Italian Italian UnificationUnification

TimelineTimeline

o 1815: Congress of Viennao 1820: Two Sicilies (Constitution) subdued

by Austrianso 1820-1821: Carbonari Insurrections o 1830: Mazzini Joins Carbonario 1834: Piedmont Uprisingo 1848: Revolutionso 1859: Second Italian War of Independenceo 1866: Third Italian War of Independenceo 1871: Franco-Prussian War

Congress of ViennaCongress of Vienna

o Italy remains divided

o Piedmont/Sardinia given power to provide buffer against France

o 1820 Austria enters Italy to suppress Rebellion

CarboniCarboni

o “Coal Burners”o Romantic

Republicanso Biggest

revolutionary force at first

o Causes minor turmoil during 1830 (Carboni Insurrections)

Giuseppe MazziniGiuseppe Mazzini

o Becomes leader of Carboni in 1831

o Wants to create united Italy as a republic

Giuseppe Garibaldi & Piedmont Giuseppe Garibaldi & Piedmont UprisingsUprisings

o Rose to prominence when Piedmont fights Austria

o Republicano Forced into exile for

many years

The Right Leg in the Boot at Last!!Garibaldi: "If it won't go on Sire, try a

little powder." (as in GUNpowder)!!

1848 Revolutions1848 Revolutions

o Across Europeo Forces the pope out

of Vaticano Pope Pius IX

Changes from liberal to ultraconservative

o French troops return Pope to Vatican

o Church establish Jewish Ghetto?

Camillo di CavourCamillo di Cavour

o Piedmont ministero Criticized Mazzini; wanted

monarchy-Conservativeo Diplomacy & war ->land

from Austria ->unite Northern Provinceso Aided France- Crimea War?o Allied w/Napoleon III and

Bismarck!

o Allies with Garibaldi to conquer south.

Italy after UnificationItaly after Unificationo 1861, Italy Unifies under

piedmont’s king, Victor Emmanuel

o Venetia still under Austrian control

o Rome under Papal controlo Government noted for

corruption (Cavour dies w/in months of nationhood)

The Rest of the BootThe Rest of the Booto 1866 Venice -> Italy

o Seven Weeks’ War between Prussia and Austria (Italy sided with Prussia) Good to Choose a Winner

o 1870 Rome votes to become part of Italy o Napoleon III withdraws troops in Rome for use in

Franco Prussian War->o 1871 Rome becomes official capitol of Italy- NOT

VATICAN

o Pope and Italy remain at odds until Lateran Accord-1929

o Part of Italy’s involvement on Great Britain's side in WWI was to gain Italian territory still under Austrian control (Trieste)

German Unification

Revolution in Prussia

• Internal Turmoil• Frederick William IV

The brief “Frankfurt Parliament”• 1848- all German states • Moderately Liberal Constitution “1849”• Alienates Conservatives and working class

– challenged tradition– Demanded free labor markets

- 1848 Parliament suppresses insurrection.

- Austria was eventually rejected from the German Unification->Prussia leadership.

- King? Frederick William IV of Prussia.

- Rejected. “ Kings ruled by the grace of God rather than by the permission of man-made constitutions”

- Parliament dissolved.

- Liberals Lose- German Conservatives used the class split to their advantage

German Unification

• Conservative army

• Monarchy- Hohenzollerein

• Prime Minister of Prussia

Expanding Economy

• Industrialization– Railroads– Coal, Iron (Ruhr Valley)– Heavy Manufacturing

• Later Cartels and Economies of Scale (Krupps Steel Works)

• Trade- Zollverein (1834)– Linked Economies - Reduced Trade barriers—

Ricardo’s Comparative Advantage—excluded Austria

William I

• Strengthen Prussian Army

• Monarchy vs. Parliament

Bismarck

• Otto von Bismarck- Junker Class– Early Burschenschaften->Later Conservative– Pragmatist->REALPOLITIK– Ambassador to France and Russia in 1850s

• Prime Minister of Prussia• Opposed - Parliamentary Government• Iron-Industrial Base• Blood- German Unification thru War

Kleindeutsch The Danish War of 1864

• Schleswig-Holstein duchies (controlled by Denmark- part of German Confed)->Absorbtion?

• Bismarck Allies w/Austria • Convention of Gaastein (Prussia/Austria)• Bismarck persuaded Russia, Italy, and

France to support him against Austria- why and how?

2nd Stage-The Austro-Prussian War (1866)

7 Weeks War

• Schleswig/Holstein created tension? • Battle of Koniggratz in Bohemia• Treaty of Prague• Defeat put Habsburgs outside of German affairs

– Never invaded Vienna->Keep the Family together?“Anschluss”?

• Austria gives up Venetia (Venice)-> Italy (Why?)

The North German Confederation

• 1867- Northern Germanic Areas , Frankfurt annexed,

• Treaties w/Catholic South• Prussian leadership -> confederation• State Gov’t / Federal control of military• Legislature- Federal Council (Bundesrat)

and a lower house (Reichstag)• Military Monarchy?• Bismarck’s Policies split the Liberals

Last Stage-The Franco-Prussian War Who’d believe a politician would trick a country to get into a War

-Northern States- Protestant, Southern States-Catholic

Use War to Unite->Inspire Nationalism/Patriotism

“a national war against the neighbor people, our age-old aggressor (France)”

-Confusion on the Spanish Throne- Who Cares??? Leopold or Not? (2nd War of the Spanish Succession?) A Hohenzollern on the throne???

-Bismarck phonies up Telegram to lead to War. Alienates French->pushes Napoleon III to war

Franco-Prussian War• Bismarck was Right!

– Southern German states unite with Prussia.

• 300k troops in two weeks!!!how?• Germans beat the French army, capture, Napoleon III -

Battle of Sedan. • Paris was completely defeated by 1871.• Terms of Peace!

– Territory- Alsace and Lorraine– Occupation– $$$

• Conservatives’ Dominate• Federal system

Germany• Federal System- 2nd Reich

– 4 kingdoms, 5 grand duchies, 13 duchies, 3 free cities

• States separate constitutions, electoral laws, administered Education and Religious issues

– Central Govt,• Diplomacy, Military• Chancellor- named by Kaiser• Bundesrath

– 17/43 seats to Prussia->control

• Reichstag– Universal? Franchise– favored conservatives, peasants)

The Habsburg Empire

Background (1848)

• Diverse Empire- ethnic groups and serfdom

• Influence of 1848 Paris revolts is felt throughout the empire

• Ultra-conservative government– Metternich– Rejects liberal institutions

1848

• Kossuth Leads Magyar Uprisings– Attacks Austrian domination of Hungary

• Leads to widespread Student Demands, initial collapse of Govt– Metternich flees, Emperor leaves Vienna

• Returns a few months later- Retakes Vienna• Franz Joseph takes Throne (1848-1916)

– Short term provisional govt.– Abolition of Serfdom

1848

• Hungary creates liberal Constitution attempts to annex areas- – Movement stopped by Habsburg’s w/help of

other ethnic groups and Russia– 1849 Hungarian Movement Stopped

• Czech’s demand Autonomy->Czech Congress– Germanic people in Czech nervous– Pan-Slavic Movement

• Piedmont (Italy) uprisings- Repressed

Preserving the Empire

• 1850’s – Franz Joseph imposes centralized administration on empire– Abolished internal tariffs– Hungary divided into military districts (1848)– Roman Catholic Church controls education– Croats and Slovaks alienated

Preserving the Empire

• Austrians refuse to support Russia during the Crimean War– Tsar withdraws support for Habsburg control

of Hungary-> Joint Goverment

• Austria defeated by France and Piedmont in 1859– Confirms need for new domestic policy

Formation of Dual MonarchyAustro-Hungarian Empire!

1st Attempt

• Federation created between states and provinces of empire

• Local diets dominated by landed classes and single imperial parliament (Conservative)

• Plan is rejected by Magyars

Formation of Dual Monarchy

2nd Attempt

• February Patent (1861)

• Establishes new form of government– Bicameral imperial parliament (Reichsrat)– Upper house appointed by emperor (C?)– Lower house is indirectly elected (L?)

• Magyars send no delegates

Formation of the Dual Monarcy

• 3rd Attempt- 1867

• Austria defeated by Prussians

• Franz Joseph negotiates with Magyars

• Ausgleich or Compromise of 1867– Austria becomes Austria-Hungary – Dual monarchy– Essentially separate states

Unrest of Nationalities• Compromise of 1867

created dual principals of political legitimacy in empire– Hungary – nationalism– Rest of Empire – loyalty

to emperor

• Other nationalities sought similar settlements to that of the Hungarians

Unrest of Nationalities

• Czechs seek separate state

• Reichsrat -> gridlocked by competing nationalities

• Austria in political chaos

• Constitutionalism flourishes in Hungary due to Magyar domination

Tension Builds

• Language and race -> national identity (Especially w/Growth of State Education)

• Ethnic groups within the empire begin to identify with existing or soon to be formed nations– Slavs identify with Russia and desire for

Yugoslav state– Habsburg Italians seek to join Italy

Tension Builds

• Desire for ethnic identity causes tension throughout Europe

• Eventually contributes to outbreak of first and second world wars

Napoleon IIIConservative- Rose from the 1848 Riots- Elected (1848) (Louis Philippe dethroned)1850 to 1860 Conservative1860 to 1871 Moderateso 185I new Constitutiono 1852 Emperor!o 1855 Victory in Crimeao 1860 Agreed to a liberal constitution

o Ministers answerable to Legislature!o Labor Unionso More Free Press

o Late 1850s to 1871o Foreign Intrigue->Loss of Powero Difficulties w/Cavour and Italian Movemento Mexicoo Growth of Prussiao 1871- Loses to Prussia->Captured at the Battle of

Sedano NOTEWORTHY

o Thaw in British/French Relationso Free Trade

-Adolf Thiers led Government

Demands for New Monarch->Republican Govt.

House of Bourbon v. House of Orleans->no one wins

- “Treaty of Frankfurt” with Prussia:-France remained under Prussian control until

they paid off a large indemnity-lost the Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia-French People Unhappy-Bismarck demands universal suffrage?

Third Republic - Post Franco-Prussian War

- Parisians- Demand Change- Loss of War- Paris Elects “municipal government”, called the Paris Commune,

Paris administered separately

- “Political radicals and socialists of all stripes participated in the Paris Commune.”

Paris Commune 1871 (2 months)

-May 1871, National Assembly surrounds Paris forces broke through the city defenses.- troops kill 20,000 Parisians and restore order

-Marxists Romanticized Paris Commune as the 1st proletarian government

Reality- Dominated by Bourgeousie –

- “The goal of the Commune was not a worker’s republic, but a nation composed of relatively independent, radically democratic enclaves.”

Blowback!- Sounds Like Tianneman Square

Che Gueverra, John Lennon and the Paris Commune

The Third Republic (Today- 5th Republic- but

who’s counting)• National Assembly formed a

republican government • Republic was proclaimed in Paris

without violence on 4 September 1870.

• lasted from 1871 to 1940• Theirs ousted from office and

McMahon elected 1879

New Republican System

• Chamber of Deputies– Universal Male Franchise

• Senate • President (Elected by

houses)• McMahon

-Jewish Officer accused of Treason-Questionable Evidence but Convicted-This “affair” sparked a widespread debate across France and Europe.-Groups took sides

-Anti-Semitic-Conservatives- Church, some newspapers

-Pro-Dreyfus-Zola (J’Accuse) liberals, radicals, socialists, republicans and some newspapers

-Depth of Anti-Semitism surprising-Herzl watching Trial->Zionist Movement

Nationalism and Festering AntiSemitism- The Dreyfus Affair

Celebrity Trial of the Late 19C

England

• Accommodation/Enfranchisement

• Years of Gladstone (liberal) and Disraeli (Conservative)

• Irish Problem

The Second Reform Act (1867)

• Growing prosperity and social respectability of the working class

• Reform League & other organizations pushed Parliament for workers’ right to vote

• 1866: Conservative and antidemocratic Liberals rejected Liberal reform bill

Benjamin Disraeli• Conservative• 1867: Introduces reform bill and

accepts many amendments to expand the electorate

• Results:– Britain takes major step toward Democracy– Large numbers of male working-class voters

join the electorate

• Goal: Create Conservative favor

William Gladstone• 1868- Elected Prime Minister

– Earlier opposed reform bills

• Epitome of British Liberalism• Liberal reforms were made to allow all

citizens to compete equally… success became dependent on eligibility & merit

• Reforms focused on eliminating “long-standing abuses without destroying existing institutions”

Reforms• 1870

– Competition replaces patronage for the civil service

• 1871– Abolition of purchasing army officers’

commissions– Removal of Anglican religious

requirements for Oxford and Cambridge• Ballot Act of 1872

– Vote by secret ballot

Education Act of 1870• Most important of all reforms• Responsibility of establishing and

maintaining elementary schools went from religious denominations to the government

• Religious denominations had insufficient state-funding… failed at creating a solid educational system

Disraeli in Office

(1874-1880)

Gladstone vs. Disraeli

-Individualism

-Free trade

-Competition

-Paternalistic legislation

-State action

Social LegislationRole of the State

Expands

*Richard Cross: home secretary

Public Health Act- Pollution

Artisans Dwelling Act- Minimum Zoning laws etc..

New Protection to Unions- Allowed to Form and Strike

Disraeli

• Founder of modern British conservatism

• Said he would accomplish much more than he actually did

The Irish QuestionThe Irish Question

How Gladstone Dealt:

• Disestablished Church of Ireland, (pt of Chuch of England) Catholics did not have to pay taxes to Protestant church

• Land act that provided compensation to tenants who were evicted and loans to those who wanted to purchase land

• Land act that strengthened tenant rights• Other Hand

– Coercion Act restored law and order

Demands for Home Rule“Give Ireland Back to the Irish”

(Paul McCartney-1970)

• Charles Stewart Parnell – Leader of Irish movement for home rule

• Led 85 Irish members of House of Commons

• Demands Home Rule Rise– 1885 Attempt Home Rule– 1892 2nd Attempt– 1903 Land Act– 1912 3rd Attempt

• Independence- Not until WWI-to be discussed-

Results of reforms in England

• Many sources of discontent were abolished

• Created a mode of state-building• New bonds of loyalty to the nation• Larger State Govt. involved in more day

to day concerns• Continued Industrial and Economic

Production

Election of 1885• Conservatives and Liberals split, each needed support of the Irish• Gladstone declared support of a home rule for Ireland so Irish gave

support for a Liberal ministry• Issue split party and half of liberal party (Liberal Unionists) joined

with conservatives and defeated Gladstone’s Home Rule Bill

Russia: Emancipation and

Revolutionary Stirrings

Reforms of Alexander II

• 1855 – Nicholas dies, his son Alexander takes over (r. 1855-1881)

• Issues reforms

Serfdom Reforms• March 1856 proposed• Economically inefficient,

looming threat of revolt• 1861 Serfdom Abolished

• Rights->Marriage Etc…but

• Not outright giving land ,payments required! w/interest->more like Sharecroppers

Reform of Judicial System and Local

Government- Largely Fails-Inadequately

funded• Village communes ->take role of Lord• Village elders settle family quarrels,

impose fines, issued internal passports, collect taxes

• Nobility given large role in zemstvos, or councils, organized in 1864

• Councils were designed to oversee local matters, such as repairs, education, etc.

Military Reform•1860s: period of service lowered from

25 to 15 years->enlistment period lowered to six years of active duty, nine years in reserves

•discipline not as harsh•males could be in military after age

20•Forms of universal conscription

developed

Repression in Poland

• 1864: New Demands in Poland Suppressed• emancipated Polish serfs to punish the nobility

• Russian law, language, administration enforced -treated as a Russian province until the end of World War I

• Changes failed to create new loyalty to the government• NOTE: Ironically Finland->gained after

Napoleonic Wars from Sweden->provided vast autonomy

Demands for Change in Russia

• Exiles like Herzen’s newspaper The Bell which advertised reformist positions, supported radical thinking

• Main radical society: – Land and Freedom->sought to get Peasant Affection-

>Peasants turned them in->Govt. treated Radicals tolerantly

• 1879, Land And Freedom becomes two groups

- One, advocates education of peasants- Second, commits itself to overthrowing

the government

The End of ReformAssassination of Tsar

Alexander

•1881: Alexander II killed by bomb

•Four men +two women convicted executed– all willing to die for the revolutionary cause

•->REPRESSION

Alexander III

• Rules from 1881 to 1894• Some improvement in

factory conditions• Favors centralized

bureaucracy over zemstvos• Strengthens secret police

force, increases censorship of press

– Confirmed all evils that the revolutionaries saw as inherent in autocratic government

Europe 1900