International migration in india - eco.doc

8/9/2019 International migration in india - eco.doc

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INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION INTRODUCTION

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people from

one country to another for the purpose of employment. Today, an estimated 105

million persons are working in a country other than their country of birth. Labour

mobility has become a key feature of globaliation and the global economy with

migrant workers earning !"# $$0 billion in %011, and the &orld 'ank estimating

that more than #(50 billion of that total was transferred to developing countries in

the form of remittances. )owever, despite the efforts made to ensure the protection

of migrant workers, many remain vulnerable and assume significant risks during themigration process.

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people from one

country to another for the purpose of employment. Today, an estimated 105 million

persons are working in a country other than their country of birth. Labour mobility

has become a key feature of globaliation and the global economy with migrant

workers earning !"# $$0 billion in %011, and the &orld 'ank estimating that more

than #(50 billion of that total was transferred to developing countries in the form of

remittances. )owever, despite the efforts made to ensure the protection of migrant

workers, many remain vulnerable and assume significant risks during the migration

process.

&hen properly managed, labour migration has far*reaching potential for the

migrants, their communities, the countries of origin and destination, and for

employers. &hile +ob creation in the home country is the preferred option,demographic, social and economic factors are increasingly the drivers of migration.

s a result, a growing number of both sending and receiving countries view

international labour migration as an integral part of their national development and

employment strategies. -n one hand, countries of origin benefit from labour

migration because it relieves unemployment pressures and contributes to

development through remittances, knowledge transfer, and the creation of business

and trade networks. -n the other hand, for destination countries facing labour

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shortages, orderly and well*managed labour migration can lighten labour scarcity

and facilitate mobility.

International migration occurs when peoples cross state boundaries and stay

in the host state for some minimum length of time. igration occurs for many

reasons. any people leave their home countries in order to look for economic

opportunities in another country. -thers migrate to be with family members who

have migrated or because of political conditions in their countries. /ducation is

another reason for international migration, as students pursue their studies abroad.

&hile there are several different potential systems for categoriing international

migrants, one system organies them into nine groups temporary labour migrants

irregular, illegal, or undocumented migrants highly skilled and business migrants

refugees asylum seekers forced migration family members return migrants and

long*term, low*skilled migrants. These migrants can also be divided into two large

groups, permanent and temporary. 2ermanent migrants intend to establish their

permanent residence in a new country and possibly obtain that country3s citienship.

Temporary migrants intend only to stay for a limited periods of time perhaps until

the end of a particular program of study or for the duration of a work contract or a

certain work season. 'oth types of migrants have a significant effect on theeconomies and societies of the chosen destination country and the country of origin.

"imilarly, the countries which receive these migrants are often grouped into

four categories traditional settlement countries, /uropean countries which

encouraged labour migration after &orld &ar II, /uropean countries which receive a

significant portion of their immigrant populations from their former colonies, and

countries which formerly were points of emigration but have recently emerged as

immigrant destinations.

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HISTORY

Looking at the history of migration from Indian subcontinent in the last two

centuries four waves of substantial emigration are 4uite distinguishable. The ftrst

wave, which started in the 1(0s and spanned a little over a century, dominated by

Indian labour imported to ftll the supply gaps in the plantations in 'ritish and other

colonies, vi., auritius, "outh frica, alaya, 6i+i, and other 7aribbean countries.

8uring the second wave that took place especially after &orld &ar II, ma+ority of

Indian migrants headed towards the industrial nations of /urope and 9orth merica.

/migration of Indians to the :ulf in the 1;


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• pressure of increasing internationaliation and competition for superiority in the

global market,

• security concerns to safeguard the interests of their local citiens from

undesirable immigrants and terrorist activities. The receiving countries are now

focussing on skilled migrants, favouring their temporary stay. 6or e=ample, 6rance is

aiming at recruiting more skilled workers whereas curtailing the family reunion

category @urphy, %00CA.

The immigration countries whose policies must be taken into account while

framing India>s migration policy could be classified into the following geographical

groups

• The !nited ?ingdom

• 9orth merica, vi., !" and 7anada

• ustralia and 9ew Dealand

• :ulf counties

• The /uropean !nion @/8A * old and new members of the /!

• 9ewly emerging labour*importing countries in /ast and "outh*/ast sia,

EID.,"ingapore, alaysia,Fapan, "outh ?orea, etc.

6ocusing on emigration, the 4uestions facing India>s policy stance are

parado=ical

&hether more outrnigration is good and should be encouraged, or is bad and

therefore should be discouragedG :ood for whom, bad for whom * for the country as

a whole, for the migrants, for the family accompanying them, for those left behindG

Is there an optimum rate of outrnigrationG &hose emigration should be supported

and whose to be restrictedG These are tough and serious 4uestions which have no

uni4ue answers for all times to come. The migration policy addressing them must

therefore have an implicit or e=plicit fle=ibility for incorporating amendments

according to the changing circumstances and paradigms.

In the domain of migration policy, there is a general lack of emigration policies in

the modem*day world because of one simple reason, that is, given that the right to leave a

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country is considered absolute, emigration policies are difficult to implement. In migration

policy, what most countries have, therefore, are immigration policies that control and

monitor the inflow of people from across the borders. India>s migration policy too cannot,

therefore, be shaped in isolation of

• The immigration policies of the destination countries,

• India>s own immigration policy. In other words, there is a strong rationale

for framing a holistic migration policy of India incorporating all aspects of

the phenomenon.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The paper addresses issues related to the promotion and sustenance of international

labour migration from India on the one hand and protection of migrant workers on

the other. It reveals that labour migration flows from India since 1;;0s have not only

registered impressive growth in respect of the traditional destinations like the !nited

"tates of merica, the !nited ?ingdom, 7anada and the :ulf countries but also have

diversified and e=panded to newly emerging migrant destinations in continental

/urope, ustralasia, /ast sia and "outh*/ast sia. The paper observes that a pro*

active migration policy framework will further cement these trends.

The paper provides a detailed evaluation of the /migration ct, 1;(, the most

important policy instrument governing the migration of Indian workers for overseas

employment on a contractual basis.

It argues that that the ct needs to be reoriented so that it provides a legislative basis

for better protection and welfare of the migrants on the one hand and for the active

promotion of international labour migration from India on the other. It notes that the

ct needs to be modified to check the activities of the unscrupulous agents and to

make it harder for agents to cheat Indian workers who are keen on migrating

overseas for employment. The grievance redressal system must also be made more

effective.

It observes that apart from strengthening and reorienting the /migration ct, the

system to monitor its implementation should be strengthened. The paper further

highlights the need for international labour migration policy to provide increasing

emphasis to promotion and facilitation of e=ternal labour flows from India and not

be limited only to regulating and protecting functions of the "tate.

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The paper observes that the rapid e=pansion of IT and IT enabled industry in India

during the last decade is encouraging a large number of Indian migrants to return and

set up business ventures in India.

"uch a trend of to and fro movement of professionals and ideas re4uire that the

migration of highly skilled labour be possibly situated within the framework of

>brain gain>. The paper notes that the changing immigration policies in ma+or

destination countries must be reviewed from time to time so that it serves as the

basis for evolving more acceptable mutual agreements on labour migration between

India and the destination countries. 7onsidering that India is the world>s largest

recipient of migrant workers> remittances, the paper notes that there is a need evolve

an information*based and value*generative plan to make optimum use of the

available funds. The paper also highlights the need for strengthening multilateral

cooperation to transform migration into an efficient, orderly and humane process.

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LABOUR MIGRATION – THE BACKGROUND

igration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key

feature of human history. &hile some regions and sectors fall behind in their

capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access

these emerging opportunities. Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and

urban areas, inducing a shift of the workforce towards industrialising areas. There is

e=tensive debate on the factors that cause populations to shift, from those that

emphasise individual rationality and household behaviour to those that cite the

structural logic of capitalist development.

oreover, numerous studies show that the process of migration is influenced

by social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be vastly different for

men and women, for different groups and different locations. In the past few decades

new patterns have emerged, challenging old paradigms. 6irst, there have been shifts

of the workforce towards the tertiary sector in both developed and developing

countries. "econdly, in developed countries, urban congestion and the growth of communication infrastructure has slowed down urbanisation. Thirdly, in developing

countries, the workforce shift towards the secondaryBtertiary sector has been slow

and has been dominated by an e=pansion of the Hinformal3 sector, which has grown

over time. In countries like India, permanent shifts of population and workforce co*

e=ist with the Hcirculatory3 movement of populations between lagging and developed

regions and between rural and urban areas, mostly being absorbed in the unorganised

sector of the economy. "uch movements show little sign of abating with

development. The sources of early migration flows were primarily agro*

ecological,related to population e=pansion to new settlements or to con4uests @e.g.

/aton, 1;$A. There is considerable information on patterns of migration during the

'ritish period.

Indian emigration abroad was one conse4uence of the abolition of slavery

and the demand for replacement labour. This was normally through indenture, a form

of contract labour whereby a person would bind himself for a specified period of

service, usually four to seven years in return for payment of their passage.

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They left for 'ritish, 8utch and 6rench colonies to work in sugar plantations

and subse4uently for the tea and rubber plantations of "outheast sia. "imilar

demands for labour rose internally with the growth of tea, coffee and rubber

plantations, coal mines and, later, modern industry. uch of this labour was

procured through some form of organised mediation and some portion of it remained

circulatory and retained strong links with the areas of origin. 'ut as it settled down,

it provided a bridgehead to other migrants, whose numbers grew to satisfy colonial

demand. !rban pockets like ?olkatta and umbai attracted rural labourers mainly

from labour catchment areas like 'ihar, !ttar 2radesh and -rissa in the east and

ndhra 2radesh, Tamil 9adu and parts of ?erala and ?arnataka in the south. The

historical pattern of the flow of labourers persisted even after independence.

In a country of India3s sie, the e=istence of significant regional disparities

should not come as a surprise. The scale and growth of these disparities is, however,

of concern. The ratio between the highest to lowest state per capita incomes,

represented by 2un+ab and 'ihar in the first period, and aharashtra and 'ihar in the

second period, has increased from %.C in 1;0( to (.5 in 1;;


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INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PROGRAM

In this era of globaliation, almost all countries in the world are involved in

migration as countries of origin, destination, or transitKor all three. -f the several

millions of people living outside their countries of birth, the IL- estimates that

almost ;0 per cent are migrant workers and their families. &hile international

migration can be a positive e=perience for migrant workers, many suffer poor

working and living conditions, including low wages, unsafe work environments, a

virtual absence of the social safety net, denial of freedom of association and

workers3 rights, discrimination and =enophobia. Therefore, the IL- approaches

international labour migrationKinternational migration undertaken for workKfrom

a labour market and rights*based perspective with the intent to promote decent

working conditions for migrants as well as migrants3 labour and human rights.

s the !9 specialied agency on labour issues, the IL- has been dealing withlabour migration since its foundation in 1;1;. The very 7onstitution of the IL-

specifically mandates the organiation in its 2reamble to give attention to the

protection of the interests of workers when employed in countries other than their

own. The International igration 'ranch @I:M9TA is the main unit responsible

for labour migration issues in the IL-.

I:M9T promotes the ratification and implementation of international

standards facilitates the participation of IL->s tripartite constituents in formulating

and implementing migration policy provides advisory services and a forum for

consultations serves as a global knowledge base on international labour migration

and conducts or coordinates various pro+ects to strengthen the capacity of IL->s

tripartite constituents and other relevant partners such as non*governmental

organiations and migrants> associations, to deal with a wide range of labour

migration issues.

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INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FROM INDEPENDENT INDIA

In India, the migration of its labour force within and across its national

boundaries is nothing new. India3s geographical position has ensured contact with

the 2ersian :ulf region and "outh /ast sian countries for trade in goods and

movement of people, a contact which goes back to several centuries. The migration

of workers on a significant scale was, however, to come much later. It began in the

colonial era and continues now to independent India.

igratory flow during the period of colonial domination was very much tied

to the investment interests of the colonial rulers and took place under their aegis.

6or instance a great part of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century

witnessed a regular migration of Indian workers as indentured labour for plantations

or mines in the 'ritish colonies this migration was to faraway places such as

:uyana, Famaica and 6i+i, to not so*distant lands such as alaysia and "ingapore

and even to neighbouring countries such as "ri Lanka and 'urma.

"ince Independence, two distinct types of labour migration have been taking

place from India. The first is characteried by a movement of persons with technical

skills and professional e=pertise to the industrialied countries like the !nited "tates,

'ritain and 7anada which began to proliferate in the early 1;50s. The second type of

migration pertains to the flow of labour to the oil e=porting countries of the iddle

/ast which ac4uired substantial dimensions after the dramatic oil price increases of

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR

MIGRATION

IOM’S VISION

I- strives to protect migrant workers and to optimie the benefits of labour

migration for both the country of origin and destination as well as for the migrants

themselves.

IOM’S OBJECTIVES

In its labour migration programming, I- builds capacity in labour migration

management by

offering policy and technical advice to national governments

supporting the development of policies, legislation and administrative structures that

promote efficient, effective and transparent labour migration flows

assisting governments to promote safe labour migration practices for their nationals

facilitating the recruitment of workers, including pre*departure training and

embarkation preparedness

2romoting the integration of labour migrants in their new workplace and society.

PRINCIPAL BENEFICIARIES

I- implements various labour migration programs in


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regional organiations.

IOM’s Appro!"

Through its global network of more than $$0 offices, I- is able to bring together

governments, civil society and the private sector to establish labour migration

programs and mechanisms that balance their various interests, and address migrants3

needs. The I- approach to international labour migration is to foster the synergies

between labour migration and development, and to promote legal avenues of labour

migration as an alternative to irregular migration. oreover, I- aims to facilitate

the development of policies and programs that are in the interest of migrants and

society, providing effective protection and assistance to labour migrants and their

families.

INTERNATIONAL LABOR MIGRATION IN A GLOBALIZING ECONOMY

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internal migrants as international migrants although they did not cross a border in the

interim. ttempts to barricade borders may not have been the dominant factor in

limiting e=pansion of international migration. Irregular migration is ubi4uitous and

pervasive. In the !nited "tates there are probably more than ten million irregular

migrants, and additional border enforcement seems to have done little

to stem the flow @)anson %00CA. Earious observers estimate some 510 million

irregular migrants in /urope and even such nations as Fapan and "audi rabia are

reported to have significant numbers of undocumented workers.( mong many of

the developing nations, where entry re4uirements are often ill defined and poorly

enforced, irregular migration is actually the norm. The dominant restraint on

international migration is surely a reluctance to relocate, despite widening income

gaps between the poorest and wealthiest nations.ost people would simply rather

stay home, though many are impelled to migrate by the failure of employment to

keep pace with the labor force or the lack of security in their home countries.

Leaving out the newly defined migrants created by the dissolution of the former

"oviet !nion, about 5C percent of the world3s international migrants were in the

ore 8eveloped Megions @according to !9 definitionsA in %000. This followed a

steady increase from $0 percent in 1;C0. )owever, a large portion of migrants in the

ore 8eveloped Megions are from other high*income countries.6or instance, almost

e=actly half of the stock of migrants in the -rganisation for /conomic 7o*operation

and 8evelopment @-/78A member states in %000 were from other -/78 states

more than a third of all migrants came from -/78 members other than e=ico and

Turkey. "ince 1;;0 and the release of the findings of the !.". 7ommission for the

"tudy of International igration and 7ooperative /conomic 8evelopment, the

notion of a migration NhumpO has passed into conventional wisdom. The notion is

that emigration rates initially rise then fall as states become more prosperous.

Pet there is little evidence to support this hypothesis.$ 9et migration from

theMobert /. '. Lucas Qleast*developed countries is no lower than from their slightly

more prosperous counterparts. It is true, however, that the poorest nations have lower

emigration rates to the -/78 states. uch of the migration from the least*developed countries appears to be into neighboring developing countries. :eography

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has much to do with this. 8istance deters migration, and the least*developed

countries are generally more remote from the industrialied world. Indeed, given the

ma+or region of origin, there is no clear tendency for emigration to the -/78 states

to increase with the level of development the lack of migration from the lowest*

income countries to the -/78 states thus reflects their geography far more than

reflecting any migration hump based on income.

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IMPACT ON RECEIVING COUNTRIES

The initial impact of migrants3 arrival upon the host country3s economy depends

upon a number of circumstances. In conte=ts where wages are relatively fle=ible,

such as the !nited "tates, there is some evidence that the added supply of labor

depresses wages of workers within the same broad education level @'or+as %00(A.

&here wages are less fle=ible, such as in much of /urope, the impact tends to be

revealed in higher unemployment @Rn et al. %00CA. Pet, in both cases, the

magnitudes of such impacts appear to be relatively small. ore generally, the

employability and productivity of migrants depends upon how well their skill

profiles match the demands of employers. few countries, including ustralia and

7anada, have adopted a point scheme to filter acceptable immigrants in an effort to

enhance the likelihood of +ob matching.

)owever, where prior +ob offers are re4uired for entry, as in some categories of

migrants to the !nited "tates, the demands of employers are probably more closely

matched. Indeed, it may be argued that a large portion of irregular migration is

driven fairly directly by employers3 demands. To this e=tent, penalties on employersfor hiring irregular migrants is probably one of the most effective ways of limiting

undocumented immigration, but few societies possess the political will to impose

and enforce such penalties @artin and iller %000 )anson %00CA. In contrast,

employers3 demands may reflect hardly at all on the sudden mass influ= of refugees

that many developing countries have witnessed.

:ranting asylum to large refugee populations may impose substantial costs on somevery low*income countries finding livelihoods to support those remaining in camps

and absorbing others into the domestic labor market become a high priority.The

initial impacts of migration upon The initial impacts of migration upon the host

country are thus 4uite mi=ed.Though in most situations, the net overall impact on

incomes of natives is probably small. -ver time, other factors come into play. 6irst,

the mi= of industrial activities in the host country may begin to adapt to the new

arrivals.

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6or instance, some of the more labor*intensive forms of agriculture would

probably not e=ist today in /! countries and in the !nited "tates were it not for

access to migrant workers. The fact that some of these lines of agricultural products

are also subsidied raises curious anomalies with respect to public policy.

"econd, migration can have an impact on the fiscal balance of the host state.

&hether migrants are net contributors to this balance depends upon, inter

alia,whether they are employed, whether ta=es are collected out of their incomes,and

whether they are eligible for and need state support. 7ertainly some of the high*

income nations with low or negative natural population growth rates are actively

considering the potential for migration to resolve the dynamic problem of supporting

an ageing population. ore highly*skilled migrants are probably large net

contributors to the fiscal coffer, as are migrants of working age, and those who stay

only temporarily rather than becoming dependent upon state support in their old age.

Thus, unless migration is managed e=plicitly for this purpose, it is unlikely to offer a

ma+or source of relief in the pending social security crises @Lee and iller %000A.

It should also be noted that any such contributions of immigrant researchers are not

confined to the country of immigration alone there is growing evidence of the

effects of research conducted in one country having substantial effects on technical

progress abroad as well @7oe and )elpman 1;;5 /aton and ?ortum 1;;CA. It has

even been hypothesied that the concentration of highly*skilled persons in one

location may enhance the productivity and pay of each worker. Thus, immigration of

highly*skilled professionals could raise the productivity of their native colleagues.

Pet there is little evidence to support such positive spillover effects @cemoglu and

ngrist %001 8avies %00(A.

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RELATIONSHIP BET#EEN TRADE AND MIGRATION

There are both direct and indirect links between trade and migration. The

interchange of professionals and other skilled workers among countries is a direct

and necessary concomitance to merchandise trade and foreign direct investment.

ode $ of the :eneral greement on Trade in "ervices @:T"A of the &orld Trade

-rganiation @&T-A provides a formal codification for the movement of persons to

deliver services in another country. To date, agreements under this provision have

been restricted almost entirely to the migration of highly*skilled and professional

service providers. The movement of professionals between the developing andindustrialied regions is predominantly one way from the developing countries. The

industrialied nations have been more reluctant to admit low*skilled workers through

trade agreements, notwithstanding the tendency of some of these nations to turn a

blind eye to irregular migrations.

ore indirectly, the globaliation of trade could serve to diminish income

gaps and hence diminish migration pressures. re trade and migration thus

substitutesG This remains an area of dispute. To the e=tent that southnorth trade is

shaped by an abundance of low*skilled workers in the south and by capital and skills

in the north, freer trade ought eventually to narrow the gaps in low*skilled workers3

earnings, reducing the need to migrate. -n the other hand, if the agglomeration of

highly*skilled persons in the industrialied countries serves to make each such

person more productive, then increased trade can e=acerbate the pressures for a brain

drain, even in the long run. 2erhaps far more importantly, the short*term impacts of

sudden trade liberaliation can go either way, for workers across a range of skills.

6or e=ample, a country whose agricultural e=ports increase may face rising prices of

food at home under liberaliation that serves to undermine real wages. 'y contrast,

increased imports of less e=pensive agricultural goods may lower incomes for small*

scale farmers.

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7ombined with macro*economic mismanagement and population growth,

trade liberaliation in e=ico may well have e=acerbated the e=odus to the !nited

"tates, at least in the short term @)anson %00CA. ore generally, liberaliation

associated with stabiliation and structural ad+ustment programs in the developing

countries following the debt crises of the 1;0s, financial crises of the 1;;0s, and

transition in formerly socialist countries have initially undermined incomes at home

Kagain adding to the pressures to move overseas.

eanwhile, some aspects of trade protection in the north have probably e=acerbated

migration pressures. It is an irony of the public policy in many of the industrialied

countries that subsidies and protection to low*skilled activities, notably agriculture,

stimulate precisely those sectors providing much of the employment to irregular

migrants. &hether the ubi4uitous protection of agriculture in the industrialied states

harms living standards in the developing world, thus contributing even further to

migration pressures, is more ambiguous. 9et food importers tend to gain from these

agricultural subsidies of the north as do food*e=porting developing countries with

privileged e=port access to /uropean markets. 2rotection of certain crops, such as

cotton in the !nited "tates, has most certainly harmed living standards among some

of the cotton e=porters of frica. There e=ists little or no coherence between the

trade and migration policies adopted by the hi gher*income countries. These two sets

of issues are the realms of separate ministries, which typically fail to coordinate,

despite the obvious links between their concerns.

Trade policies of both countries of origin and destination impact migration

outcomes. 'ut migration also shapes trade

flows. The role of information provided by migrants in stimulating trade has already

been noted.In addition,the growing circular migration of scientists and engineers,

both among the countries of the north and between the developing and industrialied

regions, is a contributing factor in diffusing and shifting technological superiority

and hence reshaping trade patterns @"a=enian 1;;;A.

CAUSES OF MIGRATION

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:iven the diversity in the nature of migration in India, the causes are also

bound to vary. igration is influenced both by the pattern of development, and the

social structure. The 9ational 7ommission on Mural Labour, focusing on seasonal

migration, concluded that uneven development was the main cause of seasonal

migration. long with inter regional disparity, disparity between different socio

economic classes and the development policy adopted since independence has

accelerated the process of seasonal migration. In tribal regions, intrusion of

outsiders, the pattern of settlement, displacement and deforestation, also have played

a significant role. ost migration literature makes a distinction between Hpull3 and

Hpush3 factors, which, however, do not operate in isolation of one another. obility

occurs when workers in source areas lack suitable options for

employmentBlivelihood, and there is some e=pectation of improvement in

circumstances through migration. The improvement sought may be better

employment or higher wagesBincomes, but also ma=imiation of family employment

or smoothing of employmentBincomeBconsumption over the year t one end of the

migration spectrum, workers could be locked into a debt*migration cycle, where

earnings from migration are used to repay debts incurred at home or in the

destination areas, thereby cementing the migration cycle. t the other end, migration

is largely voluntary, although shaped by their limited choices.

The 97ML has recognied the e=istence of this continuum for poor migrants by

distinguishing between rural labour migration for survival and for subsistence. The

landless poor, who mostly belong to lower caste, indigenous communities, from

economically backward regions, migrate for survival and constitute a significant

proportion of seasonal labour flow.The growth of intensive agriculture and

commercialiation of agriculture since the late 1;C0s has led to peak periods of

labour demand, often also coinciding with a decline in local labour deployment. In

the case of labour flows to the rice producing belt of &est 'engal, wage differentials

between the source and destination have been considered as the main reason for

migration. oreover, absence of non*farm employment, low agricultural production

has resulted in a growth of seasonal migration. igration decisions are influenced by both individual and household characteristics as well as the social matri=, which is

best captured in social*anthropological studies.20


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6actors such as age, education level, wealth, land owned, productivity and

+ob opportunities influence the participation of individuals and households in

migration, but so do social attitudes and supporting social networks. &here

migration is essentially involuntary, it makes little sense to use voluntaristic models

to e=plain the phenomenon. In 8hule region sugarcane cultivation leads to high

demand for labour, but landowners recruit labourers from other districts for

harvesting as they can have effective control over the labour. Local labourers are

thus forced to migrate with their households to "outh :u+arat.

Labour mobility is one of the key features of economic development and its

characteristics are closely tied with the nature of this development. )istorically,

development is associated with unevenness and structural change, giving an impetus

to the movement of workers from one region to another, and from one sector to

another. /ven within the macro*structural features which determine the supply of,

and demand for, certain types of migrant labour, the pattern of migration depends on

a host of factors determined by labour market characteristics, together with

individual, household and community level features, and the e=istence of social

networks, among other things. These factors cumulatively determine the Hcauses3 of

migration. -n the other hand, labour migration plays a key role in influencing the pattern of development, through its impact on a host of economic and non*economic

variables, both in the origin and destination areas.

Labour migration does not recognie bordersKbut borders, whether urban,

state, or international influence migration through a host of policies and regulatory

measures. key distinction between internal and international migration is the

e=istence of national regulatory frameworks such as immigration controls @which

leads to a distinction between regular and irregular migrationA. 'ut regulatory

frameworks and restrictive policies also operate within nation states.

/arly development literature conceptualied labour migration as occurring

from the rural to urban, agricultural to industrial, and informal to formal sectors.

)owever, the workforce pattern has changed across the world in favour of the

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services sector, and the informal sector is more prominent today, both in developing

and developed countries than it was twenty or thirty years ago. In developing

countries, the informal sector is no longer conceived as a temporary destination for

migrants but in most cases, as a final destination. The @changingA structural features

of world capitalism have an important bearing on both internal and international

migration.

The theme on labour migration will e=plore all types of labour migration

internal, inter*state, cross*border and international. It will encourage cross

disciplinary studies and papers based on both fieldwork and secondary data.

&e would welcome papers which e=plore not only economic issues but also

historical, political, sociological and psychological factors affecting labour migration

and the conse4uences of migration at more disaggregate levels, vi., for various

socio*economic strata and segments of the population and for women, men, the

elderly and children separately, wherever possible. The contributors should confine

themselves to the issue of worker migration, as conventionally defined in "9

accounts, and to leave out those types of Nforced labourO migration, which are not

conventionally included in work but are covered in international conventions on

forced labour and trafficking. The paper contributors should not be concerned with

other forms of non*labour migration @such as refugee or student migrationA or with

population mobility, which is important for an understanding urban growth.

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DATA AND METHODS

The paper uses data from 7ensus of India %001 as well as data from the

9ational "ample "urvey -rganiation @9""-A 55th Mound on igration. ccording

to Indian 7ensus, a 2erson is considered a migrant if birthplace or place of last

residence is different from 2lace of enumeration. The 9ational "ample "urvey

-rganiation of :overnment of India 7arried out an all*India survey on the situation

of employment and unemployment in India during the period Fuly 1;;;*Fune %000.

This 55th Mound 8ata was published in ugust %001. In this survey, data was

collected on migrants as well. It defines a migrant as Ha member of the sample

household who had stayed continuously for at least si= months or more in a place

other than the place of enumeration3. It collects the reasons for leaving the last usual

place of residence under the following heads

@aA in search of employment

@bA in search of better employment

@cA to take up employmentBbetter employment

@dA transfer of serviceBcontract

@eA pro=imity to place of work

@fA studies

@gA ac4uisition of own houseBflat

@hA housing problems

@iA socialBpolitical problem

@+A health

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@kA marriage

@lA migration of parentBearning member of the family and

@mA others.

simple analysis using vicariate tables has been carried out in the paper to

bring out the e=tent of employment oriented migration in India. oreover, the paper

also attempts to study the difference between the stated reasons for migration and the

labor force participation, taking into account duration and educational 4ualification

of the migrants. /mployment oriented migration

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IMPACT OF MIGRATION

ON MIGRANTS AND THEIR FAMILIES

2oorer migrant workers, crowded into the lower ends of the labour market,

have few entitlements vis a vis their employers or the public authorities in the

destination areas. They have meagre personal assets and suffer a range of

deprivations in the destination areas. In the source areas, migration has both negative

and positive conse4uences for migrants and their families.

LIVING CONDITIONS$

igrant labourers, whetheragricultural or non*agricultural, live in

deplorableconditions. There is no provision of safe drinking water or hygienic

sanitation. ost live in open spaces or makeshift shelters in spite of the 7ontract

Labour ct which stipulates that the contractor or employer should provide suitable

accommodation @97ML, 1;;1 :ET, %00% Mani and "hylendra, %001A. part from

seasonal workers, workers who migrate to the cities for +ob live in parks and

pavements. "lum dwellers, who are mostly migrants, stay in deplorable conditions,

with inade4uate water and bad drainage. 6ood costs more for migrant workers who

are not able to obtain temporary ration cards.

HEALTH AND EDUCATION$

Labourers working in harsh circumstances and living in unhygienic

conditions suffer from serious occupational health problems and are vulnerable to

disease. Those working in 4uarries, construction sites and mines suffer from various

health haards, mostly lung diseases. s the employer does not follow safety

measures, accidents are 4uite fre4uent. igrants cannot access various health and

family care programmes due to their temporary status. 6ree public health care

facilities and programmes are not accessible to them. 6or women workers, there is

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no provision of maternity leave, forcing them to resume work almost immediately

after childbirth. &orkers, particularly those working in tile factories and brick kilns

suffer from occupational health haards such as body ache, sunstroke and skin

irritation @97ML, 1;;1A.

7hanges in migrants3 attitudes /=posure to a different environment, cluding

the stresses that it carries, has a deep impact on the attitudes, habits and awareness

levels of migrant workers, depending upon the length of migration and the place to

which it occurs. 7hanges are more dramatic in the case of urban migrants. igrant

workers develop greater awareness regarding conditions of work @"rivastava, 1;;;A.

Life style and changes in awareness may lead to a mi=ed impact on family embers.

The increased awareness which migrants, especially in urban areas, gain often helps

them realise the importance of their children3s education.

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IMPACT ON SOURCE AREAS

The ma+or impacts of migration on source areas occur through changes in the labour

market, income and assets, changes in the pattern of e=penditure and investment.

lthough seasonal outmigration potentially has the effect of smoothing out

employment over the annual cycle, rural outmigration could cause a tightening of the

labour market in some circumstances. )owever, empirical evidence from out*

migrant areas does not often attest to this. This may be because outmigration often

takes place in labour surplus situations. There is also evidence of the replacement of out*migrant male labour by female and even child labour. "tudy of seven villages in

!ttar 2radesh showed some variation over regions. &hile the situation in the study

villages in /astern and central !ttar 2radesh conformed to a situation of labour

surplus, this was not the case in &estern !ttar 2radesh where seasonal migration

coincided with the agricultural peak season @MabiA and employers complained of

labour shortages. "ignificantly in all the regions studied, labourers on their part gave

uncertainty of employment along with employment conditions and poor relations

with their agricultural employers as the ma+or reasons for outmigration.

/ven if labour tightening is not an outcome, outmigration may still speed up

4ualitative changes in e=isting labour relationships in rural areas, and thereby affect

the pace of change. This may occur in several ways. 6irst, there is the well* umented

impact of migration on attitudes and awareness as migrant labourers and return

igrants are more reluctant to accept adverse employment conditions and low wages.

"econdly, outmigration leads to a more diversified livelihood strategy. 7ombined

with some increase in the income and employment portfolio of poor households, this

may tend to push up acceptable level of wages @reservation wagesA in rural areas and

may make certain forms of abour relationships @as for e=ample, those involving

personalised dependencyA less acceptable.

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EMPLOYMENT ORIENTED MIGRATION

/mployment oriented migration is obtained by combining the migrants that

have given workBemployment and business as their reason for migration. It is found

that employment oriented migration is 4uite small, particularly among female

migrants with +ust around % percent of total female migrants giving employment or

business as the reason for their migration.

TRENDS IN GLOBAL MIGRATION

ankind and migration have been linked to each other since the beginning of

time life without migration could not be thought of. igration has a history of its

own, both at the national and international levels. The mobility of capital and

technology has indeed changed the history of peoples. t the same time, migration

has created a greater impact on history.

In India, the cultural ethos of the country has actually dissuaded people from

going abroad. There are myths and superstitions surrounding migration in almost

every Indian tradition. The fear of kala*pani, literally translated as Hblack waters3,

which meant ostracism, was a strong deterrent. "uch myths were prevalent also in

other ancient cultures like 7hina and Fapan, preventing people from going abroad.

6or a variety of reasons, be it economic or cultural or personal, the concept of Hwe3

and Hthey3, and the notions of individual, intellectual and spiritual Hpollution3 and the

fear of conse4uent ostracism prevented people from leaving their home soil until the

advent of the /uropeansKwhich in turn stimulated an interest for Indians to migrate

overseas.

7haracteristically, most of these migrants were poor, illiterate and unskilled. It

was supposed to be a voluntary system, but there are horror stories about coercion,

and how these people were picked up literally from the streets of their hometowns,

collected at various embarkation points, and forced to go to a foreign land, of which

they knew nothing about. :ender did not come in the way, and women picked up as

indentured labour were made to stay with men. any were declared man and wife,

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and packed off to foreign destinations. ll said and done, this can be considered as a

precursor to the global migration of Indians.

)owever, there is the problem of Indian embassies in most of these countries

not being very cooperative towards the migrant community. The embassies are not

e=actly attuned to the needs of these people, nor are the officials always aware of

their problems, their issues and their needs be it in terms of their labour contracts,

or the laws of the land. There is greater room for the Indian embassies to play a more

effective and cooperative role in this conte=t. any a time, because of the

indifference and the ignorance of the Indian missions in these countries, the migrant

workers are almost always at the mercy of the employers and the laws that they

adhere to. It is only in recent years that the :overnment is waking up to the need for

appointing a separate Labour ttachS in the Indian embassies in these countries, to

cater to the demands of the workers, and to take care of their needs.

There is the possibility of migration from India growing in the coming years and

decades. The probability of a younger age population in India coupled with declining

birth*rates in the developed world leading to a labour shortage, be it unskilled,

skilled or professional, are among the causes. The interface between outsourcing,

migration and growing social networks are also contributory factors. There is also

the factor of newer destinations, Fapan, for instance, emerging on the horion. In

this, the Indians abroad have transitioned from being dependants to being Hdictators3

through their significant presence, positional clout and numerical strength coupled

with effective networking, and coordinated organisation. There is now the :lobal

-rganiation for the 2eople of Indian -rigin @:-2I-A, which has set its priorities in

pooling resources, both financial and professional, for the benefit of 2I-s, in the

countries they come from, and in India. In all this, India derives material support

from the 8iaspora, and they derive psychological satisfaction of being a part of the

Indian nationhood, and in the process of crafting a resurgent India.

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EFFECTS OF MIGRATION

igration of labour has its positive as well as negative effects both on native

and host countries. &e will e=amine these effects as under

POSITIVE EFFECTS$

%& #AGE RATE$

Labourers usually migrate from low wage counties to higher wage nations. !nless

prevented or guarded by law, wages will change in both countries. "uch an effect on

wages is brought out in )ome country and foreign. It is also possible that over a

period of time real wages may increase both in host countries and native countries.

case study by Feffery :. &illiams, of eight countries, host countries rgentina,

ustralia, 7anada and !nited "tates of merica and native @homeA countries

Ireland, Italy, 9orway and "weden between the period 1


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migrants at the disguised unemployment. In the early stages of large scale migration

from /urope to 9orth merica, it helped in mitigating population problem of

/uropean countries.

$. REMITTANCE$

/migrants remit a part of their income back to their families in their native country.

any of the /uropean countries, e=ico and sian countries have benefited from

the remittance of their emigrants. t present china and India receive a substantial

amount of remittance. It helps the home countries reduce their balance of payment

problem or increase investment at home import capital goods thus promote

development of their economies.

Memittance would reduce over a period of time as the emigrants settle in the

migrated country along with their families. The sie of the remittance depends on the

number of emigrants from a country and the nature and duration of employment.any countries including India, offer additional incentives to the emigrants to remit

and keep the money back in their home country.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS

%& BRAIN DRAIN$

/migrants comprise people educated and trained at different levels. a+ority of the

emigrants are of low education and unskilled. /migrants also include highly

educated professionals such as doctors, engineers, professors and other technically

and professionally trained people. good number of medical, engineering and

management students from India migrate to countries like !", 7anada, ustralia,

9ew Dealand, :ermany, 6rance and to some rich gulf countries. These students take

the advantage of subsidised education financed by ta= payer money and leave the

country when they become productive agents or labourers. Ts is also argued that

educated emigrants help the home countries when these countries rare not in a

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position to employ them. 'eside it also reduces the claim on goods and service of the

home country when labourers migrate.

%. PROBLEM OF SOCIAL INTEGRATION$

Immigrants in a country belong to different countries, race, religion and culture.

They form their own groups based on the above factors. In the initial stages these

groups live in ghettoes. "ocial assimilation with the people of the host country

becomes difficult. In !", 7anada and ustralia or in countries dominated by white

coloured people, social integration becomes difficult due to colour comple=.

Meligion is another factor which makes immigrants identify with the host country

where the ma+ority belong to another religion. 7ultural differences also deter the

process of integration specially when each group develops a comple= of cultural

superiority. t times ethnic and religious differences create a problem for the host

country as it happens in !? and India.

(. ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS$

It is a serious problem for many countries. !" has a large number of illegal

immigrants from e=ico. "imilar problems are faced by 7anada, ustralia and some

of the /uropean countries. Illegal migration to a neighbouring country is a common

occurrence due to political, economic, social and religious factors. India is facing

such a problem with illegal immigrants from 'angladesh, 2akistan and "ri Lanka.

$. CHEAP LABOUR $

8eveloped countries, specially organise labour through their Trade !nion oppose the

liberal migration policy. They argue that the migrant labourers who are willing to

work at lower workers. )owever this argument does not merit serious consideration

wage rate in such economies is determined by market forces, /=ploitation can be

prevented through minimum wage law, which also safeguards the interest of migrant

labourers.

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5. FISCAL IMBALANCE$

Immigrants positively contribute to the growth of the host country. &hen

immigrants constitute in large numbers, the host country re4uires to spend huge

amount of capital to provide the re4uired economic and social infrastructure. s they

settledown permanently, the government re4uires to spend for providing social

security benefits. /=penditure on all these counts may create fiscal imbalance in the

form of increased budgetary deficit.

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CONCLUSION

igration has become a global phenomenon. s discussed earlier peoplemigrate to another country for a number of reasons of which economic and political

are the important ones. 6rom our earlier e=planation it is evident that migration has

positive as well as negative effects both on the host and native countries. In a

globalised world, the number of migrants is bound to increase. )owever in the larger

interest of nations and people @migrantsA involved it is necessary to introduce

measures so that the positive effects are ma=imised while the negative ones are

minimised if they cannot be totally eliminated.

The suggestions in this direction are to promote labour rights to immigrants.

llow the migrant workers to +oin Trade !nions. Treat immigrants on the same level

as those of workers of host country. "afety conditions should be made applicable

even if they are on temporary work. 2romote ethical recruitment. 2revent

e=ploitation and discrimination. Meform work permits schemes to reduce powers of

employers. Legislate to prevent employers from withholding migrant workers

passport. Initiate international action to regulate the activities of private recruitment

agencies. ll the countries should ratify 1;;0 !9 convention on the protection of

rights of all migrant workers and their families.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

International igration.

:hosh, 'imal. @%000A Towards a 9ew International Megime for -rderly ovements

of 2eople, in 'imal

:hosh @ed.A, Managing Migration. Time for a New International Regime?, -=ford

-=ford !niversity

2ress, pp. C*%C.

:oel, 2. and ishra, '. @%00

Documents

International migration in india - eco.doc