linear association and -1
represents a perfect negative linear association. The values in between are roughly
graded as follows:
TABLE 4.15
CORRELATION SCORES AND INTERPRETATION
Correlation Scores Interpretation of the Scores
0.90 to 0.99 Very high positive correlation
0.70 to 0.89 High positive correlation
0.40 to 0.69 Medium positive correlation
0 to 0.39 Low positive correlation
0 to -0.39 Low negative correlation
-0.40 to -0.69 Medium negative correlation
-0.70 to -0.89 High negative correlation
-0.90 to -0.99 Very high negative correlation
Source: Collis and Hussey, 2014: 270
99
Responses are deemed reliable when the correlation scores range between 0.70
and 0.89 as this signifies a high positive correlation.
The main themes of the research instrument used in this particular research were
tested and the Cronbach’s alpha results obtained are given in Table 4.16.
TABLE 4.16
RELIABILITY OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT: CRONBACH’S ALPHA
Independent Variables Cronbach’s Alpha
Leadership and Supervision 0.849
Working Conditions 0.762
Organisational Communication 0.882
Promotion Opportunities 0.737
Remuneration and Employee Benefits 0.832
Closer observation of the reliability statistics presented above, revealed that the
Cronbach’s alpha scores for all items of the measuring instrument fell within the
range indicative of high positive correlation. In instances where the results are far
lower than 0.7, Collis and Hussey (2014: 276) recommend that the researcher
should consider excluding any items with a low item-total correlation.
4.8.2 Validity of Data
In terms of research, validity refers to the degree to which findings are applicable in
real-life situations. Collis and Hussey (2014: 53) describe validity as the extent to
which a test measures that which the researcher seeks to measure and the results
reflect the phenomena that is being studied. Research errors, such as poorly
constituted samples, faulty procedures, inaccuracies or deceptive and misleading
measurements, often undermine the validity of the data.
Weiner (2007: 3) and Maree (2017: 139) describe validity as the extent to which a
measuring instrument or measurement approach measures what it is meant to
100
measure and successfully quantifies that which it is designed and intended to
measure. Weak and improper research mechanisms have the capacity to
undermine the validity of research (Weiner, 2007: 3).
Validity of research instruments is classified as internal and external validity.
(a) Internal Validity
Zikmund et al. (2014: 303) state that internal validity is the ability of an instrument to
measure what it is supposed to measure. According to Maree (2017: 85) internal
validity covers the extent of control the researcher has over extraneous variables so
that these do not influence the results of the study.
Maree (2017: 85) cautions researchers that selection bias is a possible threat to
internal validity. This occurs when the sample is not randomly selected. The author
alerts researchers to be aware of instrumentation whereby research instruments
must, at all times, be fair, reliable and valid for use, without disadvantaging any racial
or gender group, as this decreases internal validity (Maree, 2017: 86).
(b) External Validity
Zikmund et al. (2014: 303) define external validity as the capacity by which
researchers can generalise data across persons, settings and time.
Maree (2017: 71) advises researchers to carefully consider the sample size
selected for a quantitative study. Sample sizes impact upon the external validity of
the research especially when attempting to generalise findings from the sample
group to the population.
Failure to explicitly describe independent variables and any intervention applied
during the research process may pose a threat to external validity according to
Maree and Pietersen (2007: 145).
Creswell (2014: 139) suggests that if the research findings are valid to a strong
degree, that implies that the results or findings have an excellent degree of
applicability in real life. In contrast, Creswell (2014: 139) states that a low validity
score infers that the survey is not applicable in real-life situations. The specific
101
approach that the researcher uses during research has a strong influence on the
validity of the data.
Different types of validity can be identified, namely content, construct and criterion
validity, each having different attributes.
(c) Content Validity
Due to the small sample for this study, the researcher could not conduct a detailed
exploratory analysis with success. Therefore, this study was based on content
validity which is categorised as internal validity.
Zikmund et al (2014: 314) state that Cronbach’s alpha scores of ≥0.60 can be
regarded as being fairly reliable. When the results are much lower than 0.6 the
researcher needs to consider deleting those items which have returned an item-total
with a low correlation in an effort to increase the alpha scores to an acceptable level
(Collis & Hussey, 2014: 276).
The tables that follow provide a summary of the Cronbach’s alpha scores for each
of the variables after deletion of the items with low correlation scores.
TABLE 4.17
CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORES AFTER DELETION:
ORGANISATIOAL LEADERSHIP STYLE AND SUPERVISION (OLS)
Factor
Item
Cronbach’s alpha 0.823
Corrected Item – Total
Correlation
Cronbach’s alpha after Deletion
Organisational
Leadership
Style and
Supervision
OLS4 My supervisor provides
constructive, reliable and valid feedback
during and after evaluation.
0.685 0.812
OLS5 I am consulted in decision-
making that affects my work.
0.600 0.835
102
Table 4.17 presents the independent variable Organisational Leadership Style and
Supervision after deletion of all low scoring items. A new Cronbach’s alpha score of
0.823 for the item Organisational Leadership Style and Supervision which shows
good reliability is reflected.
TABLE 4.18
CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORES AFTER DELETION
PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB SATISFACTION (POS)
Factor
Item
Cronbach’s alpha 0.925
Corrected Item – Total
Correlation
Cronbach’s alpha after Deletion
Promotion
Opportunities
and Job
Satisfaction
POS1 I am confident that I will retain
my post.
0.537 0.902
POS2 I am confident that my job is
secure.
0.557 0.948
Table 4.18 depicts the independent variable Promotion Opportunities and Job
Satisfaction after deletion of low scoring items. The deletion of low scoring items
resulted in a new Cronbach’s alpha score of 0.925 which reflected good reliability of
the measuring scale.
103
TABLE 4.19
CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORES AFTER DELETION:
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION (OCO)
Factor
Item
Cronbach’s alpha 0.770
Corrected Item – Total
Correlation
Cronbach’s alpha after Deletion
Organisational
Communication
OCO1 Employees are kept informed
of matters that affect us.
0.681 0.865
OCO2 Communication between
employees and senior management
is professional, effective and
mutually beneficial.
0.668 0.849
OCO5 Communication between
peers is professional, effective and
mutually beneficial.
0.482 0.878
Table 4.19 presents the independent variable Organisational Communication after
deletion of low scoring items. A new Cronbach’s alpha score of 0.770, which shows
good reliability of the measuring scale, is reflected.
104
TABLE 4.20
CRONBACH’S ALPHA SCORES AFTER DELETION:
REMUNERATION AND EMPLOYEE BENEFITS (REB)
Factor Item
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.850
Corrected Item – Total
Correlation
Cronbach’s alpha after Deletion
Remuneration
and
Employee
Benefits
REB1 I am very satisfied with my
current remuneration.
0.583 0.857
REB3 I am satisfied with the current
system used to award performance
bonuses.
0.710 0.811
REB4 Management gives workers the
necessary recognition for work
efficiency.
0.727 0.794
REB5 The contribution I make to the
continued existence of the institution,
is recognised.
0.773 0.773
Table 4.20 depicts the results of the independent variable Remuneration and
Employee Benefits after deletion of low scoring items. The table reflects a new
Cronbach’s alpha score of 0.850 which indicates good reliability of the measuring
scale.
105
4.9 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Using Factor Loadings and the Cronbach’s alpha analysis, the survey items were
tested using SPSS Version 25 to assess their reliability and validity. The related
responses were tested for reliability.
Collis and Hussey (2014: 275) maintain that Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is one of
the most common tests used for checking the internal reliability and consistency of
multiple-item scales. A Cronbach’s alpha scale of ≥0.8 is considered as reliable.
The findings presented in Table 4.17 represent the reliability assessment of the
questionnaire items. The Cronbach’s alpha scores for each item are given.
4.9.1 Correlation Coefficient
Collis and Hussey (2014: 270) refer to correlation as a measure of an association
between two quantitative variables and that the relationship may be positive or
negative. In statistics, a correlation coefficient is a measure of the linear
dependence of one numerical random variable on another (Upton & Cook, 2006:
101).
It is important to note that the two variables are not called a dependent variable and
independent variable because they are measured simultaneously without
establishing a cause-and-effect relationship (Field, 2009: 78).
Correlation coefficient is measured within the range of -1 to +1 where 1 represents
a perfect positive linear association, 0 represents no linear association and -1
represents a perfect negative linear association (Collis & Hussey, 2014: 270).
According to Collis and Hussey (2014: 270), researchers need to realise that
correlation between two variables does not prove that a causal link between the two
variables exists because the correlation could be due to the presence of a third
variable.
106
TABLE 4.21
TABLE OF CORRELATIONS AND p-VALUES
New REB New POS New OLS New OCO New PJS
Spear-man's rho
New REB Correlation Coefficient
Significance 2-tailed (p-value)
N
New POS Correlation Coefficient .147
Significance 2-tailed (p-value)
.259
N 61
New OLS Correlation Coefficient .375** .227
Significance 2-tailed (p-value)
.063 .078
N 61 61
New OCO Correlation Coefficient .310* .308* .302*
Significance 2-tailed (p-value)
.015 .016 .018
N 61 61 61
107
New PJS Correlation Coefficient .417** .156 .234 .261* .238
Significance 2-tailed (p-value)
.001 .230 .069 .042 .065
N 61 61 61 61 61
α = 0.05
where p = ≤0.05 indicated in Red
108
4.10 ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION OF HYPOTHESES
The researcher formulated hypotheses that were listed in Chapter 1. The five (5)
hypotheses were framed to illustrate probable causal relationships or assumptions
guiding the research and were intended to give the reader insight into the
underlying theories and ideas of the research topic (Maree, 2012: 33).
This section of Chapter 4 provides the conclusions of whether the hypotheses were
accepted or rejected based on the main findings of the study.
The analysis that follows provides details of the correlation coefficients and p-
values for each of the hypothesised statements. Table 4.22 presents the
correlation and p-values that the researcher used to conclude on the hypotheses.
The p-values were compared to a significance level of α= 0.05.
4.10.1 Hypothesis 1 (H1)
H10: Leadership style and supervision do not influence job satisfaction.
H11: Leadership style and supervision influence job satisfaction.
The correlation co-efficient value of 0.234 and p-value of 0.069 were not
significant. Since the p-value was more than α = 0.05, this indicated weak
evidence against the null hypothesis. Therefore, the researcher failed to reject the
null hypothesis and concluded that the null hypothesis was likely to be accepted.
The conclusion reached from the research results was that leadership style and
supervision do not influence job satisfaction.
4.10.2 Hypothesis 2 (H2)
H20: Working conditions do not have an effect on job satisfaction.
H21: Working conditions have an effect on job satisfaction.
The correlation co-efficient value was calculated at 0.238 and the p-value of 0.065
were not significant. The p-value was more than α = 0.05, indicating weak
evidence against the null hypothesis, thus the researcher failed to reject the null
hypothesis and concluded that the null hypothesis was likely to be accepted. Using
109
the research results, the researcher concluded that working conditions do not
influence job satisfaction.
4.10.3 Hypothesis 3 (H3)
H30: Organisational communication does not influence job satisfaction.
H31 : Organisational communication influences job satisfaction.
The correlation co-efficient value of 0.261 was a significant result. The p-value of
0.042 which is less than α = 0.05 indicated strong evidence against the null
hypothesis, suggesting that the null hypothesis was rejected in favour of the
alternative hypothesis. Based on the research results, the researcher concluded
that organisational communication influences job satisfaction.
4.10.4 Hypothesis 4 (H4)
H40: Promotion opportunities do not influence job satisfaction.
H41: Promotion opportunities influence job safisfaction.
The correlation co-efficient value calculated at 0.156 and the p-value of 0.230
which is more than α = 0.05 were not significant. Based on the weak evidence
against the null hypothesis, the researcher failed to reject the null hypothesis.
Therefore, the researcher concluded that promotion opportunities do not influence
job satisfaction.
4.10.5 Hypothesis 5 (H5)
H50: Remuneration and employee benefits do not influence job satisfaction.
H51: Remuneration and employee benefits influence job satisfaction.
The correlation co-efficient value of 0.417 was significant. The p-value of 0.001
which is less than α = 0.05 indicated strong evidence against the null hypothesis.
Therefore, the results suggested that the null hypothesis was to be rejected in
favour of the alternative hypothesis.
110
The researcher concluded that the alternative hypothesis was validated and that
remuneration and employee benefits influence job satisfaction.
Based on the empirical research results the researcher reviewed the initial model
that was presented in Chapter one (1) which gave expression to the variables that
were identified as elements that influenced job satisfaction. The elements of
organisational communication and remuneration and employee benefits returned
significant results.
FIGURE 4.15
REVISED MODEL FOR JOB SATISFACTION
Figure 4.15 depicts the revised model that emerged after the study. The
hypotheses that the diagram refers to were:
H30: Organisational communication does not influence job satisfaction.
H31 : Organisational communication influences job satisfaction.
Organisational
Communication
Remuneration and
Employee Benefits
Job Satisfaction
111
The researcher concluded that H31 was the likely result, therefore, the null
hypothesis was rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis. The finding was
that organisational communication does influence job satisfaction at the
organisation.
H50: Remuneration and employee benefits do not influence job satisfaction.
H51: Remuneration and employee benefits influence job satisfaction.
The researcher concluded that H51: was the likely result leading to the null
hypothesis being rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis. Thus, the finding
was that remuneration and employee benefits do influence job satisfaction.
The results for the remaining hypotheses showed no significant results worth
reporting.
4.11 SUMMARY
Chapter Four (4) presented the descriptive statistical results of this research study.
The results showed that the independent variables, namely, organisational
leadership style and supervision, working conditions, organisational
communication and promotion opportunities had marginally more statements for
which the respondents showed a tendency towards positive responses as the
average mean scores ranged from 3.1 to 3.3.
The variable remuneration and employee benefits had a mean score of 2.6 due to
more responses that disagreed with the statements of the survey.
The Cronbach’s alpha reliability scales were adjusted by deleting the items with
very low item-total correlations, thus yielding Cronbach’s alpha scales that were
more than 0.8.
Regarding the hypothesised statements, two of the five hypotheses showed
significant results leading to the researcher rejecting the null hypothesis and that
the alternative hypotheses were likely to be accepted.
112
H31 and H51 were accepted and the corresponding null hypotheses were rejected.
The results for the remaining hypotheses were insignificant.
Chapter Five (5) will address managerial implications that emanated from the
quantitative analysis in this chapter and the researcher will give recommendations
for improving the culture of the organisation with the aim of a positive influence on
the employees’ job satisfaction levels.
113
CHAPTER 5
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The results of the descriptive statistics were analysed and presented in Chapter Four
(4). The extent to which the respondents experienced job satisfaction in the context
of the workplace culture was examined and an in-depth presentation was provided.
The purpose of Chapter 5 is to draw conclusions, detail the implications of the findings
for management and provide managerial recommendations that could be considered
for implementation at the institution and identify research gaps for future research.
The conclusions that were drawn were in relation to recommendations for improving
employee job satisfaction levels in the TVET college sector by looking specifically at
the context of the organisational culture of the institution. Limitations of the study will
be highlighted and future research areas that may be considered for research will be
highlighted in this chapter.
5.2 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The primary objective of the study was to investigate job satisfaction in the context of
the organisational culture, as experienced by lecturers at TVET colleges. More
specifically, the study investigated the role played by organisational cultural elements,
such as working conditions, leadership style and supervision, organisational
communication, remuneration and employee benefits in the achievement of job
satisfaction. The study examined the factors that give an organisation its unique
character and flair to set it apart from other similar organisations.
5.3 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research questions that formed the basis and background of this study were
answered by way of the literature study. Based on the literature study and the
research survey, this section seeks to answer the research questions. The research
questions and the probable conclusions gleaned from the research, follow.
114
• Is there a relationship between the organisational leadership style and
supervision on the employees’ experience of job satisfaction?
The findings of the study by Welbourne (2007: 48), revealed that leaders who
demonstrated their involvement in the unique organisational culture set a good
example for subordinates to follow. The researcher found that when the leaders
themselves were positively engaged in the workplace, this created a less stressful
working environment, created an atmosphere in which the employees experienced
less burn-out, less confusion and fewer barriers to achieving the main job objectives.
An inclusive and consultative approach in leadership style and supervision benefitted
the entire organisation by promoting better skilled employees, increased service
delivery levels, created upward career mobility and resulted in employees who were
willing to go the extra mile, even when tasks assigned to them were not part of the
official job description (Welbourne, 2007: 48).
The findings of studies conducted by Bates and Weighart (2014: 48) disclosed that
good leadership stimulates and influences followers into becoming creative thinkers,
innovative and astute problem-solving individuals with high levels of engagement in
the workplace. The authors further speak of leaders having an executive presence
that can be explained as exemplary leadership behaviour, appropriate knowledge
and skills that make them effective leaders (Bates & Weighart, 2014: 48). Effective
leaders were found to possess character and substance which were the basis for
foundational values, qualities of maturity and virtue that manifested in the employees’
adult years (Bates & Weighart, 2014: 48).
Research conducted by Sageer et al., (2012: 36) found that leaders with a democratic
leadership style were more effective at promoting good working relations based on
mutual respect and participative decision-making, while authoritarian and dictatorial
leaders created tense work environments that contributed to employee
dissatisfaction.
Saks (2006: 603) and Popli and Rizvi (2016: 968) claimed that there was a positive
relationship between the behaviour and actions of workplace leaders that exuded a
115
constructive influence on employee attitudes and positive behaviours that gave rise
to higher productivity levels and workers who were less likely to leave the
organisation.
An analysis of the empirical data collected during this research conducted with the
sixty-one (61) respondents, revealed that organisational leadership style and
supervision were not significantly related to employee job satisfaction.
• Is there a relationship between the working conditions that include
communication, promotion opportunities, remuneration and employee
benefits and the employees’ levels of job satisfaction?
Research results from a study by Darmody and Smyth (2016: 118), whose research
was primarily conducted in the context of primary schools, revealed that a positive
working environment, collegial co-operation from learners’ parents, positive learners
’attitudes and enough resources for teaching and administration contributed to the
teachers’ increased levels of job satisfaction.
The literature study revealed that Kumari’s (2011: 13) research found that an ideal
working environment was characterised as being free from harassment, one which
encouraged employee involvement in realistic goal setting and fostered employee
participation in organisational planning and problem-solving. Typically, employees
were shown respect for their diverse ideas and opinions. Supervisors welcomed
honest criticism and gave constructive feedback, provided mentoring and
encouraged information sharing sessions at the workplace (Kumari, 2011: 13).
Research by Bates and Weighart (2014: 47) found that effective organisational
communication resulted in employees who experienced full engagement at work,
were more innovative, displayed higher work commitment levels, demonstrated
greater trustworthiness, goodwill and helpfullness towards the organisation. (Bates &
Weighart, 2014: 47).
Penger and Cerne’s (2014: 512) findings were that a working environment that
encouraged open communication and continuous feedback fostered higher levels of
job satisfaction. The researchers found that positive employee interpersonal
116
relationships thrived in a psychologically safe environment which enabled employees
to be their authentic selves, workers became less inhibited and became confident to
try new things without any fear of negative consequences (Penger & Cerne 2014:
514).
This research yielded results that showed that general, physical working conditions
did not have a significant influence on the experience of job satisfaction.
However, results on remuneration and employee benefits were found to exert a
significant influence on how the respondents experienced job satisfaction. The
research revealed that formal communication was found to be less effective than
envisaged since respondents had an issue with not being kept informed of
organisational strategic goals and expressed the opinion that they were not
sufficiently consulted in matters that affected them directly.
• How can TVET colleges improve the organisational culture to positively
influence the levels of employee job satisfaction?
Belias et al., (2015: 316-317) postulated that organisational culture is based on
commonly shared values, behaviours and beliefs of individuals within a given
organisation and, therefore, provides the organisation with direction, a sense of order
and a strong basis for common understanding of issues within an organisation.
The research results by Uddin et al., (2013: 64) found that organisational culture is
traditionally determined and socially constructed, based on beliefs, behaviours,
values and morals associated with all aspects of organisational life. The researchers
further state that organisational culture manifests itself in the natural setting, rites and
rituals, climate and values, stories, beliefs and principles shared by the staff of the
organisation.
Results from previous research conducted by Sempane et al., (2002: 23) indicated
that job satisfaction did not happen in isolation as it depended on elements such as
organisational structure, size of the organisation, remuneration levels, working
conditions and leadership which are essentials of organisational culture.
117
Results obtained from this research showed that most respondents were satisfied
with the physical working conditions and this aspect contributed positively to the
overall experience of job satisfaction. The measurement of working conditions
showed mean scores ranging from 3.1 to 3.5 with an average mean score of 3.3
indicating a moderate tendency to agree that working conditions contributed
positively to the experience of job satisfaction.
The importance of and high regard for constructive feedback on staff performance
evaluations was a salient feature of job satisfaction as experienced at this
organisation. However, recognition and rewarding of exceptional employee
performance and contributions to the continued existence of the organisation would
improve employee performance and exert a significantly positive influence on the
experience of job satisfaction.
5.4 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The main objective of the study was to improve job satisfaction as experienced under
the influence of the organisational culture. This section seeks to present the
conclusions regarding the variables that were chosen for this study and the
researcher offers recommendations that may be implemented by the organisation in
an initiative to promote job satisfaction.
5.4.1 Organisational Leadership and Supervision
The results for organisational leadership and supervision were characterised by
varying responses given by the respondents in the study. The positive findings
indicated that supervisors treated subordinates in a professional manner and
provided constructive, valid and reliable feedback when conducting staff
assessments.
The survey item that drew mostly negative responses was the perceived absence of
democratic leadership at the organisation. Respondents expressed the opinion that
management failed to consult them (workers) in decision-making that affected them
directly thus giving rise to a lack of transparency in operations at the institution.
118
The mean scores for this variable ranged from 3.0 to 3.7 with an average mean of
3.2 and the standard deviation of between 1.9.7 and 1.9. The empirical results
showed that there was weak evidence against the null hypothesis, making the null
hypothesis likely to be accepted. The researcher concluded that leadership style and
supervision did not influence the experience of job satisfaction.
Managerial implications and recommendations
The implication of the research findings is that TVET Colleges should encourage
institutional management and leadership to promote participative decision-making by
including as many staff members in decisions taken which directly impact their work
life. Inclusivity and a consultative approach will give a more democratic character to
decision-making and promote transparency within the organisation. This measure
can be implemented where practically possible.
5.4.2 Working Conditions
Survey results revealed that respondents were satisfied with the working environment
and the provision of adequate and appropriate working tools. The mean scores for
the measurement item ranged from 3.1 to 3.5 with the standard deviation scores
ranging between 1.7 and 1.8. The results indicated a moderate tendency to agree
that working conditions contributed positively to levels of job satisfaction. The
flexibility shown by the organisational managers and recognition of diversity in gender
and race were also lauded. These elements were indicative of the empathetic
consideration for employees’ personal circumstances and augured well for
experiences of job satisfaction.
A small number of respondents expressed the view that discrimination and
harassment occurred on a small scale at the workplace.
Managerial implications and recommendations
The implication of the findings is that it is essential to uphold a positive workplace
environment that reinforces conducive working conditions that promote high levels of
job satisfaction. It is recommended that in areas where the possibility of harassment
119
and discrimination may occur, employees are encouraged to report such instances
and that the necessary investigation and remediation will apply.
5.4.3 Organisational Communication
The study revealed that communication between peers was effectively conducted in
a professional manner and respondents found this approach reciprocally beneficial.
There were adequate opportunities for personnel to interact officially and relate
formally which augured well for the sphere of peer communication. The empirical
results revealed mean scores that ranged from 2.7 to 3.6 with an average score of
3.1 indicating a moderate tendency to agree that communication contributed
positively to job satisfaction.
It was noted that the findings for communication between senior management and
employees were discouraging as many respondents claimed that they were not
always informed regarding matters that affected them directly. A further claim was
that organisational strategic goals were not fully communicated to employees and
that this was an issue for them.
Managerial implications and recommendations
A recommendation that is offered is for senior management to review the
organisation’s communication policy and strategy. Management should encourage
improved communication of the organisational strategic plans, goals and objectives
and provide opportunities to engage with relevant personnel on these matters. Inform
the employees especially of matters that affect them directly so that they become
more co-operative participants in the achievement of organisational success.
5.4.4 Promotion Opportunities and Job Security
There were encouraging findings regarding job security and job retention at the
organisation. Respondents showed a positive reaction to the financial and other
support provided by the organisation for employees to pursue further personal
education, training and professional development. The measurement had mean
scores ranging from 2.8 to 3.6 with an average mean score of 3.3 and a standard
120
deviation ranging between 1.6 and 1.8. These scores indicated a moderate tendency
to agree that promotion opportunities contribute positively to experiences of job
satisfaction.
Some respondents had not experienced opportunities for personal professional
development while in the employ of the organisation. The opinion that there were no
prospects for promotion and career advancement during the respondents’ tenure at
the organisation was an adverse finding.
Managerial implications and recommendations
The findings have implications for the organisational human resources development
strategy. Management needs to pay closer attention to the provision of opportunities
for internal staff promotions and career advancements based on the human resource
plans and strategy.
Investing in staff development will build human capital and increase the
organisational competitive edge. This recommendation is supported by research
results from a study by Cardy and Lengnick-Hall (2011: 213) which showed that
workplaces that invested large sums of money in training and development of
employees managed to secure a high investment in human capital. Such
organisations received good returns on their investment, thereby creating a pool of
high quality, productive, talented workers that were valuable for the continued
sustainability of the organisation.
5.4.5 Remuneration and Employee Benefits
The survey findings indicated that there was a small number (34.4%) of respondents
who claimed to be satisfied with the current employee benefits offered at the
organisation. The respondents expressed a negative reaction regarding the system
used to award performance bonuses.
Previous research by Srivastava and Bhatia (2013: 22) recommended that rewards
and recognition programmes should include non-monetary incentives to ensure that
the profits of the organisation are not depleted by the payment of monetary incentives.
121
However, in choosing non-monetary rewards, the incentives should be meaningful,
important and significant to the employees and serve as a performance motivator
(Srivastava & Bhatia, 2013: 18).
The empirical results obtained in this study indicated that the mean scores for the
measurement items ranged from 2.3 to 2.8 with a mean score of 2.6. Standard
deviation was calculated at between 1.5 and 1.6. The analysis indicated that
remuneration and employee benefits were significantly related to job satisfaction and,
therefore, do influence job satisfaction.
Managerial implications and recommendations
It is acknowledged that generally employees are seldom, if ever, satisfied with the
remuneration received. However, it is imperative for management to ensure that
remuneration is fair, is commensurate with the quantity and quality of work done and
that employees are compensated accordingly. Management is advised to embark on
long-term planning for realistic, inflation-related salary increases by applying for
increased government funding.
The institution could investigate implementing a non-monetary rewards system and
assess whether employees are agreeable to such a system. If the organisation
considers non-monetary rewards the idea needs careful thought processes as some
rewards may not appeal to all employees. The rewards should express care and
concern that the employer has for the well-being of the employees (Srivastava &
Bhatia, 2013: 20) or the employees may be given an opportunity to choose a reward
that matters most to the individual (Kujawa, 2015: 51).
5.5 SUMMARY OF EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
The main conclusions that can be reached, based on the findings of this study were
that organisational communication and secondly, remuneration and employee
benefits had a significant relationship with job satisfaction.
Organisational leadership and supervision, working conditions and opportunities for
promotion were found not to have a significant relationship with job satisfaction.
122
The researcher had formulated five (5) hypotheses to test the claim that certain
identified elements of the organisational culture influenced how employees
experienced job satisfaction in the workplace. Regarding the hypothesised
statements, two of the five hypotheses showed significant results leading to the
researcher rejecting the null hypothesis and that the alternative hypotheses should
be accepted. H31 and H51 were accepted and the corresponding null hypotheses
were rejected.
The research results were discussed in detail in Chapter Four (4). This section
provides a summary of the hypotheses that were accepted or rejected.
5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
No major challenges were encountered during the process of this research; however,
the following limitations are worth highlighting.
This study was conducted as a requirement to fulfil the requirements of a Master of
Business Administration (MBA) and was subjected to rigid timeframes which did not
allow for protracted research.
The sample composition was limited to one TVET college in the Buffalo City
Metropolitan Municipal region due to the researcher not getting a positive response
from the other institution for which the study was intended.
Respondents showed hesitance and were reticent to complete the questionnaires.
On enquiry, it became apparent that the express condition from the head of the
organisation that the research results would be made available was a deterrent to
some respondents. The researcher dispelled the respondents’ fears by giving them
the assurance that all respondents were guaranteed complete anonymity and that
the responses would not be traced back to any individual.
The small sample precluded the researcher from conducting detailed inferential
statistical tests successfully, thus placing limitations on the study.
123
5.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The opportunities for further research on this topic exists and may be explored by
other researchers who may have an interest therein.
The same study could be conducted across all eight (8) TVET Colleges in the Eastern
Cape province to get comparative results.
This study focused on five (5) variables that were identified as influencing the
experience of job satisfaction. The literature review revealed so many more variables
that could be used to expand the scope of the study.
Future studies could be initiated to examine the impact of job satisfaction on the
quality of teaching and learning that takes place at similar organisations that are
categorised as Higher Education and Training (HET) institutions.
5.8 CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate job satisfaction of college lecturers at
TVET Colleges in the context of the prevailing organisation culture. Five variables
were identified to set the context of the organisational culture for the framework of the
study.
Chapter 1 presented the problem statement, research questions and objectives which
would form the backbone of the study and guide the research. A hypothesised model,
based on the variables for job satisfaction, was presented. The variables were
identified as leadership style, working conditions, organisational communication,
promotion opportunities and remuneration and employee benefits. Chapter 2
provided the literature study of previous research conducted on the topic. The
identified variables presented in the hypothesised model were examined.
The methodology of the research was comprehensively presented in Chapter 3 to
support the collection of the data from a sample of sixty-one (61) respondents. The
data was analysed with the assistance of a registered statistician. The descriptive
statistics, based on the findings of the sample tests, were presented using tables and
graphs in Chapter 4. The small sample size did not make it possible for the
124
researcher to make statistical inferences about the population based on the findings
of the sample statistics.
The researcher concluded that, based on the findings of this study, two (2) of the
originally identified independent variables influenced job satisfaction to a significant
degree. This study revealed that the variables that exhibited significant influence on
the experience of job satisfaction were organisational communication and
remuneration and employee benefits.
Therefore, it can be postulated that organisational communication and remuneration
and employee benefits were the two elements that played a significant part in the
employees’ experience of job satisfaction at the workplace. These were the two (2)
features of the organisation that management would need to focus on to improve the
job satisfaction of employees.
The communication strategy and policy currently applied at the institution needs to
be reviewed and revised to be more inclusive and ensure that official communication
is disseminated to become more effective.
The second factor that was identified as having a strong influence on job satisfaction,
namely remuneration and employee benefits, has financial implications and may be
subjected to budget constraints. Given that the organisation is a government entity
this may be require a long-term approach that involves applying for increases in
funding from the relevant authorities and government fiscus.
125
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APPENDIX A: COVER LETTER
31 July 2018
Dear Respondent
I am studying towards my MBA (Master in Business Administration) degree at the
Nelson Mandela University Business School. I am conducting research, under the
supervision of Dr. Alan Weimann, on “Job Satisfaction of Lecturers at Technical &
Vocational Education Training (TVET) Colleges in the Buffalo City Metropolitan
Municipal Region”. I believe that my study will make an important contribution to
the TVET College sector because research in job satisfaction can be applied
practically for the enhancement of individuals’ lives.
You have been selected as part of our sample of respondents whose views we
seek on the above-mentioned topic. We would appreciate it if you could answer
the attached questionnaire. It should take no more than thirty minutes to complete
the questionnaire and we thank you in advance for your kind co-operation.
The results of this research will be submitted to the NMU Business School in partial
fulfilment of the MBA. Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary and you
have the right to withdraw from the study at any stage. The survey is strictly
confidential and all respondents will remain anonymous. Neither your name nor the
name of your organisation will be associated with your responses nor mentioned in
the study. Please answer the questions as accurately as possible by marking the
appropriate boxes. There are no correct or incorrect answers. For each statement,
select the answer that best describes your perception or experience.
It will be appreciated if the questionnaire could be completed within 5 business
days of receipt thereof. For further clarity and more information, you may contact
me by email [email protected] mobile 082 826 7169. To verify the
authenticity of this study, contact Dr. Weimann by e-mail [email protected]
Thank you very much.
Unity Jegels Dr. Alan Weimann
Researcher Supervisor
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APPENDIX B: JOB SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE
EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION SURVEY
Section A: Demographics
Please mark the appropriate box (use X).
Please, indicate
your response
in this column
↓
A1 Age 1 35 or younger
2 36 – 45
3 46 – 60
4 61 or older
A2 Gender 1 Male
2 Female
A3 Educational level 1 High school certificate
2 Diploma
3 Degree
4 Post graduate qualification
A4 Position held 1 Head of department
2 Head of program
3 Senior lecturer
4 Junior lecturer
A5 Total work experience 1 Less than 1 year
2 1 – 5 years
3 6 – 10 years
4 11 – 16 years
5 17 years and more
A6 Service duration at this institution
1 Less than 1 year
2 1 – 5 years
3 6 – 10 years
4 11 – 16 years
5 17 years and more
A7 Nature of appointment 1 Permanent
2 Temporary
3 Long term contract (2 – 5 years
4 Short term contract (1 year or less)
A8 Learning Programme 1 National Certificate: Vocational
2 NATED
3 Occupational Training
4 Other
Please turn over the page
137
Below are several statements that relate to employee job satisfaction. Please indicate (with an X) the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the statements. The columns are graded from 1 to 5. The number 1 denotes strong disagreement with the statement and, at the other end of the scale, 5 denotes strong agreement with the statement.
Section B
No. Please mark the appropriate box (with an X).
Str
ong
ly
dis
agre
e
Dis
agre
e
Ne
utr
al
Ag
ree
Str
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ORGANISATIONAL LEADERSHIP STYLE AND SUPERVISION
B1 The organisational leadership style is democratic and promotes transparency.
1 2 3 4 5
B2 Leadership promotes fairness, courtesy and honesty. 1 2 3 4 5
B3 My supervisor treats me in a professional manner. 1 2 3 4 5
B4 My supervisor provides constructive, reliable and valid feedback during and after evaluation.
1 2 3 4 5
B5 I am consulted in decision-making that affects my work. 1 2 3 4 5
WORKING CONDITIONS
B6 The physical work environment is safe, secure, neat, and clean (venues, ablution facilities, parking areas, grounds).
1 2 3 4 5
B7 I am provided with adequate, appropriate tools and equipment to execute my work tasks.
1 2 3 4 5
B8 The organisation is flexible regarding me having to attend to family responsibilities.
1 2 3 4 5
B9 Diversity in race and gender are recognised in the workplace.
1 2 3 4 5
B10 The workplace is free of all forms of discrimination and harassment.
1 2 3 4 5
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
B11 Employees are kept informed of matters that affect us. 1 2 3 4 5
B12 Communication between employees and senior management is professional, effective and mutually beneficial.
1
2
3
4
5
B13 Organisational strategic goals are clearly communicated to all employees.
1 2 3 4 5
B14 I get adequate opportunities to interact with fellow employees on a formal level at staff meetings.
1 2 3 4 5
B15 Communication between peers is professional, effective and mutually beneficial.
1 2 3 4 5
138
Please turn over the page
No. Please mark the appropriate box (with an X).
Str
ong
ly
dis
agre
e
Dis
agre
e
Ne
utr
al
Ag
ree
Str
ong
ly
agre
e
PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB SECURITY
B16 I am confident that I will retain my post. 1 2 3 4 5
B17 I am confident that my job is secure. 1 2 3 4 5
B18 The institution provides equal opportunities for personal professional development.
1 2 3 4 5
B19 The institution provides equal opportunities for promotion and career advancement.
1 2 3 4 5
B20 The institution provides financial and other support for workers to pursue further education and training.
1 2 3 4 5
REMUNERATION AND EMPLOYEE BENEFITS
B21 I am very satisfied with my current remuneration. 1 2 3 4 5
B22 I am very satisfied with the current employee benefits offered.
1 2 3 4 5
B23 I am satisfied with the current system used to award performance bonuses.
1 2 3 4 5
B24 Management gives workers the necessary recognition for work efficiency.
1 2 3 4 5
B25 The contribution I make to the continued existence of the institution, is recognised.
1 2 3 4 5
PERSONAL JOB SATISFACTION
B26 I am fully committed to my workplace. 1 2 3 4 5
B27 I am happy at work all the time. 1 2 3 4 5
B28 I have a good working relationship with my peers. 1 2 3 4 5
B29 At work, my morale and self-esteem are high. 1 2 3 4 5
B30 I would gladly advise a friend to apply for a position at this institution.
1 2 3 4 5
Thank you for completing the questionnaire.
139
APPENDIX C: ETHICS CLEARANCE
140
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APPENDIX D: TURNITIN SIMILARITY REPORT
