INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO EARTH SCIENCEEARTH SCIENCE

Four major areas:Four major areas:geospheregeosphere = solid earth = solid earth1. includes ocean basin and continental rock layers1. includes ocean basin and continental rock layers2. 2. lithospherelithosphere = rigid outer shell of earth; includes crust and = rigid outer shell of earth; includes crust and solid, uppermost part of mantlesolid, uppermost part of mantle3. 3. asthenosphereasthenosphere = partially molten layer of upper mantle that = partially molten layer of upper mantle that

behaves like a soft plastic behaves like a soft plastic

hydrospherehydrosphere = contains all the water at or near = contains all the water at or near Earth’s surfaceEarth’s surface

1. includes oceans, lakes, rivers, & groundwater; also 1. includes oceans, lakes, rivers, & groundwater; also includes ice & snow on mountains & in includes ice & snow on mountains & in

glaciersglaciers2. 97% of water exists as salt water; 3% fresh 2. 97% of water exists as salt water; 3% fresh waterwater3. about ¾ of all freshwater is in glaciers and icebergs3. about ¾ of all freshwater is in glaciers and icebergs4. only about half of 1% is usable fresh water4. only about half of 1% is usable fresh water5. continuously recycled5. continuously recycled

atmosphereatmosphere = blanket of gases surrounding earth = blanket of gases surrounding earth1. 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, remaining 1% is various 1. 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, remaining 1% is various

gasesgases2. necessary for respiration for most living organisms, 2. necessary for respiration for most living organisms,

protects organisms from harmful radiation from Sun, protects organisms from harmful radiation from Sun, help keep planet temperature suitable for lifehelp keep planet temperature suitable for life

3. unique in solar system due to only one to 3. unique in solar system due to only one to contain free oxygencontain free oxygen4. changes amounts of water vapor result in areas of high 4. changes amounts of water vapor result in areas of high

or low humidityor low humidity

biospherebiosphere = includes all life on earth and physical = includes all life on earth and physical environment that supports itenvironment that supports it

1. largest ecosystem1. largest ecosystem2. extends from ocean depths to atmosphere a few 2. extends from ocean depths to atmosphere a few

kilometers above earth’s surfacekilometers above earth’s surface

Interaction among spheres:Interaction among spheres:1. all four are constantly moving, changing, and interacting1. all four are constantly moving, changing, and interacting2. can be a single event, temporary change, or ongoing, 2. can be a single event, temporary change, or ongoing,

steady processsteady process3. humans are altering since industrial revolution3. humans are altering since industrial revolution4. changes in one sphere have profound effects on one or 4. changes in one sphere have profound effects on one or

more of the other spheresmore of the other spheres

earth scienceearth science = study of earth and the universe around it = study of earth and the universe around it

Four Branches:Four Branches:1. 1. geologygeology = study of origin, history, and structure of solid = study of origin, history, and structure of solid

earth and processes that shape itearth and processes that shape it2. 2. oceanographyoceanography = study of earth’s oceans = study of earth’s oceans3. 3. meteorologymeteorology = study of earth’s atmosphere = study of earth’s atmosphere4. 4. astronomyastronomy = study of universe beyond earth = study of universe beyond earth

Subspeciality areas:Subspeciality areas:1. 1. climatologyclimatology = patterns of weather over a long period of = patterns of weather over a long period of

time; how human activities effect weather and climatetime; how human activities effect weather and climate2. 2. paleontologypaleontology = study of remains of organisms that once = study of remains of organisms that once

lived on Earth; ancient environmentslived on Earth; ancient environments3. 3. hydrologyhydrology = study of water flow on and below Earth’s = study of water flow on and below Earth’s

surface; sources of and solutions to water pollutionsurface; sources of and solutions to water pollution

4. 4. ecologyecology = study of complex relationships between = study of complex relationships between living things and their environment living things and their environment

a. a. ecosystemecosystem = community of organisms and the = community of organisms and the environment they inhabit environment they inhabit

1) each physically distinct and self-supporting1) each physically distinct and self-supporting b. each delicately balancedb. each delicately balanced 1) 1) pollutionpollution = contamination of environment with = contamination of environment with

waste products or impurities waste products or impurities 2) 2) biodegradablebiodegradable = products can be broken = products can be broken

down by microorganisms into harmless down by microorganisms into harmless substancessubstances

3) 3) nonbiodegradablenonbiodegradable = products cannot be = products cannot be broken downbroken down

Ex: plastic Ex: plastic

5. 5. geochemistrygeochemistry = study of earth’s composition = study of earth’s composition and and the processes that change itthe processes that change it

6. 6. tectonicstectonics = study of the effects of internal = study of the effects of internal processes on Earth’s surface processes on Earth’s surface

technologytechnology = application of scientific discoveries = application of scientific discoveries 1. is transferable 1. is transferable .. can be applied to new situations can be applied to new situations

scientific methodscientific method = useful tools for the study of earth science = useful tools for the study of earth science1. organized, logical approaches to scientific research 1. organized, logical approaches to scientific research 2. guides to scientific problem solving2. guides to scientific problem solvingSTEPS:STEPS:1. state the problem: 1. state the problem: What do you want to find out?What do you want to find out? a. a. observationsobservations = using the = using the senses (sight, touch, taste, senses (sight, touch, taste, hearing, smell) to gather hearing, smell) to gather information about the worldinformation about the world

1) often begins scientific 1) often begins scientific inquiryinquiry

2) often leads to 2) often leads to questioningquestioning b. develop clear statement b. develop clear statement defining problemdefining problem

2. gather information2. gather information a. a. measurementmeasurement = comparison of some aspect of an = comparison of some aspect of an

object or phenomena with a standard unitobject or phenomena with a standard unit 1) unit of measure 1) unit of measure Ex: kmEx: km 2) number stating how many units are present 2) number stating how many units are present

Ex: 5Ex: 5 b. accuracy importantb. accuracy important c. c. inferenceinference = suggest a possible explanation for an = suggest a possible explanation for an

observation observationEx: The dog is barking because someone is outside. Ex: The dog is barking because someone is outside.

3. form a hypothesis: What prediction do you want to test?3. form a hypothesis: What prediction do you want to test? a. a. hypothesishypothesis = possible explanation or solution to = possible explanation or solution to

problem problem b. based on facts gathered through observationb. based on facts gathered through observation c. not accepted by scientific community unless there is c. not accepted by scientific community unless there is

evidence to support itevidence to support it

4. test hypothesis4. test hypothesis a. experimentationa. experimentation

1) 1) experimentexperiment = scientific procedure carried out = scientific procedure carried out according to certain guidelinesaccording to certain guidelines

2) 2) variablevariable = factor in experiment that can be changed; = factor in experiment that can be changed; *should only test 1 at a time*should only test 1 at a time

a) a) dependent variabledependent variable = factor that changes if the = factor that changes if the independent variable is changedindependent variable is changed

b) b) independent variableindependent variable = factor that is manipulated = factor that is manipulated by the experimenterby the experimenter

3) 3) controlled experimentcontrolled experiment = set up to test only one = set up to test only one variablevariable

4) run a 4) run a controlcontrol = standard for comparison = standard for comparison a) same conditions as experiment except variablea) same conditions as experiment except variable b) ensures only one variable is testedb) ensures only one variable is tested

5) collect 5) collect datadata = recorded observations and = recorded observations and measurementsmeasurements

a) analyze resultsa) analyze results b) construct graphs, charts, etc. to visually b) construct graphs, charts, etc. to visually compare compare

when possiblewhen possible c) include both types of observationsc) include both types of observations 1] 1] qualitative observationsqualitative observations = describe a property = describe a property

without measurementswithout measurements 2] 2] quantitative observationsquantitative observations = property is = property is

measured & described by a number of measured & described by a number of standard unitsstandard units

b. if experimentation is not possibleb. if experimentation is not possible1) make more observations to gather evidence that will 1) make more observations to gather evidence that will

support or discredit hypothesissupport or discredit hypothesis2) hypothesis tested by examining how well it fits or 2) hypothesis tested by examining how well it fits or explains all known observationsexplains all known observations

5. analyze the results: What happened during your 5. analyze the results: What happened during your experiment?experiment?

a. look for patterns or trendsa. look for patterns or trends b. organize data in charts, tables, or graphs when b. organize data in charts, tables, or graphs when

possiblepossible6. state conclusion6. state conclusion a. correctness of hypothesis a. correctness of hypothesis →→ determined by how well determined by how well

it fits known factsit fits known facts b. hypothesis may be accepted as stated, altered b. hypothesis may be accepted as stated, altered

slightly, or discarded altogetherslightly, or discarded altogether

International System of UnitsInternational System of Units (SI) = based on a decimal (SI) = based on a decimal system which uses the number 10 and multiplies of 10system which uses the number 10 and multiplies of 10

lengthlength = distance between two points = distance between two points1. measured with a metric ruler, meterstick, or a 1. measured with a metric ruler, meterstick, or a

measuring tapemeasuring tape2. 2. metermeter (m) = standard unit (m) = standard unit

massmass = amount of matter in an object = amount of matter in an object

1. measured using a balance1. measured using a balance

2. 2. kilogramkilogram = standard unit = standard unit

3. gram or milligram used 3. gram or milligram used

with smaller objects with smaller objects

weightweight = measure of the = measure of the

strength of the pull of strength of the pull of

gravity on an objectgravity on an object

1. measure with a spring scale1. measure with a spring scale

2. 2. NewtonNewton (N) = standard unit (N) = standard unit

areaarea = amount of surface included within a set of = amount of surface included within a set of boundariesboundaries

A = l X wA = l X w (length X width)(length X width)

7.3 m X 3.6 m = 26.28 = 26.3 m2

volumevolume = how much space an object occupies = how much space an object occupies1. standard unit is 1. standard unit is cubic metercubic meter (m (m33))2. liquid volumes = 2. liquid volumes = litersliters (L) and (L) and millilitersmilliliters (mL) (mL)3. solid volumes = cubic centimeters (cm3. solid volumes = cubic centimeters (cm33 or cc) or cc)4. liquid volumes are measured with a graduated cylinder 4. liquid volumes are measured with a graduated cylinder

or beakeror beaker5. conversion factor: 1mL = 1cm5. conversion factor: 1mL = 1cm33

6. if not given determine by: (solids)6. if not given determine by: (solids)V = l X w X h (length X width X height)V = l X w X h (length X width X height)

densitydensity = measure of the amount of matter that = measure of the amount of matter that occupies a particular spaceoccupies a particular spacedensity = density = massmass D = D = mm

volumevolume V V1. depends on the kinds of atoms it contains and how 1. depends on the kinds of atoms it contains and how

closely packedclosely packed2. expressed as g/cm2. expressed as g/cm33 or g/mL or g/mL3. if object denser than water 3. if object denser than water →→ sink; if object less sink; if object less

dense than water dense than water →→ float float

timetime = span between two events = span between two eventsSI unit = SI unit = secondsecond

temperaturetemperature = how hot or cold something is; = how hot or cold something is; measured with a thermometer measured with a thermometer

1. SI unit = 1. SI unit = KelvinKelvin (K) (K)2. 2. absolute zeroabsolute zero = coldest temperature [0K] = coldest temperature [0K]3. most scientist use the Celsius scale3. most scientist use the Celsius scale4. conversions from one scale to another4. conversions from one scale to another

Conversion formulas:Conversion formulas:ooF = (1.8 X F = (1.8 X ooC) + 32C) + 32 ooC = K - 273C = K - 273ooC =.55 X (C =.55 X (ooF - 32)F - 32) K = K = ooC + 273C + 273

scientific notationscientific notation = expresses quantity as a number = expresses quantity as a number multiplied by 10 to the appropriate powermultiplied by 10 to the appropriate power

1. numbers written in 1. numbers written in MM X 10 X 10nn form [ form [MM = number > or = to = number > or = to 1 but < 10; 1 but < 10; nn = whole number] = whole number]

2. Determine 2. Determine MM by moving decimal point in original number by moving decimal point in original number to left or right so that only one to left or right so that only one

nonzero digit remains to the left of decimal point.nonzero digit remains to the left of decimal point.3. Determine 3. Determine nn by counting number of places that you by counting number of places that you

moved decimal point. If you moved it to the left, moved decimal point. If you moved it to the left, nn is is positive. If you moved it to the right, positive. If you moved it to the right, nn is negative. is negative.

Ex: 10000 = 1 X 10Ex: 10000 = 1 X 1044

0.0000065 = 6.5 X 100.0000065 = 6.5 X 10-6-6

4. addition and subtraction: 4. addition and subtraction: a. values must have same exponent (a. values must have same exponent (nn)) b. once exponents are the same, b. once exponents are the same, MM factors are added or factors are added or

subtractedsubtracted c. be sure answer only has one digit left of decimalc. be sure answer only has one digit left of decimal5. multiplication:5. multiplication: a. a. MM factors are multiplied factors are multiplied b. exponents are added b. exponents are added

Ex: (2.5 X 10Ex: (2.5 X 1022) (3.6 X10) (3.6 X1055) = 9.0 X 10) = 9.0 X 1077

6. division:6. division: a. a. MM factors are divided factors are divided b. exponent of denominator (bottom) is subtracted from b. exponent of denominator (bottom) is subtracted from

numerator (top)numerator (top)

Ex: Ex: 7.9 X 107.9 X 101414 = 2.3 X10 = 2.3 X1099

3.5 X 103.5 X 1055

significant figuressignificant figures = all digits known with certainty plus one = all digits known with certainty plus one final digit, which is uncertain or estimatedfinal digit, which is uncertain or estimated

1. precision of measurement is indicated by the number of 1. precision of measurement is indicated by the number of significant digitssignificant digits

2. all numbers 1 to 9 are significant2. all numbers 1 to 9 are significant3. rules: 3. rules: a. Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are a. Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are significant. significant.

Ex: 5.007 mEx: 5.007 m 4 significant digits4 significant digits

b. Zeros appearing in front of nonzero digits are not b. Zeros appearing in front of nonzero digits are not significant. significant.

Ex: 0.0594Ex: 0.0594 3 significant digits3 significant digits

c. Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of a c. Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of a decimal are significant.decimal are significant.

Ex: 20.00Ex: 20.00 4 significant digits4 significant digits 0.03800.0380 3 significant digits3 significant digits

d. Zeros at the end of a number but to the left of a decimal d. Zeros at the end of a number but to the left of a decimal may or may not be significant.may or may not be significant.

Ex: 4300 g may have 2 to 4 significant digits Ex: 4300 g may have 2 to 4 significant digits depending on how many are place holders. depending on how many are place holders.

-for our measurements we will assume that 4300 g has -for our measurements we will assume that 4300 g has only 2 significant digitsonly 2 significant digits

If a decimal is placed after the zeros this indicates the If a decimal is placed after the zeros this indicates the zeros are significant.zeros are significant.

Ex: 4300Ex: 4300.. g g 4 significant digits 4 significant digits

4. rounding off: 4. rounding off: a. If last number is equal to 5 or greater than 5 then a. If last number is equal to 5 or greater than 5 then

round up to the next number.round up to the next number. Ex: Round 7.89 to 2 significant digitsEx: Round 7.89 to 2 significant digits

7.89 = 7.97.89 = 7.9 b. If last number is less than 5 then leave the number b. If last number is less than 5 then leave the number

unchanged and drop the last number.unchanged and drop the last number.Ex: Round each to 2 significant digits.Ex: Round each to 2 significant digits.

0.133 = 0.130.133 = 0.13 6.93 = 6.96.93 = 6.95. addition or subtraction: answer must have same number 5. addition or subtraction: answer must have same number

of digits to right of decimal point as there are of digits to right of decimal point as there are in measurement having fewest digits to the right of in measurement having fewest digits to the right of

decimal pointdecimal point6. multiplication and division: answer can have no more 6. multiplication and division: answer can have no more

significant digits than are in measurement with significant digits than are in measurement with fewest number of significant digitsfewest number of significant digits

accuracyaccuracy = how close your value is to the accepted value = how close your value is to the accepted valuedepends on:depends on:1. ability to compare object being measured to standard1. ability to compare object being measured to standard2. precision of measuring instrument2. precision of measuring instrument

precisionprecision = closeness of set of measurements of same = closeness of set of measurements of same quantity made in the same wayquantity made in the same way

1. measured values are close to one another but not 1. measured values are close to one another but not necessarily close to accepted valuenecessarily close to accepted value

2. exactness of a measurement2. exactness of a measurement

percent errorpercent error = accuracy of value or of an average = accuracy of value or of an average experimental value compared quantitatively with experimental value compared quantitatively with correct or accepted valuecorrect or accepted value

percent error = percent error =

Value accepted – value experimentalValue accepted – value experimental X 100 X 100

Value acceptedValue accepted

graphsgraphs = show a comparison between variables = show a comparison between variablesline graphline graph = shows trends or how data changes over time = shows trends or how data changes over time1. 1. independent variableindependent variable is plotted on the horizontal x-axis is plotted on the horizontal x-axis2. 2. dependent variabledependent variable is plotted on the vertical y-axis is plotted on the vertical y-axis3. scale size can vary; smaller scales show better graphs, 3. scale size can vary; smaller scales show better graphs,

more detailmore detail4. plot data points where points from x-axis and y-axis 4. plot data points where points from x-axis and y-axis

meetsmeets5. after all points are plotted, connect 5. after all points are plotted, connect them with a smooth linethem with a smooth line6. must be drawn on graph paper6. must be drawn on graph paper

bar graphbar graph = compares information for several items or = compares information for several items or eventsevents

1. thick bars are used to show relationship among data1. thick bars are used to show relationship among data2. x-axis and y-axis must be set up on a scale; must be on 2. x-axis and y-axis must be set up on a scale; must be on

graph papergraph paper3. data is plotted by drawing thick bars from point where 3. data is plotted by drawing thick bars from point where x-axis and y-axis meet down to x-axis linex-axis and y-axis meet down to x-axis line4. space should be left between bars when possible4. space should be left between bars when possible5. identify x-axis and y-axis to indicate type of data being 5. identify x-axis and y-axis to indicate type of data being

presentedpresented6. bars should be shaded 6. bars should be shaded with different colorswith different colors

pie graphpie graph = shows how a fixed quantity is broken down into = shows how a fixed quantity is broken down into partsparts

1. circle represents total amount present1. circle represents total amount present2. slices represent the parts which are shown as 2. slices represent the parts which are shown as

percentages of the totalpercentages of the total3. circle and slices should be labeled to identify the specific 3. circle and slices should be labeled to identify the specific

datadata4. find out how much of the circle each section or part will 4. find out how much of the circle each section or part will

taketake a. take each part and divide by the totala. take each part and divide by the total b. multiply answer by 360 (number of degrees in a circle)b. multiply answer by 360 (number of degrees in a circle)

partpart X 360 = number of degrees (mark circle) X 360 = number of degrees (mark circle)totaltotal

5. plot groups and label sections with 5. plot groups and label sections with percents and not degreespercents and not degrees

To find percent:To find percent:partpart X 100 = #% (label section) X 100 = #% (label section)totaltotal

modelmodel = representation of an actual object or an idea of how = representation of an actual object or an idea of how an object looks an object looks

1. 1. scalescale = fixed ratio between the size of the model and the = fixed ratio between the size of the model and the size of the real object size of the real object

Ex: model river is 3 meters deepEx: model river is 3 meters deep actual river is 30 meters deepactual river is 30 meters deep ratio is 3:30 or 1:10ratio is 3:30 or 1:10

2. two types of models2. two types of modelsa. a. physical modelsphysical models = represent actual objects = represent actual objects

Ex: maps, globes, etc.Ex: maps, globes, etc.b. b. mental modelsmental models = ideas of how objects look = ideas of how objects look

Ex: model of an atomEx: model of an atom

theorytheory = explanation based on many observations = explanation based on many observations during repeated experiments during repeated experiments

1. valid only if it is consistent with observations, 1. valid only if it is consistent with observations, makes predictions that can be tested, and is makes predictions that can be tested, and is

simplest explanation of observationssimplest explanation of observations2. explain why things happen the way they do2. explain why things happen the way they do3. can be changed or modified with discovery of 3. can be changed or modified with discovery of

new datanew data

scientific lawscientific law = rule that correctly describes a = rule that correctly describes a natural phenomenon natural phenomenon

“ “rule of nature”rule of nature”1. theory must be proven correct every time it is 1. theory must be proven correct every time it is

testedtested2. events described by a law are observed to be the 2. events described by a law are observed to be the

same every time, but does not explain why same every time, but does not explain why3. may change; often explained by theories 3. may change; often explained by theories

Methods of ResearchMethods of Research1. 1. field studyfield study = carried out in a natural setting = carried out in a natural setting a. visit an area to observe effects of an eventa. visit an area to observe effects of an event

1) gather samples1) gather samples 2) draw maps2) draw maps 3) take photographs3) take photographs 4) describe study area in detail4) describe study area in detail

b. organize information as accurate comparisons of b. organize information as accurate comparisons of changes over time can be madechanges over time can be made2. 2. laboratory experimentationlaboratory experimentation a. use information and samples from field studya. use information and samples from field study b. conduct experiments to isolate small aspect of a larger b. conduct experiments to isolate small aspect of a larger

eventevent c. able to more accurately explain relationships among c. able to more accurately explain relationships among

variables that are involved in eventvariables that are involved in event