Itrsquos Not What They Do Itrsquos How They Do ItAthlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Andrea J BeckerDepartment of Kinesiology California State University Fullerton

PO Box 6870 Fullerton CA 92834-6870 USAE-mail anbeckerfullertonedu

ABSTRACT

The primary purpose of this study was to explore athlete experiences of

great coaching A total of 18 in-depth phenomenological interviews were

conducted with elite level athletes (9 female 9 male) representing a variety

of sports (ie baseball basketball football soccer softball volleyball and

water polo) Participants ranged in age from 22 to 42 years (M = 2911 SD

= 552) Interviews lasted between 30-90 minutes and were transcribed

verbatim Analyses of the transcripts revealed a total of 1553 meaning units

that were further grouped into sub-themes and general themes This led to

the development of a final thematic structure revealing six major

dimensions characterizing athlete experiences of great coaching Coach

Attributes The Environment Relationships The System Coaching Actions

and Influences

Key words Coach Behaviors Coach Effectiveness Coaching Model

Leadership Life Skills Coach-Athlete Relationship

INTRODUCTIONThe importance of coaching is self-evident Coaches are responsible for developing athletesrsquomental physical technical and tactical abilities and in addition to all of these responsibilitiesthey are also expected to win The few individuals who meet all of these expectations emergefrom their peers as superior coaches We come to know these individuals as the coachinggreats (eg Vince Lombardi Pat Summitt John Wooden) The context of sport lends itself tothe study of coaching greatness however no studies have directly explored this phenomenonIn addition a clear definition of coaching greatness does not exist

In general society identifies coaches as ldquogreatrdquo based on two criteria winloss recordsand media attention This narrow definition limits the study of coaching greatness in twoways First the media focuses its coverage on high-visibility sports and on coachesparticipating at only the highest levels of competition If you ask any one individual in theUSA to make a list of coaching greats three primary sports are likely to be representedbaseball basketball and football Furthermore the list will probably only include collegiateand professional level coaches Therefore coaching greatness is limited to the handful ofcoaches who are known to many This excludes the everyday coaching greats whose namesand faces remain unknown to the public those who coach less popular sports (eg rowingvolleyball wrestling) or at lower competitive levels (eg youth club small college)

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 93

Reviewer Gloria Solomon (California State University Sacramento USA)

Relying solely on wins and losses to identify great coaches is also limiting A winningrecord may indicate that a coach is effective but may not necessarily mean that a coach isgreat Take Bob Knight for example This former Division I collegiate basketball coach isknown for his unruly behaviors However he is also known for winning In 42 seasons as ahead basketball coach Knightrsquos teams accumulated 902 wins 11 conference championshipsand three national titles Among his long list of accomplishments Knight was also honoredas National Coach of the Year on four occasions While it is debatable whether Bob Knightis a great coach there is no doubt that he is effective He has the ability to teach and inspirehis athletes to perform up to their potential and come together in pursuit of common goalsPerhaps it is the manner in which coaches accomplish this task that separates those who areeffective from those who are truly great As a result we cannot rely solely on winlossrecords or the media to define greatness or to gain a thorough understanding of the factorsthat underlie great coaching Another and potentially more insightful way of determiningcoaching greatness is to examine the experiences of the athletes who play for them

To date sport researchers have focused attention on understanding the factors associatedwith effective (rather than great) coaching According to Horn [1] effective coaching isdefined as ldquothat which results in either successful performance outcomes (measured in termsof either win-loss percentages or degree of self-perceived performance abilities) or positivepsychological responses on the part of the athletes (eg high perceived ability high self-esteem an intrinsic motivational orientation high level of sport enjoyment)rdquo (p 240)

In conjunction with Hornrsquos definition research has relied heavily on quantitativeinstruments (ie questionnaires and observational methods) to examine the coaching process[eg 2-9] However there are two significant reasons why the coaching literature isincomplete First there are shortcomings with the questionnaires that are most commonlyused to assess perceived coaching behaviors The Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) [9] forexample was developed according to knowledge extracted from industrial andorganizational psychology And although the LSS is primarily administered among male andfemale athletes (who represent a variety of sports and competitive levels) the fivedimensions which comprise the LSS were validated solely according to responses providedby physical education students and male athletes As a result the findings from studies whichutilized this instrument must be examined with caution The Coach Evaluation Questionnaire(CEQ) [7] represents another one of the most widely used questionnaires to assess perceivedcoaching behaviors While the criteria used to develop the CEQ is more sport relevant (ieprevious sport literature pre-existing questionnaires observation instruments and expertopinions) the perceptions of coaches andor athletes were not taken into account during itsconstruction Therefore it could be argued that the two most commonly used questionnairesdo not provide a comprehensive assessment of perceived coaching behaviors

The second major reason why the coaching literature is incomplete is due to the exclusivefocus on the study of coaching behaviors In addition to the questionnaires used to examineperceived coaching behaviors observational instruments (such as the Coaching BehaviorAssessment System and the Arizona State University Observation Instrument) are often usedto examine actual coaching behaviors [10 11] Although utilizing a behavioral approach topsychological inquiry conforms to the assumptions of traditional scientific methods (iephenomena must be observable measurable and replicable) it neglects to address thoseaspects of the coaching process that are not observable More specifically research oncoaching behaviors provides valuable information regarding leadership styles feedbackpatterns and expectancy effects [eg 2-5 8] but it does not provide insights into theathletesrsquo experiences of being coached Considering that athletes are the ones who are most

94 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

impacted by coaches on a daily basis it is reasonable to assume that understanding theirexperiences would serve to provide a more complete picture of the coaching process

In recent decades the definition of psychology was expanded to include the study of bothhuman behavior and experience [13] Because previous research has focused on theexamination of coaching from a behavioral perspective only a handful of studies haveaddressed this topic from an experiential perspective [eg 14-18] Thus the majority ofcoaching research has focused on the behavioral and the ordinary (ie effectiveness) ratherthan the experiential and the extraordinary (ie greatness) The purpose of the present studywas to begin to address these gaps in the literature by examining athlete experiences of greatcoaching

METHODPhenomenological research methods were implemented to capture athlete experiences ofgreat coaching The procedures used in this study were based on Pollio et alrsquos [19]recommended steps for conducting this form of qualitative inquiry These steps includedExploring Researcher Bias Selection of Participants Data Collection Data Analysis andConfirming Thematic Structure

STEP 1 ndash EXPLORING RESEARCHER BIASThe goal of phenomenology is to ldquoattend to the phenomena of experience as they appearrdquo[20 p 34] Rather than using pre-existing beliefs to provide participants with an explanationof the phenomenon under investigation (ie define great coaching from a theoreticalperspective) researchers seek to gather rich and thorough descriptions from the participantsrsquoown experiential perspectives [18 21] Edmund Husserl (twentieth century philosopher)referred to this process as eidetic epocheacute [22] ldquoEpocheacute requires that looking precedesjudgment and that judgment of what is lsquorealrsquo or lsquomost realrsquo be suspended until all theevidence (or at least sufficient evidence) is inrdquo [20 p 36] Therefore it is important forqualitative researchers to identify and attempt to suspend their own pre-existing beliefs thatmay impose biases throughout the research process A bracketing interview is used toaccomplish this task [23] For the purposes of the present study the researcher participatedin a bracketing interview with an expert in qualitative methodology [23] This allowed theresearcher to more openly examine the phenomenon of coaching greatness from theexperiences of the athlete participants

STEP 2 ndash SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTSUpon approval from the University Institutional Review Board the researcher sent a letterof invitation to elite-level athletes from a variety of team sports The letter included adescription of the purposes procedures and criteria for inclusion Individuals who had i)participated at a high level of competition (NCAA Division I national andor international)ii) experienced great coaching and iii) were willing to openly share their experiences werescheduled for an interview Consistent with phenomenological research methods greatcoaching was defined according to the athletesrsquo perceptions of whether they had experienceda great coach The final sample of participants included 18 elite level athletes (9 female 9male) representing various sports (ie baseball basketball football soccer softballvolleyball and water polo) Participants ranged in age from 22 to 42 years (M = 2911 SD= 552) A description of the participants (and the coaches they discussed) is provided inTable 1

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 95

Table 1 Description of Athlete Participants

Athlete Information Coach DescriptionsGender Age Race Sport Highest Level Gender Competitive LevelFemale 22 Caucasian Soccer USA National Team Male Collegiate Female 24 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male Club (18u)

Female CollegiateFemale 25 Pacific Islander Softball NCAA Division I Female CollegiateFemale 25 African American Basketball WNBA Professional Male Youth (12u)

Female CollegiateFemale 25 Caucasian Water Polo NCAA Division I Male CollegiateFemale 27 Caucasian Basketball NCAA Division I Female CollegiateFemale 28 Asian Soccer Olympic Team Male CollegiateFemale 28 Asian Soccer USA National Team Male CollegiateFemale 35 Hispanic Volleyball NCAA Division I Female Collegiate Setting CoachMale 22 Caucasian Baseball Major League Male Professional

Male Club (16u)Male 27 Caucasian Baseball NCAA Division I Male Collegiate Male 28 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 28 Caucasian Baseball Minor League Male Collegiate

Pitching CoachMale Junior College

Male 32 Caucasian Basketball NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 35 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male Collegiate

Male High SchoolMale 35 Caucasian Soccer NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 36 African American Football NFL Professional Male High School

Male Professional Position CoachMale 42 African American Football NFL Professional Male High School

Male CollegiateMale Professional Position Coach

STEP 3 ndash DATA COLLECTIONAccording to Pollio et al [19] ldquoThe opening question in any phenomenological interview isworded to allow for a broad range of descriptive responses from each participantrdquo (p 32)Therefore interviews are typically guided by open-ended questions [22] For the purposes ofthe present study athletes were asked to respond to the following question ldquoCan you talkabout your experiences of great coachingrdquo Based on participant responses subsequentquestions were asked to clarify points dissect metaphors andor obtain more examples ofthe phenomenon under investigation To ensure that nothing was overlooked participantswere also periodically asked if they had anything else to share about their experiences

A pilot interview was conducted with a former Division I basketball player (female aged24) The resulting transcript was analyzed to verify the quality of the research question Italso provided the researcher with an opportunity to refine her interviewing skills on thisparticular topic

Interviews were conducted at each participantrsquos home or office Due to logisticaldifficulties four interviews were conducted by telephone Regardless of the mode ofcommunication the main question and follow-up probes remained consistent across

96 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

interviews Prior to beginning each interview participants were provided with a detailedexplanation of the study and asked to give their consent to participate Interviews rangedfrom 30 to 90 minutes in length At the end of each interview demographic information wasobtained (eg gender age sport and level of experience) and participants were given apseudonym to preserve their anonymity throughout the process

STEP 4 ndash DATA ANALYSISOnce data collection was complete each interview was transcribed verbatim This resulted in220 single-spaced pages of data Existential phenomenological interpretation requiresresearchers to continually relate parts of the text to the whole [21] To get a sense of the wholetext complete transcripts were read During a second reading recurring patterns andorsignificant statements were identified as meaning units [21] Similar meaning units withineach transcript were clustered into groups to develop sub-themes The researcher participatedin this process with the help of an interpretive research group which consisted of 10 to 15faculty members and graduate students from a variety of academic disciplines ldquoThe use of aninterpretive research group is important for maintaining the rigor of phenomenologicalresearch methodsrdquo [21 p 35] Throughout the interpretive process group members helped toensure that all meaning units and themes were supported by the text Group members alsooffered a variety of perspectives that enhanced the quality of the interpretive process

After sub-themes were identified for each individual transcript the next step was todevelop general themes This was achieved by making comparisons across the 18 transcriptsTo ensure the accuracy of groupings all themes and meaning units were continuallyreferenced against the original data [23] This led to the development of a general thematicstructure which was further examined and refined by the researcher and members of theinterpretative group [19]

STEP 5 ndash CONFIRMING THEMATIC STRUCTUREThe final step which is perhaps the most important was to obtain feedback from theparticipants [21] For the purposes of the present study feedback was obtained in two waysParticipants were first sent a copy of their interview transcript and were provided with anopportunity to correct errors clarify points andor add additional information After theanalysis of transcripts participants were then sent a draft of preliminary results whichincluded the general thematic structure Those participants (n = 12) who responded tofeedback opportunities did not offer any additional information andor changes Therefore itwas concluded that the themes accurately represented their experiences of great coachingThe thematic structure was finalized when agreement was achieved between the researcherthe participants and the original data

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAnalyses of the transcripts revealed a total of 1553 meaning units that were further groupedinto sub-themes and general themes This led to the development of a final thematic structurerevealing six major dimensions that characterized these athletesrsquo experiences of greatcoaching Coach Attributes The Environment The System Relationships Coaching Actionsand Influences A visual depiction of the thematic structure is presented in the Appendix Oneof the major findings to emerge was the interaction between dimensions (illustrated in theModel of Great Coaching provided in Figure 1) When athletes first join a team they beginto familiarize themselves with their coach the coach-athlete relationship the environmentand the system These four dimensions formed the background of athlete experiences of great

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 97

coaching much like the scenery in the background of a play When the curtains in a play arefirst drawn audience attention is focused on the lighting sounds and stage props When theplay begins attention shifts to the actors however the background scenery still contributesto the overall impact of the performance on the viewer In the present study coaching actionsand influences took center stage to all of the other dimensions

Furthermore athletes described the background dimensions to be stable throughout theirexperiences These great coaches were consistent in who they were (coach attributes) andhow they maintained relationships managed the team environment and carried out theirsystem As a result there was no uncertainty and the athletes knew exactly what to do andwhat to expect from their coaches This allowed the athletes to focus on their coachesrsquoactions and their own development and performance The background dimensions onlybecame figural (or stood out) when there was a lack of consistency or stability This findingbecame evident when athletes compared their experiences of great coaching withexperiences of coaches who were less than great In these experiences the athletes discussedvarious breakdowns in the background dimensions (coach-athlete relationship problemsnegative team environment etc) which served to distract them from key elements of theirpreparation and play The great coaches who were described in the present study appeared toavoid breakdowns by maintaining a stable interaction within and between all of the coachingdimensions This is perhaps one of the major factors that separates great coaches from theirpeers The themes that emerged within each dimension (beginning with the backgrounddimensions) are discussed in the following sections

COACH ATTRIBUTESThis dimension encompassed athletesrsquo descriptions of their coachesrsquo core qualities or internalmakeup and includes six general themes More Than Just a Coach PersonalityCharacteristics Abilities Knowledge Experience and Imperfections

98 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coach Attributes

SystemEnvironment

Relationships

Content

MethodQuality

Coaching

ActionsInfluences

Figure 1 Model of Great Coaching

More Than Just a CoachThe athlete participants expressed an appreciation for playing for great people who willinglyserved in a variety of roles that went beyond the playing field Athletes viewed their coachesas teachers mentors and friends Consistent with previous research they also viewed theircoaches as parental figures [24 25] This was especially significant when athletes describedtheir experiences at the collegiate level for example ldquoBeing away from home and reallyhaving someone to look up to and coach you and mentor you and help you with anythingyou needed [was important] It gave you a sense of not only to want to win for your teambut to want to win for [your coach] and make him proud of yourdquo (p6) When discussing theirexperiences athletes frequently compared their great coaches to other coaches One athletedescribed how her coach was ldquolight years ahead of any other coach [she] had ever playedforrdquo (p12) This illuminated another sub-theme which suggested that great coaches are notaverage but are experts ldquoPeople who are experts in their field see things more clearly andquicker than lay peoplerdquo (p17) As a result they become known for who they are and whatthey do One athlete referred to his coach as ldquoan absolute legendrdquo (p7)

Although the athletes often placed their coaches on pedestals they also saw them ashuman The athletes described how their great coaches were not afraid to make mistakesshow faults or admit that they did not have all the answers ldquoThey donrsquot act like they arebetter than you or above you [Instead they] come down to your level and act humanrdquo (p3)The athletes felt that their coaches were particularly human when they expressed emotionsOne athlete recalled a time when his coach cried in front of the team after receiving newsabout the death of a former player ldquoThey called while we were in a video meeting and hetotally broke down right there The human side of him came out a little bit there too You justpicture this old school guy who was willing to cry in front of a bunch of guys I rememberbeing pretty impressed I think it just expanded on who he was as a personrdquo (p7)

Personality Characteristics Athletes discussed their coachesrsquo core qualities which were cognitive emotional social andpsychological in nature One of the fundamental characteristics that emerged within thecognitive domain was knowledge Participants viewed their coachesrsquo knowledge as one of themore obvious requisites for achieving greatness ldquoIf you donrsquot know what yoursquore doingyoursquore not going to be very good at itrdquo (p2) The athletes emphasized how their coaches wereknowledgeable about the most up-to-date techniques strategies and tactics of the gameThey also expressed how their coaches were ldquoalways learning and always bringing that[information back to the team]rdquo (p2)

Within the emotional domain of personality passion emerged as a key characteristic Oneathlete expressed how ldquoYou could feel it in [the coachrsquos] presence the way he ran hispractices in everything he didrdquo (p5) The passion that these great coaches exuded was notonly for the game but also for the people ldquoI think my coach wanted to work with youngpeople He enjoyed the process of getting his team better He liked seeing a kid developpersonality wiserdquo (p14) and it was always about ldquomaking sure that you were okay as aperson before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) In addition to beingpassionate athletes viewed their coaches as inspirational and enthusiastic These qualitieswere particularly important when the athletes experienced performance lulls or fatigue

In addition to expressing emotions it appears that great coaches also use emotion toregulate their athletesrsquo energy during competition A soccer player described how herrelatively calm coach used an emotional outburst to recharge her team during a halftimebreak In contrast a volleyball player described how his coachrsquos calm emotional state helped

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 99

to decrease player excitement during close games ldquoIf player emotions started taking off hewould call a time out and you would come over and he was very calming and it kind of hita reset button on you to be able to go back out on the court and performrdquo (p6) In othersituations these coaches were ldquoable to elicit emotions out of players without coming off asbeing very emotionalrdquo (p12) While situational factors (such as athlete attitudes) dictated thetiming and manner in which these coaches expressed emotions they always had control Ingeneral the athletes viewed their coaches as emotionally stable ldquoHe would get excited andhe would get downrdquo (p6) but ldquohe wasnrsquot emotionally fragilerdquo (p17) ldquoHe was like our rockrdquo(p12) ldquoThe key to our confidence was his steady emotional state throughout the seasonrdquo(p6)

Another sub-theme within personality characteristics included the coachesrsquo socialqualities This category encompassed the core attributes that influenced how these greatcoaches acted toward others More specifically athletes described their coaches as genuinehonest and loyal This helped the athletes believe and trust in them ldquoIt makes you want togo out there and do a good job and play hard every dayrdquo (p9) Regardless of whether it wasdealing with a behavioral issue or a recurring performance problem the athletes perceivedtheir coaches to be patient and non-judgmental One athlete felt comfortable enough to tellhis coach that he was experiencing fatigue and needed some time off ldquoI knew that he wouldbe positive about it and would try to help me outrdquo (p2)

Characteristics in the psychological domain were related to achievement attitude andorganization The athletes described their coaches as committed and disciplined One athletesuggested that her coach was more disciplined than anybody she had ever met Anotherathlete discussed how his coach was always the first to arrive and the last to leave ldquoIf youdonrsquot work at it you wonrsquot be great You could have all the talent in the world and yoursquoll bemediocre All great coaches push themselvesrdquo (p1) They hold themselves to the highest ofstandards and are driven by their competitive attitude and desire to win ldquo[My coach] hatedto lose and you knew that when you played for him (p5)rdquo Ultimately the athletes describedtheir great coaches as perfectionists This was evident in the way that they carriedthemselves but also in the way that they were organized ldquo[Coach] always had sort of amaster plan in terms of practicesrdquo (p10) ldquoThe guy was meticulousrdquo (p7) These findingsparallel previous research on John Wooden (former UCLA menrsquos basketball coach) whichsuggested that much of his success was ldquothe product of extensive detailed and dailyplanning based on continuous evaluation of individual and team development andperformancerdquo [26 p 124]

Finally the athletes in the present study described their coaches as professional No matterwhat they were doing they did it with character class and respect for others ldquoYou wouldsee them on the field acting the same way they acted off the fieldrdquo (p2) They were consistentin every aspect of their personality and it was evident in the way they managed the teamprepared for games and communicated with athletes ldquoWhen they are consistent itrsquos veryclear what they want from yourdquo (p9) The athletes knew exactly what was expected of thembut also what to expect from their coaches [27] ldquoIf he said he was going to be there hewould be there If he said that he was going to help you do something he would help yourdquo(p15) The professionalism consistency and integrity that coaches exhibited were some ofthe more prominent qualities that helped gain these athletesrsquo admiration trust and respect

It is apparent that personality characteristics played a major role in these athletesrsquoexperiences of great coaching To date only a handful of studies have examined coachpersonalities and a common profile for successful (or great) coaching does not currentlyexist [eg 28-30] However in a previous study of Olympic athletes coaches were viewed

100 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Relying solely on wins and losses to identify great coaches is also limiting A winningrecord may indicate that a coach is effective but may not necessarily mean that a coach isgreat Take Bob Knight for example This former Division I collegiate basketball coach isknown for his unruly behaviors However he is also known for winning In 42 seasons as ahead basketball coach Knightrsquos teams accumulated 902 wins 11 conference championshipsand three national titles Among his long list of accomplishments Knight was also honoredas National Coach of the Year on four occasions While it is debatable whether Bob Knightis a great coach there is no doubt that he is effective He has the ability to teach and inspirehis athletes to perform up to their potential and come together in pursuit of common goalsPerhaps it is the manner in which coaches accomplish this task that separates those who areeffective from those who are truly great As a result we cannot rely solely on winlossrecords or the media to define greatness or to gain a thorough understanding of the factorsthat underlie great coaching Another and potentially more insightful way of determiningcoaching greatness is to examine the experiences of the athletes who play for them

To date sport researchers have focused attention on understanding the factors associatedwith effective (rather than great) coaching According to Horn [1] effective coaching isdefined as ldquothat which results in either successful performance outcomes (measured in termsof either win-loss percentages or degree of self-perceived performance abilities) or positivepsychological responses on the part of the athletes (eg high perceived ability high self-esteem an intrinsic motivational orientation high level of sport enjoyment)rdquo (p 240)

In conjunction with Hornrsquos definition research has relied heavily on quantitativeinstruments (ie questionnaires and observational methods) to examine the coaching process[eg 2-9] However there are two significant reasons why the coaching literature isincomplete First there are shortcomings with the questionnaires that are most commonlyused to assess perceived coaching behaviors The Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS) [9] forexample was developed according to knowledge extracted from industrial andorganizational psychology And although the LSS is primarily administered among male andfemale athletes (who represent a variety of sports and competitive levels) the fivedimensions which comprise the LSS were validated solely according to responses providedby physical education students and male athletes As a result the findings from studies whichutilized this instrument must be examined with caution The Coach Evaluation Questionnaire(CEQ) [7] represents another one of the most widely used questionnaires to assess perceivedcoaching behaviors While the criteria used to develop the CEQ is more sport relevant (ieprevious sport literature pre-existing questionnaires observation instruments and expertopinions) the perceptions of coaches andor athletes were not taken into account during itsconstruction Therefore it could be argued that the two most commonly used questionnairesdo not provide a comprehensive assessment of perceived coaching behaviors

The second major reason why the coaching literature is incomplete is due to the exclusivefocus on the study of coaching behaviors In addition to the questionnaires used to examineperceived coaching behaviors observational instruments (such as the Coaching BehaviorAssessment System and the Arizona State University Observation Instrument) are often usedto examine actual coaching behaviors [10 11] Although utilizing a behavioral approach topsychological inquiry conforms to the assumptions of traditional scientific methods (iephenomena must be observable measurable and replicable) it neglects to address thoseaspects of the coaching process that are not observable More specifically research oncoaching behaviors provides valuable information regarding leadership styles feedbackpatterns and expectancy effects [eg 2-5 8] but it does not provide insights into theathletesrsquo experiences of being coached Considering that athletes are the ones who are most

94 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

impacted by coaches on a daily basis it is reasonable to assume that understanding theirexperiences would serve to provide a more complete picture of the coaching process

In recent decades the definition of psychology was expanded to include the study of bothhuman behavior and experience [13] Because previous research has focused on theexamination of coaching from a behavioral perspective only a handful of studies haveaddressed this topic from an experiential perspective [eg 14-18] Thus the majority ofcoaching research has focused on the behavioral and the ordinary (ie effectiveness) ratherthan the experiential and the extraordinary (ie greatness) The purpose of the present studywas to begin to address these gaps in the literature by examining athlete experiences of greatcoaching

METHODPhenomenological research methods were implemented to capture athlete experiences ofgreat coaching The procedures used in this study were based on Pollio et alrsquos [19]recommended steps for conducting this form of qualitative inquiry These steps includedExploring Researcher Bias Selection of Participants Data Collection Data Analysis andConfirming Thematic Structure

STEP 1 ndash EXPLORING RESEARCHER BIASThe goal of phenomenology is to ldquoattend to the phenomena of experience as they appearrdquo[20 p 34] Rather than using pre-existing beliefs to provide participants with an explanationof the phenomenon under investigation (ie define great coaching from a theoreticalperspective) researchers seek to gather rich and thorough descriptions from the participantsrsquoown experiential perspectives [18 21] Edmund Husserl (twentieth century philosopher)referred to this process as eidetic epocheacute [22] ldquoEpocheacute requires that looking precedesjudgment and that judgment of what is lsquorealrsquo or lsquomost realrsquo be suspended until all theevidence (or at least sufficient evidence) is inrdquo [20 p 36] Therefore it is important forqualitative researchers to identify and attempt to suspend their own pre-existing beliefs thatmay impose biases throughout the research process A bracketing interview is used toaccomplish this task [23] For the purposes of the present study the researcher participatedin a bracketing interview with an expert in qualitative methodology [23] This allowed theresearcher to more openly examine the phenomenon of coaching greatness from theexperiences of the athlete participants

STEP 2 ndash SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTSUpon approval from the University Institutional Review Board the researcher sent a letterof invitation to elite-level athletes from a variety of team sports The letter included adescription of the purposes procedures and criteria for inclusion Individuals who had i)participated at a high level of competition (NCAA Division I national andor international)ii) experienced great coaching and iii) were willing to openly share their experiences werescheduled for an interview Consistent with phenomenological research methods greatcoaching was defined according to the athletesrsquo perceptions of whether they had experienceda great coach The final sample of participants included 18 elite level athletes (9 female 9male) representing various sports (ie baseball basketball football soccer softballvolleyball and water polo) Participants ranged in age from 22 to 42 years (M = 2911 SD= 552) A description of the participants (and the coaches they discussed) is provided inTable 1

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 95

Table 1 Description of Athlete Participants

Athlete Information Coach DescriptionsGender Age Race Sport Highest Level Gender Competitive LevelFemale 22 Caucasian Soccer USA National Team Male Collegiate Female 24 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male Club (18u)

Female CollegiateFemale 25 Pacific Islander Softball NCAA Division I Female CollegiateFemale 25 African American Basketball WNBA Professional Male Youth (12u)

Female CollegiateFemale 25 Caucasian Water Polo NCAA Division I Male CollegiateFemale 27 Caucasian Basketball NCAA Division I Female CollegiateFemale 28 Asian Soccer Olympic Team Male CollegiateFemale 28 Asian Soccer USA National Team Male CollegiateFemale 35 Hispanic Volleyball NCAA Division I Female Collegiate Setting CoachMale 22 Caucasian Baseball Major League Male Professional

Male Club (16u)Male 27 Caucasian Baseball NCAA Division I Male Collegiate Male 28 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 28 Caucasian Baseball Minor League Male Collegiate

Pitching CoachMale Junior College

Male 32 Caucasian Basketball NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 35 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male Collegiate

Male High SchoolMale 35 Caucasian Soccer NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 36 African American Football NFL Professional Male High School

Male Professional Position CoachMale 42 African American Football NFL Professional Male High School

Male CollegiateMale Professional Position Coach

STEP 3 ndash DATA COLLECTIONAccording to Pollio et al [19] ldquoThe opening question in any phenomenological interview isworded to allow for a broad range of descriptive responses from each participantrdquo (p 32)Therefore interviews are typically guided by open-ended questions [22] For the purposes ofthe present study athletes were asked to respond to the following question ldquoCan you talkabout your experiences of great coachingrdquo Based on participant responses subsequentquestions were asked to clarify points dissect metaphors andor obtain more examples ofthe phenomenon under investigation To ensure that nothing was overlooked participantswere also periodically asked if they had anything else to share about their experiences

A pilot interview was conducted with a former Division I basketball player (female aged24) The resulting transcript was analyzed to verify the quality of the research question Italso provided the researcher with an opportunity to refine her interviewing skills on thisparticular topic

Interviews were conducted at each participantrsquos home or office Due to logisticaldifficulties four interviews were conducted by telephone Regardless of the mode ofcommunication the main question and follow-up probes remained consistent across

96 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

interviews Prior to beginning each interview participants were provided with a detailedexplanation of the study and asked to give their consent to participate Interviews rangedfrom 30 to 90 minutes in length At the end of each interview demographic information wasobtained (eg gender age sport and level of experience) and participants were given apseudonym to preserve their anonymity throughout the process

STEP 4 ndash DATA ANALYSISOnce data collection was complete each interview was transcribed verbatim This resulted in220 single-spaced pages of data Existential phenomenological interpretation requiresresearchers to continually relate parts of the text to the whole [21] To get a sense of the wholetext complete transcripts were read During a second reading recurring patterns andorsignificant statements were identified as meaning units [21] Similar meaning units withineach transcript were clustered into groups to develop sub-themes The researcher participatedin this process with the help of an interpretive research group which consisted of 10 to 15faculty members and graduate students from a variety of academic disciplines ldquoThe use of aninterpretive research group is important for maintaining the rigor of phenomenologicalresearch methodsrdquo [21 p 35] Throughout the interpretive process group members helped toensure that all meaning units and themes were supported by the text Group members alsooffered a variety of perspectives that enhanced the quality of the interpretive process

After sub-themes were identified for each individual transcript the next step was todevelop general themes This was achieved by making comparisons across the 18 transcriptsTo ensure the accuracy of groupings all themes and meaning units were continuallyreferenced against the original data [23] This led to the development of a general thematicstructure which was further examined and refined by the researcher and members of theinterpretative group [19]

STEP 5 ndash CONFIRMING THEMATIC STRUCTUREThe final step which is perhaps the most important was to obtain feedback from theparticipants [21] For the purposes of the present study feedback was obtained in two waysParticipants were first sent a copy of their interview transcript and were provided with anopportunity to correct errors clarify points andor add additional information After theanalysis of transcripts participants were then sent a draft of preliminary results whichincluded the general thematic structure Those participants (n = 12) who responded tofeedback opportunities did not offer any additional information andor changes Therefore itwas concluded that the themes accurately represented their experiences of great coachingThe thematic structure was finalized when agreement was achieved between the researcherthe participants and the original data

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAnalyses of the transcripts revealed a total of 1553 meaning units that were further groupedinto sub-themes and general themes This led to the development of a final thematic structurerevealing six major dimensions that characterized these athletesrsquo experiences of greatcoaching Coach Attributes The Environment The System Relationships Coaching Actionsand Influences A visual depiction of the thematic structure is presented in the Appendix Oneof the major findings to emerge was the interaction between dimensions (illustrated in theModel of Great Coaching provided in Figure 1) When athletes first join a team they beginto familiarize themselves with their coach the coach-athlete relationship the environmentand the system These four dimensions formed the background of athlete experiences of great

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 97

coaching much like the scenery in the background of a play When the curtains in a play arefirst drawn audience attention is focused on the lighting sounds and stage props When theplay begins attention shifts to the actors however the background scenery still contributesto the overall impact of the performance on the viewer In the present study coaching actionsand influences took center stage to all of the other dimensions

Furthermore athletes described the background dimensions to be stable throughout theirexperiences These great coaches were consistent in who they were (coach attributes) andhow they maintained relationships managed the team environment and carried out theirsystem As a result there was no uncertainty and the athletes knew exactly what to do andwhat to expect from their coaches This allowed the athletes to focus on their coachesrsquoactions and their own development and performance The background dimensions onlybecame figural (or stood out) when there was a lack of consistency or stability This findingbecame evident when athletes compared their experiences of great coaching withexperiences of coaches who were less than great In these experiences the athletes discussedvarious breakdowns in the background dimensions (coach-athlete relationship problemsnegative team environment etc) which served to distract them from key elements of theirpreparation and play The great coaches who were described in the present study appeared toavoid breakdowns by maintaining a stable interaction within and between all of the coachingdimensions This is perhaps one of the major factors that separates great coaches from theirpeers The themes that emerged within each dimension (beginning with the backgrounddimensions) are discussed in the following sections

COACH ATTRIBUTESThis dimension encompassed athletesrsquo descriptions of their coachesrsquo core qualities or internalmakeup and includes six general themes More Than Just a Coach PersonalityCharacteristics Abilities Knowledge Experience and Imperfections

98 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coach Attributes

SystemEnvironment

Relationships

Content

MethodQuality

Coaching

ActionsInfluences

Figure 1 Model of Great Coaching

More Than Just a CoachThe athlete participants expressed an appreciation for playing for great people who willinglyserved in a variety of roles that went beyond the playing field Athletes viewed their coachesas teachers mentors and friends Consistent with previous research they also viewed theircoaches as parental figures [24 25] This was especially significant when athletes describedtheir experiences at the collegiate level for example ldquoBeing away from home and reallyhaving someone to look up to and coach you and mentor you and help you with anythingyou needed [was important] It gave you a sense of not only to want to win for your teambut to want to win for [your coach] and make him proud of yourdquo (p6) When discussing theirexperiences athletes frequently compared their great coaches to other coaches One athletedescribed how her coach was ldquolight years ahead of any other coach [she] had ever playedforrdquo (p12) This illuminated another sub-theme which suggested that great coaches are notaverage but are experts ldquoPeople who are experts in their field see things more clearly andquicker than lay peoplerdquo (p17) As a result they become known for who they are and whatthey do One athlete referred to his coach as ldquoan absolute legendrdquo (p7)

Although the athletes often placed their coaches on pedestals they also saw them ashuman The athletes described how their great coaches were not afraid to make mistakesshow faults or admit that they did not have all the answers ldquoThey donrsquot act like they arebetter than you or above you [Instead they] come down to your level and act humanrdquo (p3)The athletes felt that their coaches were particularly human when they expressed emotionsOne athlete recalled a time when his coach cried in front of the team after receiving newsabout the death of a former player ldquoThey called while we were in a video meeting and hetotally broke down right there The human side of him came out a little bit there too You justpicture this old school guy who was willing to cry in front of a bunch of guys I rememberbeing pretty impressed I think it just expanded on who he was as a personrdquo (p7)

Personality Characteristics Athletes discussed their coachesrsquo core qualities which were cognitive emotional social andpsychological in nature One of the fundamental characteristics that emerged within thecognitive domain was knowledge Participants viewed their coachesrsquo knowledge as one of themore obvious requisites for achieving greatness ldquoIf you donrsquot know what yoursquore doingyoursquore not going to be very good at itrdquo (p2) The athletes emphasized how their coaches wereknowledgeable about the most up-to-date techniques strategies and tactics of the gameThey also expressed how their coaches were ldquoalways learning and always bringing that[information back to the team]rdquo (p2)

Within the emotional domain of personality passion emerged as a key characteristic Oneathlete expressed how ldquoYou could feel it in [the coachrsquos] presence the way he ran hispractices in everything he didrdquo (p5) The passion that these great coaches exuded was notonly for the game but also for the people ldquoI think my coach wanted to work with youngpeople He enjoyed the process of getting his team better He liked seeing a kid developpersonality wiserdquo (p14) and it was always about ldquomaking sure that you were okay as aperson before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) In addition to beingpassionate athletes viewed their coaches as inspirational and enthusiastic These qualitieswere particularly important when the athletes experienced performance lulls or fatigue

In addition to expressing emotions it appears that great coaches also use emotion toregulate their athletesrsquo energy during competition A soccer player described how herrelatively calm coach used an emotional outburst to recharge her team during a halftimebreak In contrast a volleyball player described how his coachrsquos calm emotional state helped

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 99

to decrease player excitement during close games ldquoIf player emotions started taking off hewould call a time out and you would come over and he was very calming and it kind of hita reset button on you to be able to go back out on the court and performrdquo (p6) In othersituations these coaches were ldquoable to elicit emotions out of players without coming off asbeing very emotionalrdquo (p12) While situational factors (such as athlete attitudes) dictated thetiming and manner in which these coaches expressed emotions they always had control Ingeneral the athletes viewed their coaches as emotionally stable ldquoHe would get excited andhe would get downrdquo (p6) but ldquohe wasnrsquot emotionally fragilerdquo (p17) ldquoHe was like our rockrdquo(p12) ldquoThe key to our confidence was his steady emotional state throughout the seasonrdquo(p6)

Another sub-theme within personality characteristics included the coachesrsquo socialqualities This category encompassed the core attributes that influenced how these greatcoaches acted toward others More specifically athletes described their coaches as genuinehonest and loyal This helped the athletes believe and trust in them ldquoIt makes you want togo out there and do a good job and play hard every dayrdquo (p9) Regardless of whether it wasdealing with a behavioral issue or a recurring performance problem the athletes perceivedtheir coaches to be patient and non-judgmental One athlete felt comfortable enough to tellhis coach that he was experiencing fatigue and needed some time off ldquoI knew that he wouldbe positive about it and would try to help me outrdquo (p2)

Characteristics in the psychological domain were related to achievement attitude andorganization The athletes described their coaches as committed and disciplined One athletesuggested that her coach was more disciplined than anybody she had ever met Anotherathlete discussed how his coach was always the first to arrive and the last to leave ldquoIf youdonrsquot work at it you wonrsquot be great You could have all the talent in the world and yoursquoll bemediocre All great coaches push themselvesrdquo (p1) They hold themselves to the highest ofstandards and are driven by their competitive attitude and desire to win ldquo[My coach] hatedto lose and you knew that when you played for him (p5)rdquo Ultimately the athletes describedtheir great coaches as perfectionists This was evident in the way that they carriedthemselves but also in the way that they were organized ldquo[Coach] always had sort of amaster plan in terms of practicesrdquo (p10) ldquoThe guy was meticulousrdquo (p7) These findingsparallel previous research on John Wooden (former UCLA menrsquos basketball coach) whichsuggested that much of his success was ldquothe product of extensive detailed and dailyplanning based on continuous evaluation of individual and team development andperformancerdquo [26 p 124]

Finally the athletes in the present study described their coaches as professional No matterwhat they were doing they did it with character class and respect for others ldquoYou wouldsee them on the field acting the same way they acted off the fieldrdquo (p2) They were consistentin every aspect of their personality and it was evident in the way they managed the teamprepared for games and communicated with athletes ldquoWhen they are consistent itrsquos veryclear what they want from yourdquo (p9) The athletes knew exactly what was expected of thembut also what to expect from their coaches [27] ldquoIf he said he was going to be there hewould be there If he said that he was going to help you do something he would help yourdquo(p15) The professionalism consistency and integrity that coaches exhibited were some ofthe more prominent qualities that helped gain these athletesrsquo admiration trust and respect

It is apparent that personality characteristics played a major role in these athletesrsquoexperiences of great coaching To date only a handful of studies have examined coachpersonalities and a common profile for successful (or great) coaching does not currentlyexist [eg 28-30] However in a previous study of Olympic athletes coaches were viewed

100 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

impacted by coaches on a daily basis it is reasonable to assume that understanding theirexperiences would serve to provide a more complete picture of the coaching process

In recent decades the definition of psychology was expanded to include the study of bothhuman behavior and experience [13] Because previous research has focused on theexamination of coaching from a behavioral perspective only a handful of studies haveaddressed this topic from an experiential perspective [eg 14-18] Thus the majority ofcoaching research has focused on the behavioral and the ordinary (ie effectiveness) ratherthan the experiential and the extraordinary (ie greatness) The purpose of the present studywas to begin to address these gaps in the literature by examining athlete experiences of greatcoaching

METHODPhenomenological research methods were implemented to capture athlete experiences ofgreat coaching The procedures used in this study were based on Pollio et alrsquos [19]recommended steps for conducting this form of qualitative inquiry These steps includedExploring Researcher Bias Selection of Participants Data Collection Data Analysis andConfirming Thematic Structure

STEP 1 ndash EXPLORING RESEARCHER BIASThe goal of phenomenology is to ldquoattend to the phenomena of experience as they appearrdquo[20 p 34] Rather than using pre-existing beliefs to provide participants with an explanationof the phenomenon under investigation (ie define great coaching from a theoreticalperspective) researchers seek to gather rich and thorough descriptions from the participantsrsquoown experiential perspectives [18 21] Edmund Husserl (twentieth century philosopher)referred to this process as eidetic epocheacute [22] ldquoEpocheacute requires that looking precedesjudgment and that judgment of what is lsquorealrsquo or lsquomost realrsquo be suspended until all theevidence (or at least sufficient evidence) is inrdquo [20 p 36] Therefore it is important forqualitative researchers to identify and attempt to suspend their own pre-existing beliefs thatmay impose biases throughout the research process A bracketing interview is used toaccomplish this task [23] For the purposes of the present study the researcher participatedin a bracketing interview with an expert in qualitative methodology [23] This allowed theresearcher to more openly examine the phenomenon of coaching greatness from theexperiences of the athlete participants

STEP 2 ndash SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTSUpon approval from the University Institutional Review Board the researcher sent a letterof invitation to elite-level athletes from a variety of team sports The letter included adescription of the purposes procedures and criteria for inclusion Individuals who had i)participated at a high level of competition (NCAA Division I national andor international)ii) experienced great coaching and iii) were willing to openly share their experiences werescheduled for an interview Consistent with phenomenological research methods greatcoaching was defined according to the athletesrsquo perceptions of whether they had experienceda great coach The final sample of participants included 18 elite level athletes (9 female 9male) representing various sports (ie baseball basketball football soccer softballvolleyball and water polo) Participants ranged in age from 22 to 42 years (M = 2911 SD= 552) A description of the participants (and the coaches they discussed) is provided inTable 1

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 95

Table 1 Description of Athlete Participants

Athlete Information Coach DescriptionsGender Age Race Sport Highest Level Gender Competitive LevelFemale 22 Caucasian Soccer USA National Team Male Collegiate Female 24 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male Club (18u)

Female CollegiateFemale 25 Pacific Islander Softball NCAA Division I Female CollegiateFemale 25 African American Basketball WNBA Professional Male Youth (12u)

Female CollegiateFemale 25 Caucasian Water Polo NCAA Division I Male CollegiateFemale 27 Caucasian Basketball NCAA Division I Female CollegiateFemale 28 Asian Soccer Olympic Team Male CollegiateFemale 28 Asian Soccer USA National Team Male CollegiateFemale 35 Hispanic Volleyball NCAA Division I Female Collegiate Setting CoachMale 22 Caucasian Baseball Major League Male Professional

Male Club (16u)Male 27 Caucasian Baseball NCAA Division I Male Collegiate Male 28 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 28 Caucasian Baseball Minor League Male Collegiate

Pitching CoachMale Junior College

Male 32 Caucasian Basketball NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 35 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male Collegiate

Male High SchoolMale 35 Caucasian Soccer NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 36 African American Football NFL Professional Male High School

Male Professional Position CoachMale 42 African American Football NFL Professional Male High School

Male CollegiateMale Professional Position Coach

STEP 3 ndash DATA COLLECTIONAccording to Pollio et al [19] ldquoThe opening question in any phenomenological interview isworded to allow for a broad range of descriptive responses from each participantrdquo (p 32)Therefore interviews are typically guided by open-ended questions [22] For the purposes ofthe present study athletes were asked to respond to the following question ldquoCan you talkabout your experiences of great coachingrdquo Based on participant responses subsequentquestions were asked to clarify points dissect metaphors andor obtain more examples ofthe phenomenon under investigation To ensure that nothing was overlooked participantswere also periodically asked if they had anything else to share about their experiences

A pilot interview was conducted with a former Division I basketball player (female aged24) The resulting transcript was analyzed to verify the quality of the research question Italso provided the researcher with an opportunity to refine her interviewing skills on thisparticular topic

Interviews were conducted at each participantrsquos home or office Due to logisticaldifficulties four interviews were conducted by telephone Regardless of the mode ofcommunication the main question and follow-up probes remained consistent across

96 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

interviews Prior to beginning each interview participants were provided with a detailedexplanation of the study and asked to give their consent to participate Interviews rangedfrom 30 to 90 minutes in length At the end of each interview demographic information wasobtained (eg gender age sport and level of experience) and participants were given apseudonym to preserve their anonymity throughout the process

STEP 4 ndash DATA ANALYSISOnce data collection was complete each interview was transcribed verbatim This resulted in220 single-spaced pages of data Existential phenomenological interpretation requiresresearchers to continually relate parts of the text to the whole [21] To get a sense of the wholetext complete transcripts were read During a second reading recurring patterns andorsignificant statements were identified as meaning units [21] Similar meaning units withineach transcript were clustered into groups to develop sub-themes The researcher participatedin this process with the help of an interpretive research group which consisted of 10 to 15faculty members and graduate students from a variety of academic disciplines ldquoThe use of aninterpretive research group is important for maintaining the rigor of phenomenologicalresearch methodsrdquo [21 p 35] Throughout the interpretive process group members helped toensure that all meaning units and themes were supported by the text Group members alsooffered a variety of perspectives that enhanced the quality of the interpretive process

After sub-themes were identified for each individual transcript the next step was todevelop general themes This was achieved by making comparisons across the 18 transcriptsTo ensure the accuracy of groupings all themes and meaning units were continuallyreferenced against the original data [23] This led to the development of a general thematicstructure which was further examined and refined by the researcher and members of theinterpretative group [19]

STEP 5 ndash CONFIRMING THEMATIC STRUCTUREThe final step which is perhaps the most important was to obtain feedback from theparticipants [21] For the purposes of the present study feedback was obtained in two waysParticipants were first sent a copy of their interview transcript and were provided with anopportunity to correct errors clarify points andor add additional information After theanalysis of transcripts participants were then sent a draft of preliminary results whichincluded the general thematic structure Those participants (n = 12) who responded tofeedback opportunities did not offer any additional information andor changes Therefore itwas concluded that the themes accurately represented their experiences of great coachingThe thematic structure was finalized when agreement was achieved between the researcherthe participants and the original data

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAnalyses of the transcripts revealed a total of 1553 meaning units that were further groupedinto sub-themes and general themes This led to the development of a final thematic structurerevealing six major dimensions that characterized these athletesrsquo experiences of greatcoaching Coach Attributes The Environment The System Relationships Coaching Actionsand Influences A visual depiction of the thematic structure is presented in the Appendix Oneof the major findings to emerge was the interaction between dimensions (illustrated in theModel of Great Coaching provided in Figure 1) When athletes first join a team they beginto familiarize themselves with their coach the coach-athlete relationship the environmentand the system These four dimensions formed the background of athlete experiences of great

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 97

coaching much like the scenery in the background of a play When the curtains in a play arefirst drawn audience attention is focused on the lighting sounds and stage props When theplay begins attention shifts to the actors however the background scenery still contributesto the overall impact of the performance on the viewer In the present study coaching actionsand influences took center stage to all of the other dimensions

Furthermore athletes described the background dimensions to be stable throughout theirexperiences These great coaches were consistent in who they were (coach attributes) andhow they maintained relationships managed the team environment and carried out theirsystem As a result there was no uncertainty and the athletes knew exactly what to do andwhat to expect from their coaches This allowed the athletes to focus on their coachesrsquoactions and their own development and performance The background dimensions onlybecame figural (or stood out) when there was a lack of consistency or stability This findingbecame evident when athletes compared their experiences of great coaching withexperiences of coaches who were less than great In these experiences the athletes discussedvarious breakdowns in the background dimensions (coach-athlete relationship problemsnegative team environment etc) which served to distract them from key elements of theirpreparation and play The great coaches who were described in the present study appeared toavoid breakdowns by maintaining a stable interaction within and between all of the coachingdimensions This is perhaps one of the major factors that separates great coaches from theirpeers The themes that emerged within each dimension (beginning with the backgrounddimensions) are discussed in the following sections

COACH ATTRIBUTESThis dimension encompassed athletesrsquo descriptions of their coachesrsquo core qualities or internalmakeup and includes six general themes More Than Just a Coach PersonalityCharacteristics Abilities Knowledge Experience and Imperfections

98 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coach Attributes

SystemEnvironment

Relationships

Content

MethodQuality

Coaching

ActionsInfluences

Figure 1 Model of Great Coaching

More Than Just a CoachThe athlete participants expressed an appreciation for playing for great people who willinglyserved in a variety of roles that went beyond the playing field Athletes viewed their coachesas teachers mentors and friends Consistent with previous research they also viewed theircoaches as parental figures [24 25] This was especially significant when athletes describedtheir experiences at the collegiate level for example ldquoBeing away from home and reallyhaving someone to look up to and coach you and mentor you and help you with anythingyou needed [was important] It gave you a sense of not only to want to win for your teambut to want to win for [your coach] and make him proud of yourdquo (p6) When discussing theirexperiences athletes frequently compared their great coaches to other coaches One athletedescribed how her coach was ldquolight years ahead of any other coach [she] had ever playedforrdquo (p12) This illuminated another sub-theme which suggested that great coaches are notaverage but are experts ldquoPeople who are experts in their field see things more clearly andquicker than lay peoplerdquo (p17) As a result they become known for who they are and whatthey do One athlete referred to his coach as ldquoan absolute legendrdquo (p7)

Although the athletes often placed their coaches on pedestals they also saw them ashuman The athletes described how their great coaches were not afraid to make mistakesshow faults or admit that they did not have all the answers ldquoThey donrsquot act like they arebetter than you or above you [Instead they] come down to your level and act humanrdquo (p3)The athletes felt that their coaches were particularly human when they expressed emotionsOne athlete recalled a time when his coach cried in front of the team after receiving newsabout the death of a former player ldquoThey called while we were in a video meeting and hetotally broke down right there The human side of him came out a little bit there too You justpicture this old school guy who was willing to cry in front of a bunch of guys I rememberbeing pretty impressed I think it just expanded on who he was as a personrdquo (p7)

Personality Characteristics Athletes discussed their coachesrsquo core qualities which were cognitive emotional social andpsychological in nature One of the fundamental characteristics that emerged within thecognitive domain was knowledge Participants viewed their coachesrsquo knowledge as one of themore obvious requisites for achieving greatness ldquoIf you donrsquot know what yoursquore doingyoursquore not going to be very good at itrdquo (p2) The athletes emphasized how their coaches wereknowledgeable about the most up-to-date techniques strategies and tactics of the gameThey also expressed how their coaches were ldquoalways learning and always bringing that[information back to the team]rdquo (p2)

Within the emotional domain of personality passion emerged as a key characteristic Oneathlete expressed how ldquoYou could feel it in [the coachrsquos] presence the way he ran hispractices in everything he didrdquo (p5) The passion that these great coaches exuded was notonly for the game but also for the people ldquoI think my coach wanted to work with youngpeople He enjoyed the process of getting his team better He liked seeing a kid developpersonality wiserdquo (p14) and it was always about ldquomaking sure that you were okay as aperson before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) In addition to beingpassionate athletes viewed their coaches as inspirational and enthusiastic These qualitieswere particularly important when the athletes experienced performance lulls or fatigue

In addition to expressing emotions it appears that great coaches also use emotion toregulate their athletesrsquo energy during competition A soccer player described how herrelatively calm coach used an emotional outburst to recharge her team during a halftimebreak In contrast a volleyball player described how his coachrsquos calm emotional state helped

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 99

to decrease player excitement during close games ldquoIf player emotions started taking off hewould call a time out and you would come over and he was very calming and it kind of hita reset button on you to be able to go back out on the court and performrdquo (p6) In othersituations these coaches were ldquoable to elicit emotions out of players without coming off asbeing very emotionalrdquo (p12) While situational factors (such as athlete attitudes) dictated thetiming and manner in which these coaches expressed emotions they always had control Ingeneral the athletes viewed their coaches as emotionally stable ldquoHe would get excited andhe would get downrdquo (p6) but ldquohe wasnrsquot emotionally fragilerdquo (p17) ldquoHe was like our rockrdquo(p12) ldquoThe key to our confidence was his steady emotional state throughout the seasonrdquo(p6)

Another sub-theme within personality characteristics included the coachesrsquo socialqualities This category encompassed the core attributes that influenced how these greatcoaches acted toward others More specifically athletes described their coaches as genuinehonest and loyal This helped the athletes believe and trust in them ldquoIt makes you want togo out there and do a good job and play hard every dayrdquo (p9) Regardless of whether it wasdealing with a behavioral issue or a recurring performance problem the athletes perceivedtheir coaches to be patient and non-judgmental One athlete felt comfortable enough to tellhis coach that he was experiencing fatigue and needed some time off ldquoI knew that he wouldbe positive about it and would try to help me outrdquo (p2)

Characteristics in the psychological domain were related to achievement attitude andorganization The athletes described their coaches as committed and disciplined One athletesuggested that her coach was more disciplined than anybody she had ever met Anotherathlete discussed how his coach was always the first to arrive and the last to leave ldquoIf youdonrsquot work at it you wonrsquot be great You could have all the talent in the world and yoursquoll bemediocre All great coaches push themselvesrdquo (p1) They hold themselves to the highest ofstandards and are driven by their competitive attitude and desire to win ldquo[My coach] hatedto lose and you knew that when you played for him (p5)rdquo Ultimately the athletes describedtheir great coaches as perfectionists This was evident in the way that they carriedthemselves but also in the way that they were organized ldquo[Coach] always had sort of amaster plan in terms of practicesrdquo (p10) ldquoThe guy was meticulousrdquo (p7) These findingsparallel previous research on John Wooden (former UCLA menrsquos basketball coach) whichsuggested that much of his success was ldquothe product of extensive detailed and dailyplanning based on continuous evaluation of individual and team development andperformancerdquo [26 p 124]

Finally the athletes in the present study described their coaches as professional No matterwhat they were doing they did it with character class and respect for others ldquoYou wouldsee them on the field acting the same way they acted off the fieldrdquo (p2) They were consistentin every aspect of their personality and it was evident in the way they managed the teamprepared for games and communicated with athletes ldquoWhen they are consistent itrsquos veryclear what they want from yourdquo (p9) The athletes knew exactly what was expected of thembut also what to expect from their coaches [27] ldquoIf he said he was going to be there hewould be there If he said that he was going to help you do something he would help yourdquo(p15) The professionalism consistency and integrity that coaches exhibited were some ofthe more prominent qualities that helped gain these athletesrsquo admiration trust and respect

It is apparent that personality characteristics played a major role in these athletesrsquoexperiences of great coaching To date only a handful of studies have examined coachpersonalities and a common profile for successful (or great) coaching does not currentlyexist [eg 28-30] However in a previous study of Olympic athletes coaches were viewed

100 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Table 1 Description of Athlete Participants

Athlete Information Coach DescriptionsGender Age Race Sport Highest Level Gender Competitive LevelFemale 22 Caucasian Soccer USA National Team Male Collegiate Female 24 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male Club (18u)

Female CollegiateFemale 25 Pacific Islander Softball NCAA Division I Female CollegiateFemale 25 African American Basketball WNBA Professional Male Youth (12u)

Female CollegiateFemale 25 Caucasian Water Polo NCAA Division I Male CollegiateFemale 27 Caucasian Basketball NCAA Division I Female CollegiateFemale 28 Asian Soccer Olympic Team Male CollegiateFemale 28 Asian Soccer USA National Team Male CollegiateFemale 35 Hispanic Volleyball NCAA Division I Female Collegiate Setting CoachMale 22 Caucasian Baseball Major League Male Professional

Male Club (16u)Male 27 Caucasian Baseball NCAA Division I Male Collegiate Male 28 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 28 Caucasian Baseball Minor League Male Collegiate

Pitching CoachMale Junior College

Male 32 Caucasian Basketball NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 35 Caucasian Volleyball NCAA Division I Male Collegiate

Male High SchoolMale 35 Caucasian Soccer NCAA Division I Male CollegiateMale 36 African American Football NFL Professional Male High School

Male Professional Position CoachMale 42 African American Football NFL Professional Male High School

Male CollegiateMale Professional Position Coach

STEP 3 ndash DATA COLLECTIONAccording to Pollio et al [19] ldquoThe opening question in any phenomenological interview isworded to allow for a broad range of descriptive responses from each participantrdquo (p 32)Therefore interviews are typically guided by open-ended questions [22] For the purposes ofthe present study athletes were asked to respond to the following question ldquoCan you talkabout your experiences of great coachingrdquo Based on participant responses subsequentquestions were asked to clarify points dissect metaphors andor obtain more examples ofthe phenomenon under investigation To ensure that nothing was overlooked participantswere also periodically asked if they had anything else to share about their experiences

A pilot interview was conducted with a former Division I basketball player (female aged24) The resulting transcript was analyzed to verify the quality of the research question Italso provided the researcher with an opportunity to refine her interviewing skills on thisparticular topic

Interviews were conducted at each participantrsquos home or office Due to logisticaldifficulties four interviews were conducted by telephone Regardless of the mode ofcommunication the main question and follow-up probes remained consistent across

96 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

interviews Prior to beginning each interview participants were provided with a detailedexplanation of the study and asked to give their consent to participate Interviews rangedfrom 30 to 90 minutes in length At the end of each interview demographic information wasobtained (eg gender age sport and level of experience) and participants were given apseudonym to preserve their anonymity throughout the process

STEP 4 ndash DATA ANALYSISOnce data collection was complete each interview was transcribed verbatim This resulted in220 single-spaced pages of data Existential phenomenological interpretation requiresresearchers to continually relate parts of the text to the whole [21] To get a sense of the wholetext complete transcripts were read During a second reading recurring patterns andorsignificant statements were identified as meaning units [21] Similar meaning units withineach transcript were clustered into groups to develop sub-themes The researcher participatedin this process with the help of an interpretive research group which consisted of 10 to 15faculty members and graduate students from a variety of academic disciplines ldquoThe use of aninterpretive research group is important for maintaining the rigor of phenomenologicalresearch methodsrdquo [21 p 35] Throughout the interpretive process group members helped toensure that all meaning units and themes were supported by the text Group members alsooffered a variety of perspectives that enhanced the quality of the interpretive process

After sub-themes were identified for each individual transcript the next step was todevelop general themes This was achieved by making comparisons across the 18 transcriptsTo ensure the accuracy of groupings all themes and meaning units were continuallyreferenced against the original data [23] This led to the development of a general thematicstructure which was further examined and refined by the researcher and members of theinterpretative group [19]

STEP 5 ndash CONFIRMING THEMATIC STRUCTUREThe final step which is perhaps the most important was to obtain feedback from theparticipants [21] For the purposes of the present study feedback was obtained in two waysParticipants were first sent a copy of their interview transcript and were provided with anopportunity to correct errors clarify points andor add additional information After theanalysis of transcripts participants were then sent a draft of preliminary results whichincluded the general thematic structure Those participants (n = 12) who responded tofeedback opportunities did not offer any additional information andor changes Therefore itwas concluded that the themes accurately represented their experiences of great coachingThe thematic structure was finalized when agreement was achieved between the researcherthe participants and the original data

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAnalyses of the transcripts revealed a total of 1553 meaning units that were further groupedinto sub-themes and general themes This led to the development of a final thematic structurerevealing six major dimensions that characterized these athletesrsquo experiences of greatcoaching Coach Attributes The Environment The System Relationships Coaching Actionsand Influences A visual depiction of the thematic structure is presented in the Appendix Oneof the major findings to emerge was the interaction between dimensions (illustrated in theModel of Great Coaching provided in Figure 1) When athletes first join a team they beginto familiarize themselves with their coach the coach-athlete relationship the environmentand the system These four dimensions formed the background of athlete experiences of great

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 97

coaching much like the scenery in the background of a play When the curtains in a play arefirst drawn audience attention is focused on the lighting sounds and stage props When theplay begins attention shifts to the actors however the background scenery still contributesto the overall impact of the performance on the viewer In the present study coaching actionsand influences took center stage to all of the other dimensions

Furthermore athletes described the background dimensions to be stable throughout theirexperiences These great coaches were consistent in who they were (coach attributes) andhow they maintained relationships managed the team environment and carried out theirsystem As a result there was no uncertainty and the athletes knew exactly what to do andwhat to expect from their coaches This allowed the athletes to focus on their coachesrsquoactions and their own development and performance The background dimensions onlybecame figural (or stood out) when there was a lack of consistency or stability This findingbecame evident when athletes compared their experiences of great coaching withexperiences of coaches who were less than great In these experiences the athletes discussedvarious breakdowns in the background dimensions (coach-athlete relationship problemsnegative team environment etc) which served to distract them from key elements of theirpreparation and play The great coaches who were described in the present study appeared toavoid breakdowns by maintaining a stable interaction within and between all of the coachingdimensions This is perhaps one of the major factors that separates great coaches from theirpeers The themes that emerged within each dimension (beginning with the backgrounddimensions) are discussed in the following sections

COACH ATTRIBUTESThis dimension encompassed athletesrsquo descriptions of their coachesrsquo core qualities or internalmakeup and includes six general themes More Than Just a Coach PersonalityCharacteristics Abilities Knowledge Experience and Imperfections

98 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coach Attributes

SystemEnvironment

Relationships

Content

MethodQuality

Coaching

ActionsInfluences

Figure 1 Model of Great Coaching

More Than Just a CoachThe athlete participants expressed an appreciation for playing for great people who willinglyserved in a variety of roles that went beyond the playing field Athletes viewed their coachesas teachers mentors and friends Consistent with previous research they also viewed theircoaches as parental figures [24 25] This was especially significant when athletes describedtheir experiences at the collegiate level for example ldquoBeing away from home and reallyhaving someone to look up to and coach you and mentor you and help you with anythingyou needed [was important] It gave you a sense of not only to want to win for your teambut to want to win for [your coach] and make him proud of yourdquo (p6) When discussing theirexperiences athletes frequently compared their great coaches to other coaches One athletedescribed how her coach was ldquolight years ahead of any other coach [she] had ever playedforrdquo (p12) This illuminated another sub-theme which suggested that great coaches are notaverage but are experts ldquoPeople who are experts in their field see things more clearly andquicker than lay peoplerdquo (p17) As a result they become known for who they are and whatthey do One athlete referred to his coach as ldquoan absolute legendrdquo (p7)

Although the athletes often placed their coaches on pedestals they also saw them ashuman The athletes described how their great coaches were not afraid to make mistakesshow faults or admit that they did not have all the answers ldquoThey donrsquot act like they arebetter than you or above you [Instead they] come down to your level and act humanrdquo (p3)The athletes felt that their coaches were particularly human when they expressed emotionsOne athlete recalled a time when his coach cried in front of the team after receiving newsabout the death of a former player ldquoThey called while we were in a video meeting and hetotally broke down right there The human side of him came out a little bit there too You justpicture this old school guy who was willing to cry in front of a bunch of guys I rememberbeing pretty impressed I think it just expanded on who he was as a personrdquo (p7)

Personality Characteristics Athletes discussed their coachesrsquo core qualities which were cognitive emotional social andpsychological in nature One of the fundamental characteristics that emerged within thecognitive domain was knowledge Participants viewed their coachesrsquo knowledge as one of themore obvious requisites for achieving greatness ldquoIf you donrsquot know what yoursquore doingyoursquore not going to be very good at itrdquo (p2) The athletes emphasized how their coaches wereknowledgeable about the most up-to-date techniques strategies and tactics of the gameThey also expressed how their coaches were ldquoalways learning and always bringing that[information back to the team]rdquo (p2)

Within the emotional domain of personality passion emerged as a key characteristic Oneathlete expressed how ldquoYou could feel it in [the coachrsquos] presence the way he ran hispractices in everything he didrdquo (p5) The passion that these great coaches exuded was notonly for the game but also for the people ldquoI think my coach wanted to work with youngpeople He enjoyed the process of getting his team better He liked seeing a kid developpersonality wiserdquo (p14) and it was always about ldquomaking sure that you were okay as aperson before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) In addition to beingpassionate athletes viewed their coaches as inspirational and enthusiastic These qualitieswere particularly important when the athletes experienced performance lulls or fatigue

In addition to expressing emotions it appears that great coaches also use emotion toregulate their athletesrsquo energy during competition A soccer player described how herrelatively calm coach used an emotional outburst to recharge her team during a halftimebreak In contrast a volleyball player described how his coachrsquos calm emotional state helped

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 99

to decrease player excitement during close games ldquoIf player emotions started taking off hewould call a time out and you would come over and he was very calming and it kind of hita reset button on you to be able to go back out on the court and performrdquo (p6) In othersituations these coaches were ldquoable to elicit emotions out of players without coming off asbeing very emotionalrdquo (p12) While situational factors (such as athlete attitudes) dictated thetiming and manner in which these coaches expressed emotions they always had control Ingeneral the athletes viewed their coaches as emotionally stable ldquoHe would get excited andhe would get downrdquo (p6) but ldquohe wasnrsquot emotionally fragilerdquo (p17) ldquoHe was like our rockrdquo(p12) ldquoThe key to our confidence was his steady emotional state throughout the seasonrdquo(p6)

Another sub-theme within personality characteristics included the coachesrsquo socialqualities This category encompassed the core attributes that influenced how these greatcoaches acted toward others More specifically athletes described their coaches as genuinehonest and loyal This helped the athletes believe and trust in them ldquoIt makes you want togo out there and do a good job and play hard every dayrdquo (p9) Regardless of whether it wasdealing with a behavioral issue or a recurring performance problem the athletes perceivedtheir coaches to be patient and non-judgmental One athlete felt comfortable enough to tellhis coach that he was experiencing fatigue and needed some time off ldquoI knew that he wouldbe positive about it and would try to help me outrdquo (p2)

Characteristics in the psychological domain were related to achievement attitude andorganization The athletes described their coaches as committed and disciplined One athletesuggested that her coach was more disciplined than anybody she had ever met Anotherathlete discussed how his coach was always the first to arrive and the last to leave ldquoIf youdonrsquot work at it you wonrsquot be great You could have all the talent in the world and yoursquoll bemediocre All great coaches push themselvesrdquo (p1) They hold themselves to the highest ofstandards and are driven by their competitive attitude and desire to win ldquo[My coach] hatedto lose and you knew that when you played for him (p5)rdquo Ultimately the athletes describedtheir great coaches as perfectionists This was evident in the way that they carriedthemselves but also in the way that they were organized ldquo[Coach] always had sort of amaster plan in terms of practicesrdquo (p10) ldquoThe guy was meticulousrdquo (p7) These findingsparallel previous research on John Wooden (former UCLA menrsquos basketball coach) whichsuggested that much of his success was ldquothe product of extensive detailed and dailyplanning based on continuous evaluation of individual and team development andperformancerdquo [26 p 124]

Finally the athletes in the present study described their coaches as professional No matterwhat they were doing they did it with character class and respect for others ldquoYou wouldsee them on the field acting the same way they acted off the fieldrdquo (p2) They were consistentin every aspect of their personality and it was evident in the way they managed the teamprepared for games and communicated with athletes ldquoWhen they are consistent itrsquos veryclear what they want from yourdquo (p9) The athletes knew exactly what was expected of thembut also what to expect from their coaches [27] ldquoIf he said he was going to be there hewould be there If he said that he was going to help you do something he would help yourdquo(p15) The professionalism consistency and integrity that coaches exhibited were some ofthe more prominent qualities that helped gain these athletesrsquo admiration trust and respect

It is apparent that personality characteristics played a major role in these athletesrsquoexperiences of great coaching To date only a handful of studies have examined coachpersonalities and a common profile for successful (or great) coaching does not currentlyexist [eg 28-30] However in a previous study of Olympic athletes coaches were viewed

100 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

interviews Prior to beginning each interview participants were provided with a detailedexplanation of the study and asked to give their consent to participate Interviews rangedfrom 30 to 90 minutes in length At the end of each interview demographic information wasobtained (eg gender age sport and level of experience) and participants were given apseudonym to preserve their anonymity throughout the process

STEP 4 ndash DATA ANALYSISOnce data collection was complete each interview was transcribed verbatim This resulted in220 single-spaced pages of data Existential phenomenological interpretation requiresresearchers to continually relate parts of the text to the whole [21] To get a sense of the wholetext complete transcripts were read During a second reading recurring patterns andorsignificant statements were identified as meaning units [21] Similar meaning units withineach transcript were clustered into groups to develop sub-themes The researcher participatedin this process with the help of an interpretive research group which consisted of 10 to 15faculty members and graduate students from a variety of academic disciplines ldquoThe use of aninterpretive research group is important for maintaining the rigor of phenomenologicalresearch methodsrdquo [21 p 35] Throughout the interpretive process group members helped toensure that all meaning units and themes were supported by the text Group members alsooffered a variety of perspectives that enhanced the quality of the interpretive process

After sub-themes were identified for each individual transcript the next step was todevelop general themes This was achieved by making comparisons across the 18 transcriptsTo ensure the accuracy of groupings all themes and meaning units were continuallyreferenced against the original data [23] This led to the development of a general thematicstructure which was further examined and refined by the researcher and members of theinterpretative group [19]

STEP 5 ndash CONFIRMING THEMATIC STRUCTUREThe final step which is perhaps the most important was to obtain feedback from theparticipants [21] For the purposes of the present study feedback was obtained in two waysParticipants were first sent a copy of their interview transcript and were provided with anopportunity to correct errors clarify points andor add additional information After theanalysis of transcripts participants were then sent a draft of preliminary results whichincluded the general thematic structure Those participants (n = 12) who responded tofeedback opportunities did not offer any additional information andor changes Therefore itwas concluded that the themes accurately represented their experiences of great coachingThe thematic structure was finalized when agreement was achieved between the researcherthe participants and the original data

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAnalyses of the transcripts revealed a total of 1553 meaning units that were further groupedinto sub-themes and general themes This led to the development of a final thematic structurerevealing six major dimensions that characterized these athletesrsquo experiences of greatcoaching Coach Attributes The Environment The System Relationships Coaching Actionsand Influences A visual depiction of the thematic structure is presented in the Appendix Oneof the major findings to emerge was the interaction between dimensions (illustrated in theModel of Great Coaching provided in Figure 1) When athletes first join a team they beginto familiarize themselves with their coach the coach-athlete relationship the environmentand the system These four dimensions formed the background of athlete experiences of great

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 97

coaching much like the scenery in the background of a play When the curtains in a play arefirst drawn audience attention is focused on the lighting sounds and stage props When theplay begins attention shifts to the actors however the background scenery still contributesto the overall impact of the performance on the viewer In the present study coaching actionsand influences took center stage to all of the other dimensions

Furthermore athletes described the background dimensions to be stable throughout theirexperiences These great coaches were consistent in who they were (coach attributes) andhow they maintained relationships managed the team environment and carried out theirsystem As a result there was no uncertainty and the athletes knew exactly what to do andwhat to expect from their coaches This allowed the athletes to focus on their coachesrsquoactions and their own development and performance The background dimensions onlybecame figural (or stood out) when there was a lack of consistency or stability This findingbecame evident when athletes compared their experiences of great coaching withexperiences of coaches who were less than great In these experiences the athletes discussedvarious breakdowns in the background dimensions (coach-athlete relationship problemsnegative team environment etc) which served to distract them from key elements of theirpreparation and play The great coaches who were described in the present study appeared toavoid breakdowns by maintaining a stable interaction within and between all of the coachingdimensions This is perhaps one of the major factors that separates great coaches from theirpeers The themes that emerged within each dimension (beginning with the backgrounddimensions) are discussed in the following sections

COACH ATTRIBUTESThis dimension encompassed athletesrsquo descriptions of their coachesrsquo core qualities or internalmakeup and includes six general themes More Than Just a Coach PersonalityCharacteristics Abilities Knowledge Experience and Imperfections

98 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coach Attributes

SystemEnvironment

Relationships

Content

MethodQuality

Coaching

ActionsInfluences

Figure 1 Model of Great Coaching

More Than Just a CoachThe athlete participants expressed an appreciation for playing for great people who willinglyserved in a variety of roles that went beyond the playing field Athletes viewed their coachesas teachers mentors and friends Consistent with previous research they also viewed theircoaches as parental figures [24 25] This was especially significant when athletes describedtheir experiences at the collegiate level for example ldquoBeing away from home and reallyhaving someone to look up to and coach you and mentor you and help you with anythingyou needed [was important] It gave you a sense of not only to want to win for your teambut to want to win for [your coach] and make him proud of yourdquo (p6) When discussing theirexperiences athletes frequently compared their great coaches to other coaches One athletedescribed how her coach was ldquolight years ahead of any other coach [she] had ever playedforrdquo (p12) This illuminated another sub-theme which suggested that great coaches are notaverage but are experts ldquoPeople who are experts in their field see things more clearly andquicker than lay peoplerdquo (p17) As a result they become known for who they are and whatthey do One athlete referred to his coach as ldquoan absolute legendrdquo (p7)

Although the athletes often placed their coaches on pedestals they also saw them ashuman The athletes described how their great coaches were not afraid to make mistakesshow faults or admit that they did not have all the answers ldquoThey donrsquot act like they arebetter than you or above you [Instead they] come down to your level and act humanrdquo (p3)The athletes felt that their coaches were particularly human when they expressed emotionsOne athlete recalled a time when his coach cried in front of the team after receiving newsabout the death of a former player ldquoThey called while we were in a video meeting and hetotally broke down right there The human side of him came out a little bit there too You justpicture this old school guy who was willing to cry in front of a bunch of guys I rememberbeing pretty impressed I think it just expanded on who he was as a personrdquo (p7)

Personality Characteristics Athletes discussed their coachesrsquo core qualities which were cognitive emotional social andpsychological in nature One of the fundamental characteristics that emerged within thecognitive domain was knowledge Participants viewed their coachesrsquo knowledge as one of themore obvious requisites for achieving greatness ldquoIf you donrsquot know what yoursquore doingyoursquore not going to be very good at itrdquo (p2) The athletes emphasized how their coaches wereknowledgeable about the most up-to-date techniques strategies and tactics of the gameThey also expressed how their coaches were ldquoalways learning and always bringing that[information back to the team]rdquo (p2)

Within the emotional domain of personality passion emerged as a key characteristic Oneathlete expressed how ldquoYou could feel it in [the coachrsquos] presence the way he ran hispractices in everything he didrdquo (p5) The passion that these great coaches exuded was notonly for the game but also for the people ldquoI think my coach wanted to work with youngpeople He enjoyed the process of getting his team better He liked seeing a kid developpersonality wiserdquo (p14) and it was always about ldquomaking sure that you were okay as aperson before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) In addition to beingpassionate athletes viewed their coaches as inspirational and enthusiastic These qualitieswere particularly important when the athletes experienced performance lulls or fatigue

In addition to expressing emotions it appears that great coaches also use emotion toregulate their athletesrsquo energy during competition A soccer player described how herrelatively calm coach used an emotional outburst to recharge her team during a halftimebreak In contrast a volleyball player described how his coachrsquos calm emotional state helped

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 99

to decrease player excitement during close games ldquoIf player emotions started taking off hewould call a time out and you would come over and he was very calming and it kind of hita reset button on you to be able to go back out on the court and performrdquo (p6) In othersituations these coaches were ldquoable to elicit emotions out of players without coming off asbeing very emotionalrdquo (p12) While situational factors (such as athlete attitudes) dictated thetiming and manner in which these coaches expressed emotions they always had control Ingeneral the athletes viewed their coaches as emotionally stable ldquoHe would get excited andhe would get downrdquo (p6) but ldquohe wasnrsquot emotionally fragilerdquo (p17) ldquoHe was like our rockrdquo(p12) ldquoThe key to our confidence was his steady emotional state throughout the seasonrdquo(p6)

Another sub-theme within personality characteristics included the coachesrsquo socialqualities This category encompassed the core attributes that influenced how these greatcoaches acted toward others More specifically athletes described their coaches as genuinehonest and loyal This helped the athletes believe and trust in them ldquoIt makes you want togo out there and do a good job and play hard every dayrdquo (p9) Regardless of whether it wasdealing with a behavioral issue or a recurring performance problem the athletes perceivedtheir coaches to be patient and non-judgmental One athlete felt comfortable enough to tellhis coach that he was experiencing fatigue and needed some time off ldquoI knew that he wouldbe positive about it and would try to help me outrdquo (p2)

Characteristics in the psychological domain were related to achievement attitude andorganization The athletes described their coaches as committed and disciplined One athletesuggested that her coach was more disciplined than anybody she had ever met Anotherathlete discussed how his coach was always the first to arrive and the last to leave ldquoIf youdonrsquot work at it you wonrsquot be great You could have all the talent in the world and yoursquoll bemediocre All great coaches push themselvesrdquo (p1) They hold themselves to the highest ofstandards and are driven by their competitive attitude and desire to win ldquo[My coach] hatedto lose and you knew that when you played for him (p5)rdquo Ultimately the athletes describedtheir great coaches as perfectionists This was evident in the way that they carriedthemselves but also in the way that they were organized ldquo[Coach] always had sort of amaster plan in terms of practicesrdquo (p10) ldquoThe guy was meticulousrdquo (p7) These findingsparallel previous research on John Wooden (former UCLA menrsquos basketball coach) whichsuggested that much of his success was ldquothe product of extensive detailed and dailyplanning based on continuous evaluation of individual and team development andperformancerdquo [26 p 124]

Finally the athletes in the present study described their coaches as professional No matterwhat they were doing they did it with character class and respect for others ldquoYou wouldsee them on the field acting the same way they acted off the fieldrdquo (p2) They were consistentin every aspect of their personality and it was evident in the way they managed the teamprepared for games and communicated with athletes ldquoWhen they are consistent itrsquos veryclear what they want from yourdquo (p9) The athletes knew exactly what was expected of thembut also what to expect from their coaches [27] ldquoIf he said he was going to be there hewould be there If he said that he was going to help you do something he would help yourdquo(p15) The professionalism consistency and integrity that coaches exhibited were some ofthe more prominent qualities that helped gain these athletesrsquo admiration trust and respect

It is apparent that personality characteristics played a major role in these athletesrsquoexperiences of great coaching To date only a handful of studies have examined coachpersonalities and a common profile for successful (or great) coaching does not currentlyexist [eg 28-30] However in a previous study of Olympic athletes coaches were viewed

100 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

coaching much like the scenery in the background of a play When the curtains in a play arefirst drawn audience attention is focused on the lighting sounds and stage props When theplay begins attention shifts to the actors however the background scenery still contributesto the overall impact of the performance on the viewer In the present study coaching actionsand influences took center stage to all of the other dimensions

Furthermore athletes described the background dimensions to be stable throughout theirexperiences These great coaches were consistent in who they were (coach attributes) andhow they maintained relationships managed the team environment and carried out theirsystem As a result there was no uncertainty and the athletes knew exactly what to do andwhat to expect from their coaches This allowed the athletes to focus on their coachesrsquoactions and their own development and performance The background dimensions onlybecame figural (or stood out) when there was a lack of consistency or stability This findingbecame evident when athletes compared their experiences of great coaching withexperiences of coaches who were less than great In these experiences the athletes discussedvarious breakdowns in the background dimensions (coach-athlete relationship problemsnegative team environment etc) which served to distract them from key elements of theirpreparation and play The great coaches who were described in the present study appeared toavoid breakdowns by maintaining a stable interaction within and between all of the coachingdimensions This is perhaps one of the major factors that separates great coaches from theirpeers The themes that emerged within each dimension (beginning with the backgrounddimensions) are discussed in the following sections

COACH ATTRIBUTESThis dimension encompassed athletesrsquo descriptions of their coachesrsquo core qualities or internalmakeup and includes six general themes More Than Just a Coach PersonalityCharacteristics Abilities Knowledge Experience and Imperfections

98 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coach Attributes

SystemEnvironment

Relationships

Content

MethodQuality

Coaching

ActionsInfluences

Figure 1 Model of Great Coaching

More Than Just a CoachThe athlete participants expressed an appreciation for playing for great people who willinglyserved in a variety of roles that went beyond the playing field Athletes viewed their coachesas teachers mentors and friends Consistent with previous research they also viewed theircoaches as parental figures [24 25] This was especially significant when athletes describedtheir experiences at the collegiate level for example ldquoBeing away from home and reallyhaving someone to look up to and coach you and mentor you and help you with anythingyou needed [was important] It gave you a sense of not only to want to win for your teambut to want to win for [your coach] and make him proud of yourdquo (p6) When discussing theirexperiences athletes frequently compared their great coaches to other coaches One athletedescribed how her coach was ldquolight years ahead of any other coach [she] had ever playedforrdquo (p12) This illuminated another sub-theme which suggested that great coaches are notaverage but are experts ldquoPeople who are experts in their field see things more clearly andquicker than lay peoplerdquo (p17) As a result they become known for who they are and whatthey do One athlete referred to his coach as ldquoan absolute legendrdquo (p7)

Although the athletes often placed their coaches on pedestals they also saw them ashuman The athletes described how their great coaches were not afraid to make mistakesshow faults or admit that they did not have all the answers ldquoThey donrsquot act like they arebetter than you or above you [Instead they] come down to your level and act humanrdquo (p3)The athletes felt that their coaches were particularly human when they expressed emotionsOne athlete recalled a time when his coach cried in front of the team after receiving newsabout the death of a former player ldquoThey called while we were in a video meeting and hetotally broke down right there The human side of him came out a little bit there too You justpicture this old school guy who was willing to cry in front of a bunch of guys I rememberbeing pretty impressed I think it just expanded on who he was as a personrdquo (p7)

Personality Characteristics Athletes discussed their coachesrsquo core qualities which were cognitive emotional social andpsychological in nature One of the fundamental characteristics that emerged within thecognitive domain was knowledge Participants viewed their coachesrsquo knowledge as one of themore obvious requisites for achieving greatness ldquoIf you donrsquot know what yoursquore doingyoursquore not going to be very good at itrdquo (p2) The athletes emphasized how their coaches wereknowledgeable about the most up-to-date techniques strategies and tactics of the gameThey also expressed how their coaches were ldquoalways learning and always bringing that[information back to the team]rdquo (p2)

Within the emotional domain of personality passion emerged as a key characteristic Oneathlete expressed how ldquoYou could feel it in [the coachrsquos] presence the way he ran hispractices in everything he didrdquo (p5) The passion that these great coaches exuded was notonly for the game but also for the people ldquoI think my coach wanted to work with youngpeople He enjoyed the process of getting his team better He liked seeing a kid developpersonality wiserdquo (p14) and it was always about ldquomaking sure that you were okay as aperson before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) In addition to beingpassionate athletes viewed their coaches as inspirational and enthusiastic These qualitieswere particularly important when the athletes experienced performance lulls or fatigue

In addition to expressing emotions it appears that great coaches also use emotion toregulate their athletesrsquo energy during competition A soccer player described how herrelatively calm coach used an emotional outburst to recharge her team during a halftimebreak In contrast a volleyball player described how his coachrsquos calm emotional state helped

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 99

to decrease player excitement during close games ldquoIf player emotions started taking off hewould call a time out and you would come over and he was very calming and it kind of hita reset button on you to be able to go back out on the court and performrdquo (p6) In othersituations these coaches were ldquoable to elicit emotions out of players without coming off asbeing very emotionalrdquo (p12) While situational factors (such as athlete attitudes) dictated thetiming and manner in which these coaches expressed emotions they always had control Ingeneral the athletes viewed their coaches as emotionally stable ldquoHe would get excited andhe would get downrdquo (p6) but ldquohe wasnrsquot emotionally fragilerdquo (p17) ldquoHe was like our rockrdquo(p12) ldquoThe key to our confidence was his steady emotional state throughout the seasonrdquo(p6)

Another sub-theme within personality characteristics included the coachesrsquo socialqualities This category encompassed the core attributes that influenced how these greatcoaches acted toward others More specifically athletes described their coaches as genuinehonest and loyal This helped the athletes believe and trust in them ldquoIt makes you want togo out there and do a good job and play hard every dayrdquo (p9) Regardless of whether it wasdealing with a behavioral issue or a recurring performance problem the athletes perceivedtheir coaches to be patient and non-judgmental One athlete felt comfortable enough to tellhis coach that he was experiencing fatigue and needed some time off ldquoI knew that he wouldbe positive about it and would try to help me outrdquo (p2)

Characteristics in the psychological domain were related to achievement attitude andorganization The athletes described their coaches as committed and disciplined One athletesuggested that her coach was more disciplined than anybody she had ever met Anotherathlete discussed how his coach was always the first to arrive and the last to leave ldquoIf youdonrsquot work at it you wonrsquot be great You could have all the talent in the world and yoursquoll bemediocre All great coaches push themselvesrdquo (p1) They hold themselves to the highest ofstandards and are driven by their competitive attitude and desire to win ldquo[My coach] hatedto lose and you knew that when you played for him (p5)rdquo Ultimately the athletes describedtheir great coaches as perfectionists This was evident in the way that they carriedthemselves but also in the way that they were organized ldquo[Coach] always had sort of amaster plan in terms of practicesrdquo (p10) ldquoThe guy was meticulousrdquo (p7) These findingsparallel previous research on John Wooden (former UCLA menrsquos basketball coach) whichsuggested that much of his success was ldquothe product of extensive detailed and dailyplanning based on continuous evaluation of individual and team development andperformancerdquo [26 p 124]

Finally the athletes in the present study described their coaches as professional No matterwhat they were doing they did it with character class and respect for others ldquoYou wouldsee them on the field acting the same way they acted off the fieldrdquo (p2) They were consistentin every aspect of their personality and it was evident in the way they managed the teamprepared for games and communicated with athletes ldquoWhen they are consistent itrsquos veryclear what they want from yourdquo (p9) The athletes knew exactly what was expected of thembut also what to expect from their coaches [27] ldquoIf he said he was going to be there hewould be there If he said that he was going to help you do something he would help yourdquo(p15) The professionalism consistency and integrity that coaches exhibited were some ofthe more prominent qualities that helped gain these athletesrsquo admiration trust and respect

It is apparent that personality characteristics played a major role in these athletesrsquoexperiences of great coaching To date only a handful of studies have examined coachpersonalities and a common profile for successful (or great) coaching does not currentlyexist [eg 28-30] However in a previous study of Olympic athletes coaches were viewed

100 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

More Than Just a CoachThe athlete participants expressed an appreciation for playing for great people who willinglyserved in a variety of roles that went beyond the playing field Athletes viewed their coachesas teachers mentors and friends Consistent with previous research they also viewed theircoaches as parental figures [24 25] This was especially significant when athletes describedtheir experiences at the collegiate level for example ldquoBeing away from home and reallyhaving someone to look up to and coach you and mentor you and help you with anythingyou needed [was important] It gave you a sense of not only to want to win for your teambut to want to win for [your coach] and make him proud of yourdquo (p6) When discussing theirexperiences athletes frequently compared their great coaches to other coaches One athletedescribed how her coach was ldquolight years ahead of any other coach [she] had ever playedforrdquo (p12) This illuminated another sub-theme which suggested that great coaches are notaverage but are experts ldquoPeople who are experts in their field see things more clearly andquicker than lay peoplerdquo (p17) As a result they become known for who they are and whatthey do One athlete referred to his coach as ldquoan absolute legendrdquo (p7)

Although the athletes often placed their coaches on pedestals they also saw them ashuman The athletes described how their great coaches were not afraid to make mistakesshow faults or admit that they did not have all the answers ldquoThey donrsquot act like they arebetter than you or above you [Instead they] come down to your level and act humanrdquo (p3)The athletes felt that their coaches were particularly human when they expressed emotionsOne athlete recalled a time when his coach cried in front of the team after receiving newsabout the death of a former player ldquoThey called while we were in a video meeting and hetotally broke down right there The human side of him came out a little bit there too You justpicture this old school guy who was willing to cry in front of a bunch of guys I rememberbeing pretty impressed I think it just expanded on who he was as a personrdquo (p7)

Personality Characteristics Athletes discussed their coachesrsquo core qualities which were cognitive emotional social andpsychological in nature One of the fundamental characteristics that emerged within thecognitive domain was knowledge Participants viewed their coachesrsquo knowledge as one of themore obvious requisites for achieving greatness ldquoIf you donrsquot know what yoursquore doingyoursquore not going to be very good at itrdquo (p2) The athletes emphasized how their coaches wereknowledgeable about the most up-to-date techniques strategies and tactics of the gameThey also expressed how their coaches were ldquoalways learning and always bringing that[information back to the team]rdquo (p2)

Within the emotional domain of personality passion emerged as a key characteristic Oneathlete expressed how ldquoYou could feel it in [the coachrsquos] presence the way he ran hispractices in everything he didrdquo (p5) The passion that these great coaches exuded was notonly for the game but also for the people ldquoI think my coach wanted to work with youngpeople He enjoyed the process of getting his team better He liked seeing a kid developpersonality wiserdquo (p14) and it was always about ldquomaking sure that you were okay as aperson before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) In addition to beingpassionate athletes viewed their coaches as inspirational and enthusiastic These qualitieswere particularly important when the athletes experienced performance lulls or fatigue

In addition to expressing emotions it appears that great coaches also use emotion toregulate their athletesrsquo energy during competition A soccer player described how herrelatively calm coach used an emotional outburst to recharge her team during a halftimebreak In contrast a volleyball player described how his coachrsquos calm emotional state helped

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 99

to decrease player excitement during close games ldquoIf player emotions started taking off hewould call a time out and you would come over and he was very calming and it kind of hita reset button on you to be able to go back out on the court and performrdquo (p6) In othersituations these coaches were ldquoable to elicit emotions out of players without coming off asbeing very emotionalrdquo (p12) While situational factors (such as athlete attitudes) dictated thetiming and manner in which these coaches expressed emotions they always had control Ingeneral the athletes viewed their coaches as emotionally stable ldquoHe would get excited andhe would get downrdquo (p6) but ldquohe wasnrsquot emotionally fragilerdquo (p17) ldquoHe was like our rockrdquo(p12) ldquoThe key to our confidence was his steady emotional state throughout the seasonrdquo(p6)

Another sub-theme within personality characteristics included the coachesrsquo socialqualities This category encompassed the core attributes that influenced how these greatcoaches acted toward others More specifically athletes described their coaches as genuinehonest and loyal This helped the athletes believe and trust in them ldquoIt makes you want togo out there and do a good job and play hard every dayrdquo (p9) Regardless of whether it wasdealing with a behavioral issue or a recurring performance problem the athletes perceivedtheir coaches to be patient and non-judgmental One athlete felt comfortable enough to tellhis coach that he was experiencing fatigue and needed some time off ldquoI knew that he wouldbe positive about it and would try to help me outrdquo (p2)

Characteristics in the psychological domain were related to achievement attitude andorganization The athletes described their coaches as committed and disciplined One athletesuggested that her coach was more disciplined than anybody she had ever met Anotherathlete discussed how his coach was always the first to arrive and the last to leave ldquoIf youdonrsquot work at it you wonrsquot be great You could have all the talent in the world and yoursquoll bemediocre All great coaches push themselvesrdquo (p1) They hold themselves to the highest ofstandards and are driven by their competitive attitude and desire to win ldquo[My coach] hatedto lose and you knew that when you played for him (p5)rdquo Ultimately the athletes describedtheir great coaches as perfectionists This was evident in the way that they carriedthemselves but also in the way that they were organized ldquo[Coach] always had sort of amaster plan in terms of practicesrdquo (p10) ldquoThe guy was meticulousrdquo (p7) These findingsparallel previous research on John Wooden (former UCLA menrsquos basketball coach) whichsuggested that much of his success was ldquothe product of extensive detailed and dailyplanning based on continuous evaluation of individual and team development andperformancerdquo [26 p 124]

Finally the athletes in the present study described their coaches as professional No matterwhat they were doing they did it with character class and respect for others ldquoYou wouldsee them on the field acting the same way they acted off the fieldrdquo (p2) They were consistentin every aspect of their personality and it was evident in the way they managed the teamprepared for games and communicated with athletes ldquoWhen they are consistent itrsquos veryclear what they want from yourdquo (p9) The athletes knew exactly what was expected of thembut also what to expect from their coaches [27] ldquoIf he said he was going to be there hewould be there If he said that he was going to help you do something he would help yourdquo(p15) The professionalism consistency and integrity that coaches exhibited were some ofthe more prominent qualities that helped gain these athletesrsquo admiration trust and respect

It is apparent that personality characteristics played a major role in these athletesrsquoexperiences of great coaching To date only a handful of studies have examined coachpersonalities and a common profile for successful (or great) coaching does not currentlyexist [eg 28-30] However in a previous study of Olympic athletes coaches were viewed

100 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

to decrease player excitement during close games ldquoIf player emotions started taking off hewould call a time out and you would come over and he was very calming and it kind of hita reset button on you to be able to go back out on the court and performrdquo (p6) In othersituations these coaches were ldquoable to elicit emotions out of players without coming off asbeing very emotionalrdquo (p12) While situational factors (such as athlete attitudes) dictated thetiming and manner in which these coaches expressed emotions they always had control Ingeneral the athletes viewed their coaches as emotionally stable ldquoHe would get excited andhe would get downrdquo (p6) but ldquohe wasnrsquot emotionally fragilerdquo (p17) ldquoHe was like our rockrdquo(p12) ldquoThe key to our confidence was his steady emotional state throughout the seasonrdquo(p6)

Another sub-theme within personality characteristics included the coachesrsquo socialqualities This category encompassed the core attributes that influenced how these greatcoaches acted toward others More specifically athletes described their coaches as genuinehonest and loyal This helped the athletes believe and trust in them ldquoIt makes you want togo out there and do a good job and play hard every dayrdquo (p9) Regardless of whether it wasdealing with a behavioral issue or a recurring performance problem the athletes perceivedtheir coaches to be patient and non-judgmental One athlete felt comfortable enough to tellhis coach that he was experiencing fatigue and needed some time off ldquoI knew that he wouldbe positive about it and would try to help me outrdquo (p2)

Characteristics in the psychological domain were related to achievement attitude andorganization The athletes described their coaches as committed and disciplined One athletesuggested that her coach was more disciplined than anybody she had ever met Anotherathlete discussed how his coach was always the first to arrive and the last to leave ldquoIf youdonrsquot work at it you wonrsquot be great You could have all the talent in the world and yoursquoll bemediocre All great coaches push themselvesrdquo (p1) They hold themselves to the highest ofstandards and are driven by their competitive attitude and desire to win ldquo[My coach] hatedto lose and you knew that when you played for him (p5)rdquo Ultimately the athletes describedtheir great coaches as perfectionists This was evident in the way that they carriedthemselves but also in the way that they were organized ldquo[Coach] always had sort of amaster plan in terms of practicesrdquo (p10) ldquoThe guy was meticulousrdquo (p7) These findingsparallel previous research on John Wooden (former UCLA menrsquos basketball coach) whichsuggested that much of his success was ldquothe product of extensive detailed and dailyplanning based on continuous evaluation of individual and team development andperformancerdquo [26 p 124]

Finally the athletes in the present study described their coaches as professional No matterwhat they were doing they did it with character class and respect for others ldquoYou wouldsee them on the field acting the same way they acted off the fieldrdquo (p2) They were consistentin every aspect of their personality and it was evident in the way they managed the teamprepared for games and communicated with athletes ldquoWhen they are consistent itrsquos veryclear what they want from yourdquo (p9) The athletes knew exactly what was expected of thembut also what to expect from their coaches [27] ldquoIf he said he was going to be there hewould be there If he said that he was going to help you do something he would help yourdquo(p15) The professionalism consistency and integrity that coaches exhibited were some ofthe more prominent qualities that helped gain these athletesrsquo admiration trust and respect

It is apparent that personality characteristics played a major role in these athletesrsquoexperiences of great coaching To date only a handful of studies have examined coachpersonalities and a common profile for successful (or great) coaching does not currentlyexist [eg 28-30] However in a previous study of Olympic athletes coaches were viewed

100 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

as possessing many of the same characteristics (eg passion caring honesty) that athletesdiscussed in the present study [24] This suggests that there might be some truth in BruceOgilviersquos assumption ldquothat top class coaches do possess certain qualities in theirpsychological make-up which distinguishes them from other coachesrdquo [30 p 303] Takentogether there appears to be potential for the revitalization of personality research oncoaches

AbilitiesIn addition to personality characteristics the athletes in the present study described theircoaches as possessing exceptional abilities This emerged as another major theme within thedimension of Coach Attributes Abilities were characterized as special talents andorcompetencies One of the dominant sub-themes within this category was these coachesrsquosuperior ability to evaluate player potential ldquoSometimes itrsquos about putting people in the rightpositionsrdquo (p14) ldquoHersquos good at knowing what people are capable of doing When I came inI didnrsquot know what position I played and he told me [I would] be a great outside hitterrdquo (p5)ldquoHe was just a brilliant assessor of talentrdquo (p17) This speaks to these coachesrsquo ability to readand analyze They were exceptionally good at evaluating performance techniquesprocessing tactical strategies and scouting opponents

While athletes identified many abilities that made their coaches great it did not mean thatthey were perfect ldquoI donrsquot think any coach is fully developed in all areasrdquo (p9) A few of theathletes discussed how their coaches sometimes lacked interpersonal emotional andormanagement skills This exposed another sub-theme which was these coachesrsquo ability toovercome shortcomings ldquoI never thought that I would put him at the top of my best coacheslist because he was so young and inexperienced but he was just so inspirational He was anatural leader and because of this his shortcomings as a tactical coach didnrsquot matterrdquo (p12)ldquoYou canrsquot change who you are and you canrsquot be something that yoursquore not You just have toemphasize what yoursquore good at and let your assistants do what yoursquore not good atrdquo (p10)The athletes felt that their coaches effectively integrated support staff (ie assistant coachesstrength and conditioning coaches athletic trainers and sport psychologists) and alsodiscussed their coachesrsquo ability to adapt They adapted to changes in their respective sportsand to the different types of athletes who played for them

ExperienceThe final theme to emerge within the dimension of Coach Attributes was experience For themost part athletes described veteran coaches who were highly respected within their sportsFurthermore the athletes granted an automatic level of credibility to coaches who were wellknown or had positive reputations When coaches have experience ldquoitrsquos easier to buy intowhat [theyrsquore] trying to teachrdquo (p7) One athlete described how ldquomost younger coaches willstop play more often [in practice] My coach didnrsquot stop play as much When he did stop playhe made a point that was very salient and I think that just comes with experiencerdquo (p12)Another athlete talked about how his coach ldquowas good at using past coaching experiences tohelp him make current decisionsrdquo (p11)

The athletes also appreciated playing for coaches who were former players ldquoHe wasnrsquotjust basing himself on something he readrdquo (p17) ldquoHe played on the national team and heplayed in college and I think that gave him more respect and credibilityrdquo (p6) ldquoIrsquove alwayslistened a little bit more attentively to coaches who have done the things that they areteaching and have been on the court and in those situations They can draw from theirexperiences and they know what works and what doesnrsquot workrdquo (p17) They know what itrsquos

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 101

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

like to be ldquofighting in the trenchesrdquo (p16) These great coaches had an idea of what theirplayers were actually experiencing This enhanced their level of understanding andcontributed to their ability to provide additional information ldquoHe played the game so hekind of gave us the inside he taught us all the ins and outs and that made him an exceptionalcoachrdquo (p1)

ENVIRONMENTThe environment was defined as the overall context in which all coach-athlete actions andinteractions occurred According to athlete descriptions great coaches fostered three types ofenvironments the general team environment the one-on-one communication environmentand the practice environment Although these three environments are discussed separatelythey should be viewed as interconnected and part of the backdrop in which athletesexperienced great coaching

The General Team EnvironmentThis represented the overall climate that coaches created One of the fundamentalcomponents of this climate was that it was athlete centered ldquoThere was never any jealousyor worrying about your coach stealing the limelightrdquo (p14) ldquoEvery single day you could tellthat they were putting their best out there for yourdquo (p7) When these athletes performed welltheir coaches ldquonever actually took any creditrdquo (p12) One athlete quoted his coach as sayingldquoThis game is about you Itrsquos not about me When I was playing the game it was about theplayers not about the coachesrdquo (p2) This appears to be an important aspect of greatcoaching because coaches that ldquoput their players first are the [ones] that in the end get betterresults for themselvesrdquo (p2)

In addition to being athlete centered participants described the general environment asteam centered ldquoCoach was always doing what was best for the teamrdquo (p9) These greatcoaches didnrsquot want anyone around ldquothat was going to hurt or jeopardize the teamrdquo (p3)ldquoThey limited us from talking to the media They would try to keep us from spreading anykind of gossip or rumors outside They would tell us that whatever was going on to keep itwithin the teamrdquo (p16) These coaches didnrsquot want their athletes ldquodoing or saying anythingthat would be a distraction to the team It wasnrsquot an issue about you crossing [the coachesrsquo]line it was an issue about you crossing the teamrsquos linerdquo (p6) In fact ldquorules were set up sothat players would be accountable to themselves and to the teamrdquo (p6)

The rules that coaches established also helped to facilitate a general team environmentthat was structured ldquoAs young guys you like to goof off and monkey around and [my coach]would tolerate that to an extent but the rules were the rules You didnrsquot do anything toembarrass your team or your school and certainly not your coachrdquo (p17) There wasnrsquot anyroom for breaking the rules ldquoIf you did you would sit out a game or you would get kicked outof practice The consequences were stern and everyone knew what they were and therefore therules were so rarely broken that they never really had to be enforcedrdquo (p6) Athletes expressedthat when disciplinary actions were necessary they were put into place without favoritismCoaches ldquoequally applied the rules to the star [players] and the bench warmersrdquo (p17)

Athletes also described the team environment as family-like and believed that thisldquoatmosphere stemmed from the coaches all the way down to the playersrdquo (p3) Coachesestablished a family-like environment by caring for their players and engaging with them bothon and off the field ldquoOur team went to the coachrsquos house [on several occasions] and we werelike a part of the familyrdquo (p3) ldquoWe were all in it together trying to win and I think thatrsquos whywe didrdquo (p1) ldquoEven when you are finished playing and you leave the program you never

102 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

really leave You canrsquot go out [on the field] and practice anymore and you canrsquot play [ingames] but yoursquore still a part of the familyrdquo (p3) The athletes in this study suggested that theircoaches created a general team environment that fostered support caring and mutual trust

The One-On-One Communication EnvironmentThe overall environment was also conducive to one-on-one communication Athletesdiscussed how their coaches made themselves accessible but also approachable One athletedidnrsquot think there was ever a time when her coachrsquos office door was closed In fact manyathletes shared how they could talk to their coach about anything regardless of whether itwas related to their sport or personal lives These athletes experienced coaches who were notonly open to conversation but who were also good listeners ldquoYou could go into the coachrsquosoffice and he would be all earsrdquo (p6) This helped to create an atmosphere that wascomfortable for the athletes ldquoYou never felt like you were stepping over a boundary if youwere to walk into their office and ask them a questionrdquo (p9) These findings parallel previousresearch on Olympic athletes who reported that good coach-athlete relationships areldquocharacterized by mutual trust confidence in each otherrsquos abilities good communication(especially good listening skills) and a sense of collaboration or working togetherrdquo [15 p 2]

The Practice EnvironmentAthletes described the practice environment as being well planned highly structured andgame-like ldquoEverything had a purposerdquo (p8) ldquoWe practiced situations that were likely tooccur in gamesrdquo (p15) ldquoWe had to focus in on every possession We didnrsquot just goingthrough the motionsrdquo (p8) These great coaches expected hard work and ldquowere demanding ofevery player no matter what they did We were always hustling whether we were playing ascrimmage or getting a drinkrdquo (p8) The practice atmosphere that these athletes describedwas intense and competitive [2 8] ldquoThe guys competed at such a high level for such a longperiod of time that we just developed more than other teams Our second team could beat alot of teams in the countryrdquo (p7) Despite the high level of competitiveness athletes alsoexperienced a sense of security Once they earned a starting position they didnrsquot feel as ifthey could lose it by making a mistake or performance error In general athletes experiencedthe practice environment as positive and although their coaches sometimes joked aroundthese athletes clearly understood that there was a time for fun and a time to be seriousldquoWhen you got on the court whether it was practice or game time it was all business andeveryone knew thatrdquo (p6)

THE SYSTEM In sport coaching actions and interactions are often based on established beliefs andorphilosophies In the present study athletes described the system as the framework in whichcoaches implemented their philosophies ldquoCoach believed that we could play nine guys andget our nine guys better than [another teamrsquos] six guys The offensive strategies that heimplemented were based on this philosophy We ran the Flex offense and it was pretty simplehow we were going to beat other teams We were going to wear them out and we were goingto foul them out and thatrsquos what it came down to all the time when he talkedrdquo (p14) Anotherathlete described how her coachrsquos system ldquowas based on the team [they] were playing orwhat [they] were good at during that particular yearrdquo (p4) ldquoIt was all about figuring outeveryonersquos strength and focusing on those strengths and how to put everyone together withthose strengths to make the team greatrdquo (p7)

Basically ldquothe system is just the way they put things in the installation of a plan the work

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 103

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

week the philosophy of practice and how the days are structuredrdquo (p1) Athletes viewedtheir coaches as great not just because of the system that they implemented but also becauseof the way they believed in the system ldquoItrsquos the way they believed in teaching and coachingand having relationshipsrdquo (p14)

RELATIONSHIPSThe relationships that athletes experienced with their coaches were professional but alsopersonal ldquoShe was my coach but also a friendrdquo (p13) Establishing a close relationship wasone of the more significant aspects of these athletesrsquo experiences ldquoThere are so many thingsgoing on [and if you have a good relationship with your coach] thatrsquos just one piece of thepuzzle that if you donrsquot have to worry about makes it a lot easierrdquo (p2) ldquoIf you canrsquot havethat kind of connection it makes it roughrdquo (p3) For the most part these athletes were ableto develop strong and lasting relationships with their coaches When coaches display agenuine interest in their players (not only as athletes but also as individuals) they establishrelationships that often extend beyond the sport environment [24 31-33] ldquoIrsquom still friendswith coach to this day I feel like I could walk into his office tomorrow and not miss a beatrdquo(p14) ldquoItrsquos rare to get to have a [coach] like thatrdquo (p2) When coaches are truly great ldquoyoualways remember who they are what they do and where they are nowrdquo (p16)

Personal RelationshipThe athletes never felt as if their coaches imposed a personal relationship on them ldquoAs muchof a relationship you wanted to have with coach whether big or small you could haverdquo (p8)However there were also boundaries ldquoYou could have fun with coach and he would let youpick at him but there was never a sense that you would ever disrespect him or that you wereon the same level He was always the coach and you were always the playerrdquo (p6) Theathletes discussed how their coaches effectively managed boundaries by remainingobjective Personal connections never influenced these coachesrsquo ability to make fair anddifficult decisions The athletes werenrsquot ldquobeing treated or asking to be treated differently thananybody else on the teamrdquo (p11)

The personal relationship that athletes developed with their coaches was also predicatedon trust confidence and respect The athletes discussed how their coaches ldquogained respectout of love rather than fearrdquo (p4) They made an effort not to embarrass berate or publiclyhumiliate their players in front of teammates or people outside the team This was importantfor these athletes because ldquoif you sit there and tear a [player] apart theyrsquore just going to endup going more and more downhillrdquo (p3) Instead many of the athletes described how theircoaches ldquogot people to respond without yellingrdquo (p5) If they got upset the athletes could seeit in their demeanor andor mannerisms These coaches did not need to over-exert their poweror demand respect from their athletes Instead they earned it with their experienceknowledge and relentless hard work One athlete expressed how her coachrsquos ldquorespect for theplayers ended up winning their respect for himrdquo (p12) These coaches were honest loyal andtreated the athletes with kindness This served to strengthen the coach-athlete relationshipbut also the athletesrsquo motivation and coachability ldquoWhen you have that in the mix then itrsquoseasy to buy into what the coach is sellingrdquo (p13) These aspects of the relationship made theathletes more open to their coachesrsquo instruction feedback and criticism ldquoThatrsquos how you getthe best out of athletesrdquo (p3)

The personal relationship was also described as athlete centered These great coachesshowed an interest in their athletes not only as players but also as people ldquoI was betweenthe 12th and 15th man [on my basketball team] the majority of my career and my coach was

104 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

always interested in me always interested in my parents and he didnrsquot have to berdquo (p14)The athletes felt like they were a priority ldquoCoach invested time and energy and effort intomerdquo (p5) ldquoShe never told me ldquonordquo for anything whether it was watching extra tape beforepractice or doing an extra workout Whatever it was she never said nordquo (p8) This made theseathletes feel valued ldquoI wasnrsquot just one of the 25 players on the team I was more than just anumberrdquo (p11) ldquoIf you have value and worth thatrsquos when you want to do your best andperform to the best you canrdquo (p3) ldquoIt helps you play better too because you are not justplaying for yourself Yoursquore playing for yourself your teammates and your coachesrdquo (p5)

Athletes also viewed their coaches as people they could relate to One athlete expressedhow his coach could ldquoget on the level of the player no matter what their personality wasrdquo(p15) Another athlete felt that his coach ldquorelated to the guys because he was a player himselfand he knew playersrsquo mentalitiesrdquo (p6) Other factors that helped these coaches relate to theirathletes included sharing similar interests telling stories and using humor The athletes oftendescribed how their coaches ldquowould laugh and joke about thingsrdquo (p15) Having a sense ofhumor also appeared to increase the degree to which athletes perceived their coaches aslikeable [31]

Not only did these great coaches relate to their athletes but they also got to know themThis is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the coach-athlete relationshipAccording to John Wooden ldquoYoursquove got to study and analyze each individual and find outwhat makes them tick and how you can get them under your controlrdquo [26 p 126] Gettingto know individuals on a personal level enhances a coachrsquos ability to relate to his or herathletes get their attention and treat them in a manner which accommodates individualneeds [16 32 35 36] While the great coaches described in the present study invested timeand effort into getting to know their athletes they also let themselves be known ldquoMy coachshared enough about his own life and his own past experiences and his own kids and his wifethat it made him seem humanrdquo (p6) Learning about their coaches off the field helped theseathletes understand what their coaches expected on the field ldquoIf you know them itrsquos easierfor you to play because you know what they want and you can relax and not second guessyourselfrdquo (p13) ldquoHim really getting to know who I was and vice versa made for a reallystrong bondrdquo (p15)

The personal relationship was also strengthened due to the care and support that thesecoaches provided ldquoCoach was literally there for me every step of the way no matter what Iwas doingrdquo (p15) ldquo[He] wanted me to grow and develop as a player and a person and theoffice door was always open if you had a problem or needed anythingrdquo (p9) These athletesgenuinely believed that their coaches cared about more than just performance outcomesThey wanted them to succeed and they ldquomade sure that the players were okay as people (likewhat was going on in their life) before addressing [anything related to the sport]rdquo (p12) Thislevel of caring gained the athletesrsquo respect and made them want to ldquodo extra and go the extramilerdquo (p7)

Professional RelationshipAlthough many components of the personal and professional coach-athlete relationship areinterconnected the professional relationship pertained more specifically to the manner inwhich these athletes were treated as players One of the major themes to emerge within theprofessional relationship was accountability The athletes described coaches who neverpointed the finger after a loss or put the blame on others When the team failed they tookresponsibility However they also encouraged their athletes to take responsibility and heldthem accountable for their actions ldquoSomebody has to hold you accountable A great athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 105

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

doesnrsquot always hold himself accountablerdquo (p1) ldquoSometimes yoursquod go through the motionsbut [with this coach] everything was chartedrdquo (p8) Some of the methods these coaches usedto hold their athletes accountable were team rules peer pressure playing time andperformance statistics ldquoThere was something attached to everything whether it was positivereinforcement or some type of repercussionrdquo (p8) Although these athletes were sometimespunished they never felt that their coaches held grudges ldquoThere were rules and there weregoing to be punishments but [coach never] held anything over your head or kept anythingagainst yourdquo (p6) ldquoIf you go out there and make a bonehead play and lose the game the nightbefore hersquoll get into you a little bit after the game and tell you what you need to be told buthersquoll come back the next day and itrsquos like it never happenedrdquo (p2) The athletes also explainedhow their coaches never showed favoritism toward certain players One athlete expressedhow she ldquonever got the feeling that [her coach] disliked someone Outwardly he treatedeverybody the samerdquo (p12) ldquoThe majority of the time you were playing or not playing basedon your numbers If your numbers are up and yoursquore doing the things that he needs you todo then he will play yourdquo (p6) These athletes felt that their coaches were fair regardless ofwhether it was a starter or a non-starter ldquoI never worried I just knew that I would get a shotand I just knew that it was up to me to take advantage of that shotrdquo (p7) This finding isparticularly important because it contradicts a body of research which suggests that manycoaches (ie high school college and elite) provide differential treatment to their athletes[37-40] However in recent studies highly successful coaches (eg Pat Summitt) have beenfound to provide an equitable distribution of feedback to both the starters and non-starters ontheir teams [2 26 41] Therefore it could be assumed that the provision of fair and equitabletreatment is one major factor that separates the great coach from the average coach

The professional relationship was also athlete centered ldquoThey accept who you are [as aplayer] when you come in Itrsquos not like their way or the highway You have habits in the wayyou play and coach isnrsquot going to transform you into a different playerrdquo (p3) ldquoThere are alot of ways to get things donerdquo (p2) The athletes described how it was more important totheir coaches that tasks were performed successfully versus perfectly Rather than focusingon minor imperfections these great coaches built on playersrsquo strengths ldquoMy coach wouldalways find the one thing that you did well and hersquod run with it Instead of saying lsquoOkaywersquore going to work on a bunch of different things to make you the guy I want you to bersquohe would say lsquoAlright this is what you do well letrsquos try to make it the best that we canrsquo Hewould look at what you did well and he would milk it for everything that it was worthrdquo (p15)Not only did these great coaches build on player strengths they also showed confidence intheir athletes ldquoI wanted to do well and [my coach] looked and talked to me like I was goingto There was no doubt in his mind and therefore I didnrsquot have the ability to question myselfrdquo(p6) ldquoIt was almost like [coach] put faith in people and people would performrdquo (p7) Theseathletes got the feeling that their coaches believed in them ldquoEven when hersquod rip into you hewould never make you feel like you were a horrible player but he would let you know lsquoHeyI think you can do betterrsquordquo (p9) The athletes described coaches who never settled formediocre They inspired their athletes both mentally and physically to play hard believe inthemselves and reach their full potential

The athletes discussed how their coaches provided them with opportunities to getinvolved in the decision-making process Coaches let them make decisions regarding offdays pre-season conditioning practice schedules uniforms and where they would eat onroad trips ldquoThe guys on the team never got to design or call plays but he made it feel likeit was our team He gave us ownershiprdquo (p14) Although the athletes were only involved in(what might be considered to be) minor decisions research suggests that athletes do not like

106 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

participating in decision making when issues are highly important or complex andor theoutcome of the decision will pose a threat to the athlete [42 43] Therefore it appears thatthese great coaches appropriately integrated their athletes into the decision-making process

In addition to making decisions athletes felt empowered when their coaches involvedthem in the recruiting process When a recruit was visiting several of the athletes said theywould each get an assignment One coach told his players ldquoHere is [the athlete] wersquorebringing in I want you to tell him what itrsquos like to be here but I want to know what you thinkof him toordquo (p14) These coaches were looking to recruit good players but also good peoplewho would fit in with their program and their athletes As a result these coaches took theirathletesrsquo opinions seriously ldquoWe always had veto power and sometimes we exercised itrdquo(p14) Providing these athletes with opportunities to get involved and make decisions madethem feel empowered It helped them buy into their coachrsquos system and the team concept

COACHING ACTIONSAs previously mentioned one of the most central dimensions of these athletesrsquo experienceswas Coaching Actions which included seven general themes Teach CommunicateMotivate Respond Prepare Perform and Disregard the Irrelevant Furthermore eachcoaching action was mediated by its content method andor quality (Figure 1) It becameevident from these athletesrsquo experiences that greatness is not about what coaches do butrather how they do it For example all coaches teach Great coaches teach the details Allcoaches communicate Great coaches communicate honestly All coaches prepare Greatcoaches prepare meticulously All coaches develop expectations Great coaches develop highexpectations and do everything in their power to help athletes achieve them For the athletesin the present study it was the content method and quality of their coachesrsquo actions thatdistinguished them as great The general themes that emerged within the dimension ofCoaching Actions are discussed in the following sections

TeachOne of the most basic actions that these great coaches engaged in was teaching Athletesdiscussed how their coaches taught sport skills that were cognitive (strategies tactics andsystems of play) physical (fitness performance techniques and fundamental game skills)and mental (focus imagery anticipation and mindset) However these athletes alsoexpressed how ldquogreat coaches actually teach you about liferdquo (p16) [44] The category of lifeskills included values attitudes and beliefs Some of the skills that these athletes learnedwere how to deal with pressure handle adversity and work with others They also learnedrespect patience and self-reliance Their coaches didnrsquot just teach these skills they modeledthem ldquoWe learned to have a good attitude because coach had a good attituderdquo (p2)

In addition to modeling behaviors these great coaches adopted a multi-dimensionalapproach to teaching their athletes Athletes discussed how their coaches used a combinationof verbal visual and physical methods ldquoSome people get it from reading it some people getit from the visual and some people get it from actually doing it but those are the three ways[that these coaches] presented itrdquo (p1) Verbal methods included basic instruction feedbackand questioning The coach encouraged athletes to be active rather than passive learners ldquoHewould question you and make you think about what you were doing and why it was wrongand what you needed to do next timerdquo (p11) ldquoThen he would tell you what he sawrdquo (p1)

Some of the visual methods that these coaches implemented to teach skills were physicaldemonstrations chalk talks scouting reports and video clips ldquoIrsquom a visual learner so shedidnrsquot just talk to me She kind of got in there and showed me held my hand and we video-

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 107

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

tapedrdquo (p13) ldquoA lot of coaches teach you how to study film how to study a different playerhow to study your opponentrdquo (p16) As a result these athletes also developed the ability toidentify their own strengths and weaknesses Some athletes got to the point where they couldcoach themselves

Physical teaching methods included manual manipulation and repetition Manualmanipulation represented instances in which the ldquocoach physically moved [players] tocertain placesrdquo (p17) However most of these athletes focused on how their coachesemphasized repetition ldquoIt was just making you do it over and over and over again until yougot it rightrdquo (p5) Repetition did not mean going through the motions It meant performingwith precision ldquoI think we ran 80 something perfect plays one day after practice If you doit perfect in practice it carries over to the gamerdquo (p1) It appears that great coaching involvesutilizing a combination of teaching methods which maximize athlete learning

The athletes also spoke about the quality of their coachesrsquo teaching methods Specificallythey emphasized how their coaches paid ldquogreat attention to the little detailsrdquo (p13) Thesecoaches had the ability to ldquopull out the finer things when teaching a playerrdquo (p14) andinstructions were specific They did not tell their players to ldquojust get it donerdquo (p1) Insteadthey explained exactly how to get it done [2 3 8] The athletes also mentioned how theircoaches simplified the process One athlete explained how his coach ldquoalways found a way tobreak things down to the most simplistic senserdquo (p15) Another athlete said that his coachsometimes had players practice their skills in slow motion In general training sessions weredesigned so that there was a progression from simple to complex ldquoYou would start out smalland go big and he would build on his teachings When we moved from simple to complexthe purpose of the drill was not lost The same theme ran through each progressionrdquo (p12)These athletesrsquo comments suggest that great coaches pace their instruction according to eachathletersquos learning curve

Communicate Athletes repeatedly discussed how their coaches communicated basic performanceinformation player roles expectations individual goals and a common team vision ldquoWeknew exactly what coach wanted us to do in terms of getting better improving and helpingthe teamrdquo (p17) In addition coaches wanted ldquothings to be done in a particular way for areasonrdquo (p4) and provided explanations for what they asked the athletes to do (eg why theywere conducting a particular drill or why a certain individual might not play) Taking the timeto explain why was an important aspect of communication that made these coaches great

According to the athletes coach communication methods were both direct and indirectDirect communication included one-on-one verbal dialogues which occurred on the playingfield but also during individual player meetings that were designed to gather opinionsdiscuss goals or simply check the playersrsquo status in terms of academics andor personalissues In order to communicate effectively coaches must have their athletesrsquo attentionAthletes described how coaches got their attention For some athletes this meant ldquospeakingsoftly or yelling and screamingrdquo (p1) For others it was using analogies telling stories orldquosaying things that had a little bit of shock valuerdquo (p6) These coaches figured out ldquowhatexcited each player and found a way to grab their attentionrdquo (p8)

The athletes also discussed methods of communication that were indirect ldquoMy coachcommunicated through his organization of practices The way that practices were organizedhelped us know where we stood [on the team]rdquo (p10) A baseball player discussed how hiscoach communicated messages through certain players that were highly respected on theteam The athletes also expressed how their coaches communicated through facial

108 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

expressions andor physical mannerisms ldquoWe just knew when he was getting heated orexcited or whether it was an angry mad or if he was happy that we were winning You couldtell by his demeanorrdquo (p5)

The quality of these coachesrsquo communication was described as clear consistent andhonest [45] Rather than telling players what they wanted to hear they would tell them thetruth ldquoCoach would never say something false He wouldnrsquot give you false complimentsrdquo(p9) In addition they didnrsquot send mixed messages ldquoIf yoursquore telling somebody that theyrsquoreawesome and theyrsquore playing great and then in training you take them out of the startingline-up and play them in the reserves then yoursquore sending them a mixed messagerdquo (p9) Incontrast to this example the athletes described their coachesrsquo words and actions asconsistent

Coaches also communicated in a manner that was appropriate and positive ldquoYou have tohave constructive criticism but you donrsquot want to have a coach who continually bangs onyou until you wear down Itrsquos okay to have some negative points sometimes but it canrsquotalways be negative therersquos got to be a balancerdquo (p2) One athlete described how she neverheard a negative word come out of her coachrsquos mouth Finally athletes discussed how theircoachesrsquo communication was well-timed ldquoHe would only instruct you before or after playsbut never during actual playrdquo (p6) These coaches knew what to say but also when to say itFurthermore the content method and quality of communication appeared to be dependenton factors related to the situation the coach and the athlete who was receiving theinformation [46]

MotivateAthletes described how their coaches motivated them to learn the game work hard andbecome the best players they could be ldquoWhen you have a coach that is super motivating itmakes you want to play for themrdquo (p5) Part of what was motivating to these athletes was whotheir coaches were The other part was what their coaches did However the most importantfactor for these athletes was that their coaches ldquotouched something inside of themrdquo (p8)

Some players were motivated because their coaches were enthusiastic caring andorpassionate Others were motivated by the desire to please their coach The athletes describedhow their coaches motivated by helping them set goals andor providing a vision for thefuture Regardless of whether it was joking around or telling stories the athletes felt that theircoachesrsquo motivational strategies were individualized ldquo[Some athletes] are motivated bycarrots and some by sticks Some follow for reasons of wanting to please their coach andsucceed and others follow because theyrsquore just scared to deathrdquo (p17) ldquo[My coach] found away to motivate each player and then did it He found a way to motivate everyonerdquo (p9)

Prepare for CompetitionOne aspect of the preparation was physical Athletes discussed how their coachesemphasized the importance of staying in shape A baseball pitcher noted that his coach wasldquobig into the physical conditioning but also the [mechanical] conditioning of your armrdquo(p15) Coaches also prepared athletes by running game-like practices For these athletesldquopractices were harder than the actual matchesrdquo (p7)

Another aspect of the preparation was the utilization of mental skills training The athletesdescribed a variety of activities their coaches implemented to mentally prepare them forcompetition [47] These included performance routines focusing strategies andvisualization ldquoHe literally would lay me down on the ground on my back and tell me tovisualize seeing myself on the mound throwing with the perfect mechanicsrdquo (p15) Coaches

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 109

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

also prepared for competition by developing meticulous game plans ldquoCoach was very goodat figuring out the tactics to stop an opponent There is only so much you can do to executea game plan but you knew that he had it all broken down every last number He had itcalculated outrdquo (p7) Coaches also had their athletes study opponents ldquoWe used to have togo through every single pitching chart from the game before on each hitter and highlightwhen they swung through a fastball (were they ahead or behind in the count)rdquo (p15)

Finally the athletes described their coachesrsquo preparation as consistent ldquoWhether we wereplaying in front of 20000 or 2000 people I donrsquot think you saw a difference in hispersonality He didnrsquot prepare differently His life didnrsquot change His actions didnrsquot changerdquo(p14) ldquoEverything was drawn out and we knew what we were going to do and how we weregoing to do it and we did it over and over and over againrdquo (p10)

Respond to AthletesThe manner in which these coaches responded to athlete behaviors and performance emergedas another major theme within the dimension of Coaching Actions Participants discussedhow their coaches responded to effort mistakes emotions and performance outcomesRegardless of whether it was positive or negative the athletes appreciated getting a responsefrom their coaches ldquoIf the coach just stands there and watches you never know if yoursquoredoing something right Itrsquos nice for coaches to show a bit of emotion and not be so stoic thatthey canrsquot be human as wellrdquo (p9) The three primary coaching responses that athletesdescribed were excitement enjoyment and displeasure

One of the factors that influenced these coachesrsquo excitement was their athletesrsquoexcitement ldquoHe got excited about things that he knew we got excited aboutrdquo (p15)However their coaches also got excited when players performed well ldquoWhen somebodywould make a great dig or a great hit or it was a great play his face literally would light upand he would be the first person to say lsquoThat was a career digrsquo Or lsquoThat was your best hitrsquordquo(p13) The athletes described how their coaches got excited about factors associated with theprocess more often than with performance outcomes ldquoCoach didnrsquot just get excited over thegoals but he got excited about a great defensive tackle or a defensive header the things thatwere not glorious but selflessrdquo (p9) In addition to their excitement these coaches expressedenjoyment when their players improved andor developed ldquoIf a player is better than he wasa month ago that made him happy I think thatrsquos where he got his enjoymentrdquo (p14)

Coaches responded with displeasure when athletes were goofing off not paying attentionor being lazy ldquoCoach had zero patience for people who wouldnrsquot work hard and he madethat very clear at the beginningrdquo (p12) They also had no tolerance for mental mistakes Abaseball player quoted his coach who said ldquolsquoNobody wants to strike out Nobody wants tomake an error I will never criticize you about that Those things happen but I will get upsetif you make a mental mistakersquordquo (p2) When it came to physical mistakes these coaches weremore forgiving ldquoYou had a margin of error If you are playing your hardest you are goingto make mistakes itrsquos inevitablerdquo (p6) Several athletes discussed how their coachesencouraged aggressive play and wouldnrsquot take players out of the game or punish them formaking physical errors As a result the athletes rarely worried about making mistakesInstead they were able play aggressively yet relaxed

Perform Under PressureWhile the focus in sport is primarily directed toward player performance coaches are alsoperformers The participants in this study primarily discussed how their coaches performedunder pressure This emerged as another major theme within the dimension of Coaching

110 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Actions In pressure situations these great coaches remained confident calm andemotionally stable ldquo[My coachrsquos] true gift is that in the heat of the battle she is the rockSome coaches are emotional and want to win and forget to relax and execute but my coachstayed calm and in the zone She never blew up unless she wanted too She never shows fearShe never shows her uneasiness or nervousness Her communication is direct and to thepoint She chooses her words wisely Her voice is not soft but loud and everything is matterof fact The key is that coach already had everything in the playbook She never drew up anew play when the game was on the line It was being able to pull out one more trick butpulling out a trick that she already hadrdquo (p4) When these coaches maintained a high level ofpoise in pressure situations the athletes experienced a sense of calmness and comfortldquoHaving the coach be more of a steady figure gave the whole team a comfort level to knowthat it was never going to get out of control I think it really kind of calmed my mindrdquo (p6)Displaying a calm and confident coaching style was also found to facilitate athleteperformance at the Olympic games [24 48]

Disregard the Irrelevant The athletes expressed how their coaches showed disregard for anything that was irrelevantto the teamrsquos primary mission goals andor objectives This emerged as another major themewithin Coaching Actions These athletes described their coaches as being able to see the bigpicture and as a result they ldquowould let the little things go sometimesrdquo (p6) ldquoHe didnrsquot careone iota about how you dressed whether you were shaven or unshaven if you had long hairor short hair or if you wore a bandana Nothing mattered to him but how you played thegamerdquo (p7)

As long as the athletes were prepared to compete come game time they were not punishedfor minor infractions such as losing drills in practice or arriving late for road trips ldquoIf youmissed a flight your ticket was at the gate and there was no bolognardquo (p7) The athletes werelargely responsible for themselves and their progress and this was even evident in one of thefootball playerrsquos experiences of training ldquoIf you were over 30 you conditioned in your ownway Yoursquore old enough to know what you need to do to stay in shape to be able to play andyoursquore going to do itrdquo (p1) The athletes in this study were expected to be self-motivated Themanner in which this athlete trained was less relevant to his coach than the fact that he wasadequately trained and maybe even more importantly that he was healthy to compete

INFLUENCESUltimately athletes were influenced by the interaction between Coach Attributes TheEnvironment The System Relationships and Coaching Actions While the impact ofcoaching actions was mediated by the content method and quality of delivery all of theother dimensions served as the background that influenced athlete experiences Theparticipants in this study described how playing for great coaches was about ldquomore than justbecoming a better athlete but also becoming a better personrdquo (p3) These coaches influencedthe athletesrsquo self-perceptions development and performance Most importantly theyinfluenced the athletesrsquo desire and ability to become the best that they could be not only insport but also in life

CONCLUSIONThe goal of the present study was to expand on previous literature by examining athleteexperiences of great coaching By focusing on athlete experiences rather than on any specificaspect of coaching the results revealed a more comprehensive picture of the factors that

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 111

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

underlie coaching greatness The athletes in this study experienced great coaches whorepresented all levels of sport (ie youth high school club collegiate and professional)They also described coaches who were male and female young and old experienced and lessexperienced This reinforces the notion that great coaching cannot be solely determined onthe basis of win-loss records or media attention In the present study the true essence ofgreatness was captured in athlete experiences of who their coaches were what they did howthey did it and how it influenced them Ultimately these athletes experienced individualswho were not only great coaches but extraordinary people who left lasting impressions onthe lives of those who were fortunate enough to call them ldquocoachrdquo

REFERENCES1 Horn TS Coaching Effectiveness in the Sport Domain in Horn TS ed Advances in Sport Psychology

Human Kinetics Champaign IL 2008 239-267

2 Becker AJ and Wrisberg CA Effective Coaching in Action Observations of Legendary CollegiateBasketball Coach Pat Summitt The Sport Psychologist 2008 22 197-211

3 Bloom GA Crumpton R and Anderson JE A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviorsof an Expert Basketball Coach The Sport Psychologist 1999 11 157-170

4 Claxton DB A Systematic Observation of More and Less Successful High School Tennis Coaches Journalof Teaching in Physical Education 1988 7 302-310

5 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

6 Lacy AC and Goldston PO Behavioral Analysis of Male and Female Coaches in High School GirlsrsquoBasketball Journal of Sport Behavior 1990 13 29-39

7 Rushall BS and Wiznuk K Athletesrsquo Assessment of the Coach The Coach Evaluation QuestionnaireCanadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 1985 10 157-161

8 Tharp RG and Gallimore R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher Psychology Today 1976 9 75-78

9 Chelladurai P and Saleh SD Dimensions of Leader Behavior in Sports Development of a LeadershipScale Journal of Sport Psychology 1980 2 34-45

10 Lacy AC and Darst PW Systematic Observation of Behaviors of Winning High School Head FootballCoaches Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1985 4 256-270

11 Smith RE Smoll FL and Hunt EB A System for the Behavioral Assessment of Athletic CoachesResearch Quarterly 1977 48 401-407

12 Gilbert WD and Trudel P Analysis of Coaching Science Research Published From 1970-2001 ResearchQuarterly for Exercise and Sport 2004 75 388-399

13 Valle RS King M and Halling S An Introduction to Existential-Phenomenological Thought inPsychology in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in PsychologyPlenum New York 1989 3-16

14 De Marco GMP Mancini VH and West DA Reflections on Change A Qualitative and QuantitativeAnalysis of a Baseball Coachrsquos Behavior Journal of Sport Behavior 1997 20 135-163

15 Dieffenbach K Gould D and Moffett A The Coachrsquos Role in Developing Champions Olympic Coach1999 2-4

16 Kimiecik J and Gould D Coaching Psychology The Case of James ldquoDocrdquo Councilman The SportPsychologist 1987 1 350-358

17 Pensgaard AM and Roberts GC Elite Athletesrsquo Experiences of the Motivational Climate The CoachMatters Scandinavian Journal of Medicine amp Science in Sports 2002 12 54-59

18 Valleacutee CN and Bloom GA Building a Successful University Program Key and Common Elements ofExpert Coaches Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2005 17 179-196

112 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

19 Pollio HR Henley TB and Thompson CJ The Phenomenology of Every Day Life CambridgeUniversity Press New York 1997

20 Idhe D Experimental Phenomenology An Introduction State University of New York Press Albany NY1986

21 Thomas SP and Pollio HR Listening to Patients Springer Publishing Company New York 2002

22 Polkinghorne D Phenomenological Research Methods in Valle RS and Halling S eds Existential-Phenomenological Perspectives in Psychology Plenum New York 1989 41-60

23 Dale GA Existential Phenomenology Emphasizing the Experience of the Athlete in Sport PsychologyResearch The Sport Psychologist 1996 10 307-321

24 Gould D Guinan D Greenleaf C Medbery R and Peterson K Factors Affecting OlympicPerformance Perceptions of Athletes and Coaches from More and Less Successful Teams The SportPsychologist 1999 13 371-394

25 Lidor R and Lavyan N A Retrospective Picture of Early Sport Experiences Among Elite and Near-EliteIsraeli Athletes Developmental and Psychological Perspectives International Journal of Sport Psychology2002 33 269-289

26 Gallimore R and Tharp R What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher 1975-2004 Reflections and Reanalysis ofJohn Woodenrsquos Teaching Practices The Sport Psychologist 2004 18 119-137

27 Becker AJ and Solomon GB Expectancy Information and Coach Effectiveness in IntercollegiateBasketball The Sport Psychologist 2005 19 251-266

28 Cheng H and Wu Y Comparison of the Personality Traits of Judo Coaches and Athletes Asian Journal ofPhysical Education 1987 9(4) 23-37

29 Frederick C and Morrison C Collegiate Coaches An Examination of Motivational Style and itsRelationship to Decision Making and Personality Journal of Sport Behavior 1999 22 221-233

30 Hendry L A Personality Study of Highly Successful and ldquoIdealrdquo Swimming Coaches Research Quarterly1969 40 299-305

31 Durand-Bush N and Salmela JH The Development and Maintenance of Expert Athletic PerformancePerceptions of World and Olympic Champions Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2002 14 154-171

32 Lanning W Coach and Athlete Personality Interaction A Critical Variable in Athletic Success Journal ofSport Psychology 1979 1 262-267

33 Salminen S and Liukkonen J Coach-Athlete Relationship and Coaching Behavior in Training SessionsInternational Journal of Sport Psychology 1996 27 59-67

34 Burke KL Peterson D and Nix CL The Effects of the Coachesrsquo Use of Humor on Female VolleyballPlayersrsquo Evaluation of Their Coaches Journal of Sport Behavior 1995 18 (2) 83-90

35 Giacobbi PR Whitney J Roper E and Butryn T College Coachesrsquo Views About the Development ofSuccessful Athletes A Descriptive Exploratory Investigation Journal of Sport Behavior 2003 25 164-181

36 Gould D Dieffenbach K and Moffett A Psychological Characteristics and Their Development inOlympic Champions Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 2002 14 172-204

37 Lacy AC and Martin DL Analysis of StarterNonstarter Motor-Skill Engagement and CoachingBehaviors in Collegiate Womenrsquos Volleyball Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 1994 13 95-107

38 Sinclair DA and Vealey RS Effects of Coachesrsquo Expectations and Feedback on the Self-Perceptions ofAthletes Journal of Sport Behavior 1989 12 77-91

39 Solomon GB DiMarco AM Ohlson CJ and Reece SD Expectations and Coaching Experience IsMore Better Journal of Sport Behavior 1998 21 444-455

40 Solomon GB Striegel DA Eliot JF Heon SN Maas JL and Wayda VK The Self-FulfillingProphecy in College Basketball Implications for Effective Coaching Journal of Applied Sport Psychology1996 8 44-59

41 Segrave JO and Ciancio CA An Observational Study of a Successful Pop Warner Football CoachJournal of Teaching in Physical Education 1990 9 294-306

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 113

42 Chelladurai P and Arnott M Decision Styles in Coaching Preferences of Basketball Players ResearchQuarterly 1985 56 15-24

43 Chelladurai P and Quek CB Decision Style Choices of High School Basketball Coaches The Effects ofSituational and Coach Characteristics Journal of Sport Behavior 1995 18 91-108

44 Gould D and Carson S Life Skills Development Through Sport Current Status and Future DirectionsInternational Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 2008 1 58-78

45 LaVoi NM Expanding the Interpersonal Dimension Closeness in the Coach-Athlete RelationshipInternational Journal of Sports Science and Coaching 2007 2 497-512

46 Magill RA The Influence of Augmented Feedback on Skill Learning Depends on Characteristics of theSkill and the Learner Quest 1994 46 314-327

47 Coteacute J Yardley J Hay J Sedgwick W and Baker J An Exploratory Examination of the CoachingBehavior Scale for Sport Avante 1999 5 89-92

50 Gould D Guinan D Greenleaf C and Chung Y A Survey of US Olympic Coaches Variables Perceivedto Have Influenced Athlete Performances and Coach Effectiveness The Sport Psychologist 2002 16 229-250

114 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

APPENDIX THEMATIC STRUCTURE OF ATHLETEEXPERIENCES OF GREAT COACHING

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 115

Coach Attributes

Great PersonTeacherParental FigureMentorFriendLeaderExpertLegendHuman being

KnowledgeableSmartInnovativeCreative

PassionateEnthusiasticInspirationalCalm but intenseEmotionally stable

GenuineLoyalPatientHonestCandidFlexibleNon-judgmentalDemandingLikeableHumorousRare and specialBalanced

ConfidentDisciplinedCompetitivePerfectionistDedicatedAggressiveMeticulousOrganizedCommittedConsistentProfessional

More Than Just A Coach

Personality Characteristics

Abilities

Cognitive

Emotional

Social

Experience

AdaptGet along with othersCompartmentalizeWork within personalityRead peopleAnalyzeIntegrate personal and professional lifeEvaluate and recognize player potential

Imperfections

Playing experienceCoaching experience

Interpersonal styleManagementEmotional controlAbility to overcome imperfections

Psychological

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

116 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Environment

PlannedStructuredPurposefulFocusedIntenseGame-likeDemandingCompetitiveSecureSeriousFunSelf-motivatedPositive

ComfortableApproachableAccessibleUnderstandingOpenNon-judgmental

General TeamEnvironment

One-on-oneCommunicationEnvironment

PracticeEnvironment

Structured (rules and behavioral guidelines)Not ambiguousFamily-likeLight-heartedSupportiveCaringTrustingAthlete centeredTeam centered

Coach belief in systemAthlete belief in systemOffensive strategiesDefensive strategiesWeekly practice plan (structure)Structured environmentSystem based on coach philosophyAdapted the systems accordingly

System

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Relationships

Believed in meProtected meHelped meInspired meHeld me accountableBuilt on my strengthsAllowed for individualityNever held a grudgeTreated me like more than just a player

How coach treatedme as a player

Professional Relationship

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 117

Relationships(continued)

Like a friendshipBig or small depending on athlete preferenceProfessional and personalClose (not distant)MeaningfulGoodStrongUniqueLight-heartedLastingConnectedComfortableHad boundaries

Established earlyShowed an interest in meSpent time with me off the fieldRelated to meSupported meInvested in mePrioritized meWanted something for meThere fore meGot to know meLet me get to know him or herCared about meValued meGained my trustGained my confidenceGained my respect

Cognitive (eg strategies tactics game sense)Physical (eg techniques fundamentals)Mental (eg anticipation focus imagery)

Personal Relationship

Teaching methods

Development of thepersonal relationship

Direct instructionFeedbackQuestioningDemonstrationModelingFilm (ie video)ChalkboardReadingWorkbooksRepetitionManual manipulation

SpecificDetailedSimplifiedProgression (ie from less to more complex)Slow motionAthlete pacedNot micro-managedIndividualized

Sport skills

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Quality of thepersonal relationship

TeachCoaching Actions

Life skills

Values (eg respect accountability patience)Beliefs (eg self-esteem confidenceAttitudes (eg positive driven)General (eg work ethic coping with stress)

Quality of teaching

118 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coaching Actions(continued)

ExpectationsPerformance relevant informationPlayer roles on the teamA common team visionGoals and objectivesWhat to do and how to do itExplanations for coach decisions and actions

Direct communication (face to face)Indirect communication through - other athletes - the organization of practice - writing (ie notes e-mails) - non-verbal behaviors - story telling - using analogiesCoach listenedCoach got my attention

HonestAppropriateConsistent (ie no mixed messages)Well timedPositiveWell articulatedBalanced

Communicate Method ofcommunication

Content ofmotivation

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Content ofcommunication

Method ofmotivation

Challenged me (ie mentally and physically)He would give me little things to work onInvested time in meTold me what I was capable of achievingDrove me to work hardMade me want to play for him or herBy earning my respect I wanted to play my bestI was motivated to please coachCoach was motivated upbeat and energeticAppealed to my emotional sideUsed inspirational stories and analogiesCreated a positive and competitive environment

Quality ofcommunication

Motivate

Individual and team goalsVisions of successMotivational content was individualized

Type ofpreparation

Method ofpreparation

Game plans (detailed and meticulous)Practice plans (detailed and meticulous)Teach (refer to Teaching theme)Communicate (refer Communication theme)Motivate (refer to Motivation theme)

Physical conditioningGame-like practices (techniques and tactics)Mental preparation

Prepare athletesfor competition

MeticulousConsistent (ie the same for every opponent)

Quality ofpreparation

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 119

Coaching Actions(continued)

Physical mistakesMental mistakesAthlete performance (good and bad)Athlete effort and work ethic (or lack of)Athlete moods and emotions

CalmEmotionally stableConfidentClearPreparedConsistent

Respond to athletes

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Self-perceptionsDevelopmentPerformance

Perform under pressure

Coach could see the big picturePrioritized team goals objectives missionLet the little things go (not nit picky)Let us play the gameNo punishment for minor infractionsNot how you prepared but that you did prepare

ConstructivePositiveSpecificAppropriateConsistent

Coaches respondedto the following

Quality ofresponses

Disregard theirrelevant

Influences Athlete

116 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Environment

PlannedStructuredPurposefulFocusedIntenseGame-likeDemandingCompetitiveSecureSeriousFunSelf-motivatedPositive

ComfortableApproachableAccessibleUnderstandingOpenNon-judgmental

General TeamEnvironment

One-on-oneCommunicationEnvironment

PracticeEnvironment

Structured (rules and behavioral guidelines)Not ambiguousFamily-likeLight-heartedSupportiveCaringTrustingAthlete centeredTeam centered

Coach belief in systemAthlete belief in systemOffensive strategiesDefensive strategiesWeekly practice plan (structure)Structured environmentSystem based on coach philosophyAdapted the systems accordingly

System

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Relationships

Believed in meProtected meHelped meInspired meHeld me accountableBuilt on my strengthsAllowed for individualityNever held a grudgeTreated me like more than just a player

How coach treatedme as a player

Professional Relationship

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 117

Relationships(continued)

Like a friendshipBig or small depending on athlete preferenceProfessional and personalClose (not distant)MeaningfulGoodStrongUniqueLight-heartedLastingConnectedComfortableHad boundaries

Established earlyShowed an interest in meSpent time with me off the fieldRelated to meSupported meInvested in mePrioritized meWanted something for meThere fore meGot to know meLet me get to know him or herCared about meValued meGained my trustGained my confidenceGained my respect

Cognitive (eg strategies tactics game sense)Physical (eg techniques fundamentals)Mental (eg anticipation focus imagery)

Personal Relationship

Teaching methods

Development of thepersonal relationship

Direct instructionFeedbackQuestioningDemonstrationModelingFilm (ie video)ChalkboardReadingWorkbooksRepetitionManual manipulation

SpecificDetailedSimplifiedProgression (ie from less to more complex)Slow motionAthlete pacedNot micro-managedIndividualized

Sport skills

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Quality of thepersonal relationship

TeachCoaching Actions

Life skills

Values (eg respect accountability patience)Beliefs (eg self-esteem confidenceAttitudes (eg positive driven)General (eg work ethic coping with stress)

Quality of teaching

118 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coaching Actions(continued)

ExpectationsPerformance relevant informationPlayer roles on the teamA common team visionGoals and objectivesWhat to do and how to do itExplanations for coach decisions and actions

Direct communication (face to face)Indirect communication through - other athletes - the organization of practice - writing (ie notes e-mails) - non-verbal behaviors - story telling - using analogiesCoach listenedCoach got my attention

HonestAppropriateConsistent (ie no mixed messages)Well timedPositiveWell articulatedBalanced

Communicate Method ofcommunication

Content ofmotivation

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Content ofcommunication

Method ofmotivation

Challenged me (ie mentally and physically)He would give me little things to work onInvested time in meTold me what I was capable of achievingDrove me to work hardMade me want to play for him or herBy earning my respect I wanted to play my bestI was motivated to please coachCoach was motivated upbeat and energeticAppealed to my emotional sideUsed inspirational stories and analogiesCreated a positive and competitive environment

Quality ofcommunication

Motivate

Individual and team goalsVisions of successMotivational content was individualized

Type ofpreparation

Method ofpreparation

Game plans (detailed and meticulous)Practice plans (detailed and meticulous)Teach (refer to Teaching theme)Communicate (refer Communication theme)Motivate (refer to Motivation theme)

Physical conditioningGame-like practices (techniques and tactics)Mental preparation

Prepare athletesfor competition

MeticulousConsistent (ie the same for every opponent)

Quality ofpreparation

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 119

Coaching Actions(continued)

Physical mistakesMental mistakesAthlete performance (good and bad)Athlete effort and work ethic (or lack of)Athlete moods and emotions

CalmEmotionally stableConfidentClearPreparedConsistent

Respond to athletes

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Self-perceptionsDevelopmentPerformance

Perform under pressure

Coach could see the big picturePrioritized team goals objectives missionLet the little things go (not nit picky)Let us play the gameNo punishment for minor infractionsNot how you prepared but that you did prepare

ConstructivePositiveSpecificAppropriateConsistent

Coaches respondedto the following

Quality ofresponses

Disregard theirrelevant

Influences Athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 117

Relationships(continued)

Like a friendshipBig or small depending on athlete preferenceProfessional and personalClose (not distant)MeaningfulGoodStrongUniqueLight-heartedLastingConnectedComfortableHad boundaries

Established earlyShowed an interest in meSpent time with me off the fieldRelated to meSupported meInvested in mePrioritized meWanted something for meThere fore meGot to know meLet me get to know him or herCared about meValued meGained my trustGained my confidenceGained my respect

Cognitive (eg strategies tactics game sense)Physical (eg techniques fundamentals)Mental (eg anticipation focus imagery)

Personal Relationship

Teaching methods

Development of thepersonal relationship

Direct instructionFeedbackQuestioningDemonstrationModelingFilm (ie video)ChalkboardReadingWorkbooksRepetitionManual manipulation

SpecificDetailedSimplifiedProgression (ie from less to more complex)Slow motionAthlete pacedNot micro-managedIndividualized

Sport skills

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Quality of thepersonal relationship

TeachCoaching Actions

Life skills

Values (eg respect accountability patience)Beliefs (eg self-esteem confidenceAttitudes (eg positive driven)General (eg work ethic coping with stress)

Quality of teaching

118 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coaching Actions(continued)

ExpectationsPerformance relevant informationPlayer roles on the teamA common team visionGoals and objectivesWhat to do and how to do itExplanations for coach decisions and actions

Direct communication (face to face)Indirect communication through - other athletes - the organization of practice - writing (ie notes e-mails) - non-verbal behaviors - story telling - using analogiesCoach listenedCoach got my attention

HonestAppropriateConsistent (ie no mixed messages)Well timedPositiveWell articulatedBalanced

Communicate Method ofcommunication

Content ofmotivation

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Content ofcommunication

Method ofmotivation

Challenged me (ie mentally and physically)He would give me little things to work onInvested time in meTold me what I was capable of achievingDrove me to work hardMade me want to play for him or herBy earning my respect I wanted to play my bestI was motivated to please coachCoach was motivated upbeat and energeticAppealed to my emotional sideUsed inspirational stories and analogiesCreated a positive and competitive environment

Quality ofcommunication

Motivate

Individual and team goalsVisions of successMotivational content was individualized

Type ofpreparation

Method ofpreparation

Game plans (detailed and meticulous)Practice plans (detailed and meticulous)Teach (refer to Teaching theme)Communicate (refer Communication theme)Motivate (refer to Motivation theme)

Physical conditioningGame-like practices (techniques and tactics)Mental preparation

Prepare athletesfor competition

MeticulousConsistent (ie the same for every opponent)

Quality ofpreparation

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 119

Coaching Actions(continued)

Physical mistakesMental mistakesAthlete performance (good and bad)Athlete effort and work ethic (or lack of)Athlete moods and emotions

CalmEmotionally stableConfidentClearPreparedConsistent

Respond to athletes

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Self-perceptionsDevelopmentPerformance

Perform under pressure

Coach could see the big picturePrioritized team goals objectives missionLet the little things go (not nit picky)Let us play the gameNo punishment for minor infractionsNot how you prepared but that you did prepare

ConstructivePositiveSpecificAppropriateConsistent

Coaches respondedto the following

Quality ofresponses

Disregard theirrelevant

Influences Athlete

118 Athlete Experiences of Great Coaching

Coaching Actions(continued)

ExpectationsPerformance relevant informationPlayer roles on the teamA common team visionGoals and objectivesWhat to do and how to do itExplanations for coach decisions and actions

Direct communication (face to face)Indirect communication through - other athletes - the organization of practice - writing (ie notes e-mails) - non-verbal behaviors - story telling - using analogiesCoach listenedCoach got my attention

HonestAppropriateConsistent (ie no mixed messages)Well timedPositiveWell articulatedBalanced

Communicate Method ofcommunication

Content ofmotivation

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Content ofcommunication

Method ofmotivation

Challenged me (ie mentally and physically)He would give me little things to work onInvested time in meTold me what I was capable of achievingDrove me to work hardMade me want to play for him or herBy earning my respect I wanted to play my bestI was motivated to please coachCoach was motivated upbeat and energeticAppealed to my emotional sideUsed inspirational stories and analogiesCreated a positive and competitive environment

Quality ofcommunication

Motivate

Individual and team goalsVisions of successMotivational content was individualized

Type ofpreparation

Method ofpreparation

Game plans (detailed and meticulous)Practice plans (detailed and meticulous)Teach (refer to Teaching theme)Communicate (refer Communication theme)Motivate (refer to Motivation theme)

Physical conditioningGame-like practices (techniques and tactics)Mental preparation

Prepare athletesfor competition

MeticulousConsistent (ie the same for every opponent)

Quality ofpreparation

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 119

Coaching Actions(continued)

Physical mistakesMental mistakesAthlete performance (good and bad)Athlete effort and work ethic (or lack of)Athlete moods and emotions

CalmEmotionally stableConfidentClearPreparedConsistent

Respond to athletes

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Self-perceptionsDevelopmentPerformance

Perform under pressure

Coach could see the big picturePrioritized team goals objectives missionLet the little things go (not nit picky)Let us play the gameNo punishment for minor infractionsNot how you prepared but that you did prepare

ConstructivePositiveSpecificAppropriateConsistent

Coaches respondedto the following

Quality ofresponses

Disregard theirrelevant

Influences Athlete

International Journal of Sports Science amp Coaching Volume 4 middot Number 1 middot 2009 119

Coaching Actions(continued)

Physical mistakesMental mistakesAthlete performance (good and bad)Athlete effort and work ethic (or lack of)Athlete moods and emotions

CalmEmotionally stableConfidentClearPreparedConsistent

Respond to athletes

Dimensions General Themes Sub-Themes Sub-Themes

Self-perceptionsDevelopmentPerformance

Perform under pressure

Coach could see the big picturePrioritized team goals objectives missionLet the little things go (not nit picky)Let us play the gameNo punishment for minor infractionsNot how you prepared but that you did prepare

ConstructivePositiveSpecificAppropriateConsistent

Coaches respondedto the following

Quality ofresponses

Disregard theirrelevant

Influences Athlete