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International Journal of Energy, Sustainability and Environmental Engineering

ISSN: 2394-3165(Print), 2395-3217(Online)

Vol. 2 Issue 2-3 November - December, 2015

January – February, 2016

CONTENTS Editorial Papers

Influence of Fluoride Contamination of Ground Water on Intellectual

Development of Children in Nayagarh District of Odisha D Nag & A Dutta

Evaluation of NO2 Pollution Levels among Four Different Air Quality

Monitoring Stations around Dhenkanal Industrial Project Sites near

Banarpal, Odisha G S Mohanty, S R Nath, S P Panda & R C Mohanty

47

51

Solar Energy; an Alternative Renewable Energy: A Review 55

Nayan Ranjan Samal

Conservation and Regeneration of Mangroves in Hukitola Island 64 R K Nayak, J K Nayak, D Prusty, M K Pradhan, S Sahoo, K K Das, P Pradhan,

M Raj, A P Sahoo & B Satapathy

Guidelines for Authors 67

Author Index 69

Keyword Index 70

International Journal of Energy, Sustainability and Environmental Engineering

ISSN: 2394-3165 (Print); 2395-3217 (Online)

Vol. 2 Issue 2-3 November - December, 2015

January – February, 2016

Editorial…….

The ancient people have now converted themselves to the era of E-Technology. Science and

Technology has not only revealed the hidden truth but also given rise to a number of

inventions and discoveries that has comforted the life of human being. Starting from human

civilisation to existence of universe everything is being driven by energy. Though the sources

of energy are different for different purposes but no doubt energy plays a vital role for the

sustainability of ecosystem.

Fossil fuels –coal, petroleum and natural gas- are generally been considered as the major

sources of energy. With increase in human need these natural resources are getting

exhausted. The release of harmful gases and wastes from these fuels also badly affecting

public health, wildlife and habitat loss, air, water, and land pollution, and global warming

emissions. In order to mitigate these threats alternative sources are sought for. The

renewable energy sources like solar, wind, tidal energy are now becoming the major

alternative energy sources. Other alternative energy sources also include geothermal,

biofuel, biomass, hydro power, marine energy, carbon neutral and negative fuels. As the

renewable energy resources are naturally replenished this can easily replace the

conventional fuels in certain distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating,

motor fuels and rural (off-grid) energy services. The costs of this energy also continued to

drop, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market

competition. Scientists have advanced a plan to power 100% of the world's energy with wind,

hydroelectric, and solar power by the year 2030. According to a 2011 projection by the

International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the world's

electricity within 50 years, reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the

environment. As the renewable energy is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and

environmentally friendly it can solve various global problems associated with food, water,

health, energy, transportation etc. if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels. Some other

renewable energy technologies like cellulosic ethanol, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and

ocean energy are still under development. These technologies are not yet widely

demonstrated or commercialized, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention, research,

development and demonstration.

Niva Nayak Orissa Engineering College, Bhubaneswar

[email protected]

International Journal of Energy, Sustainability & Environmental Engineering

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Published by Dr. Niva Nayak on behalf of HKCR&D, OEC, Bhubaneswar 751 007 and printed at Rainbow Enterprisers, BBSR-751003

ISSN: 2394-3165 (Print)

2395-3217 (Online)

International Journal of Energy, Sustainability and Environmental Engineering Vol. 2 (2-3), November 2015, pp. 47-50

Influence of Fluoride Contamination of Ground Water on Intellectual

Development of Children in Nayagarh District of Odisha

D Nag & A Dutta*

Department of Chemistry, Stewart Science College, Cuttack

Received 07 November 2015; revised 24 November 2015; accepted 26 November 2015

Abstract Elevated fluoride ion concentration in drinking water is associated with adverse effect on neurological functions of central nervous system during child’s growth and developmental stages and this may lead to impaired intelligence quotient (IQ) level. Nayagarh district of Odisha is a naturally fluoridated area according to the investigations conducted by the authors as well as by a number of scientists. Hence it provides an ideal location to investigate the relationship between fluoride concentration in drinking water and IQ of children. In this cross-sectional study, 40-50 children in the age group 6-12 years from each of 12 villages of Nayagarh district were selected and their IQ level was measured by using Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices Test. Data were statistically analysed by z- test with a significant level of p = 0.05. The mean IQ scores decreased from 102±15 for normal fluoride group to 97±18 for medium fluoride group and to 86±16 and for high fluoride group. Also the average IQ level of normal children and those suffering from dental fluorosis in the regions having medium and high F- concentration are compared. The average IQ of dental fluorosis sufferers is clearly lower than that of normal children and this difference is statistically significant. Keywords Fluorosis, IQ, neurotoxic, Raven, Standard Analytical Procedures Prolonged excess fluoride intake due to high Fluoride concentration in drinking water has a negative influence on child’s intellectual development1. Intellectual ability of a human being is the cumulation of two components. The first component is innate intelligence derived from combination of neurological function and brain structure. The second component is the acquired intelligence related to accumulation of knowledge, education, experience etc. IQ is the abbreviation of German term Intelligenz-Quotient is a score derived from one of several standardized tests designed to assess intelligence. The most common widely acceptable test is the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices Test2 intended to test basic and innate factors in the child’s overall intellectual competence and hence is a measure of the development of neural function within the cerebral cortex. The test comprises of models in the form of matrices. In

each test item, the child was asked to identify the missing part that completes the model. The test comprised of 30 problems, beginning with easy and ending with difficult ones. Each question contained a matrix of geometric design with eight alternatives for one blank cell. Only one of the option fitted correctly. Usually the test is conducted for a group of children who work independently. General intellectual ability was assessed based on IQ score which are divided into following categories: Outstanding (IQ> 130), excellent (120-129), above average (110-119) average (90-109) borderline (70-89) and low (IQ<70).

The main objective of our study was to investigate the effect of fluoride poisoning on the intellectual development of children residing in Nayagarh district of Odisha, measured in terms of their IQ.

IQ scores are used as predictors of educational achievements, special needs, identification of slow learners, recruitment and job performance. They are also used to study IQ distributions in populations and the correlations between IQ and other variables. The average IQ scores has been rising at an average rate of three points per decade since the early 20th century, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect3.

Corresponding Author: A Dutta

e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

48 Int J Energy Sustain Environ Eng, November 2015

Several neuro-physiological factors have been

correlated with intelligence in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape and activity level of different parts of the brain. Specific features that may affect IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex and the glucose metabolic rate4. Other factors that affect IQ are parental social status, heritability of IQ, exposure to geo-chemical toxins that is ingested through food and water.

Exposure to toxins is one of the important factors for the variation of IQ of children. Several studies showed that fluoride is one of major toxic ion to reduce the IQ of children5. Among various sources of fluoride, drinking water is one of the common sources to inject fluoride ion in the body of human beings.

Experimental Procedure

Sample collection

Polyethylene bottles were vigorously washed with detergents, soaked over night in 2% nitric acid and rinsed with distilled water. Then samples were collected from five bore wells of each village in three months of three different seasons.

Chemical Analysis The fluoride content in drinking water from twelve villages of Nayagarh district was analysed by UV-Visible spectrometer using 1,8-dihydroxy-2-(4-sulphophenylazo) naphthalene-3, 6-disulphonic acid trisodium salt (SPADNS) reagent during three

major seasons of the year 2014-2015 and their mean was calculated. According to data obtained by water analysis, the villages were categorized into normal, medium and high fluoride content groups. The analysis of different physicochemical parameters like pH, Electrical Conductivity(EC), HCO3

-, SO4

- -, Cl-, Na+

, K+, Ca++, Mg++, F-

, SiO3- etc were

determined by different instruments in the Laboratory by following standard procedure given in Standard Analytical Procedure (SAP)6.

IQ Study Population

For IQ evaluation, 40 – 50 students from each of the twelve villages are selected. It is important to note here that all the children selected for IQ evaluation have a comparable level of socioeconomic status and the villages where they reside are similar in their general demographic and geographic characteristics. The parents of all participants were long-life residents of the villages under study with their mothers having lived in the area during their pregnancies. The exclusion criteria included a history of genetic disease, systemic disorders or brain trauma in the family.

IQ Evaluation

The intellectual ability of each child was calculated using Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test, which is a valid test for basic cognitive abilities and is widely used to evaluate normal development of brain function2.

The children of each village were grouped according to their age and they were given 30 problems to solve in 40 minutes. The main advantage of Raven’s Progressive Matrices test is that it is non-verbal in nature and the students who

Table 1 Distribution of IQ scores of Children residing in villages having normal, medium and high F- containing water Name of the

Village Mean

F- concentration No. Of

Children IQ Score/ %

>130 129-120 119-110 109-90 89-70 <70

Normal Jaringi 1.4 50 0.8 4.1 51.5 33.3 9.9 0.4 Akhupadar 1.5 55 0.6 3.9 48.2 27.8 11.5 8.0 Dalak 0.9 45 1.0 4.1 42.8 38.9 10.9 2.3 Bhalumundia 0.5 50 1.2 4.4 44.7 37.4 11.3 1.0 Medium Narasinghpur 2.1 40 0.4 3.3 45.2 32.5 11.8 6.8 Satapatna 2.9 45 0.0 3.1 41.5 33.2 12.0 10.2 Barapurikia 2.0 50 0.3 3.7 42.6 31.6 11.2 10.6 Kunjabangarh 2.8 50 0.1 3.2 43.0 30.3 11.5 11.9 High Sigmahr 3.6 52 0.0 2.1 38.7 27.4 10.0 21.8 Khandapada 3.8 48 0.0 2.5 38.5 22.5 10.1 26.4 Balunkeswar 4.2 40 0.0 2.2 39.2 22.7 9.8 26.1 Bhapur 5.1 42 0.0 2.4 40.3 21.8 10.2 25.3

49

Nag D & Dutta A: Influence of Fluoride Contamination of Ground Water on Intellectual Development

can not read or write can appear in this test.

Results and discussion The results obtained from the above chemical analysis and IQ evaluation is represented in Table 1. From the result it is found that in general the IQ level of children of these villages is average and the number of children having outstanding or excellent IQ is negligible. Genetic factor may be attributed to this. However, while comparing the number of children having average and borderline IQ it is found that difference of IQ between higher F- and normal F- is much larger than the difference of IQ between medium F- and normal F-. It is apparent from the value of mean IQ±SD which is 102±15 for normal F- and is decreased to 97±18 for medium F- level and that again reduced to 86±16 for high F- level. The difference in IQ of children between normal and medium F- area is not statistically significant p> 0.05 where as the IQ difference between normal and high F- area is statistically significant p<0.05. It is again observed that there is no significant difference between average IQ of boys and girls. Thus the damage to intellectual ability caused by fluoride poisoning is independent of gender.

Since the environmental and cultural background of all the children are mostly same, the decrease in IQ level for children of some villages are attributed to the geochemical soluble ions like fluoride ion in

water. Again the result shows that there was no difference in IQ level of children having no/less education and that of children studying in standard III or IV. This indicates that the child’s educational level had no impact on IQ score. This was in line with studies performed earlier7,8, indicating that the fetal and early child hood periods are the most susceptible stages in brain development and any induced neurogical impairments are not reversible.

Table 2 shows the difference between IQ level of normal children and children suffering from dental fluorosis in the regions having medium and

high F- concentration. The IQ level of dental fluorosis sufferers is clearly lower than that of normal children and this difference is statistically significant.

The result of several animal studies9,10 indicates the possible bio-mechanism for the neurotoxic effect of fluoride. It may pass through the placenta by maternal exposure to elevated fluoride level during pre-natal period or fluoride may be ingested through the child’s diet. Once absorbed in the blood it forms lipid soluble complexes which cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in cerebral tissues. The penetrated fluoride complexes adversely affect the CNS development by different mechanism. One study reveals that high F- concentration has got adverse effect on cholinesterase activity which may lead to altered utilization of acetycholine thus affecting the transmission of nerve impulses in brain tissue. Recently another study shows that NaF alters the level of dopamine, Serotonine, norepinephrine and epinephrine in the brain11. This demonstrates the change in neurotransmitters and their receptors in human fetal brain. Since thyroid hormones play an important role in development of brain, it might also affect IQ level. Important aspects of Fluoride- iodine interaction on thyroid function are also explained12. It has been found that elevated F- intake may cause iodine deficiency in human being, even if they reside in non-iodine deficient areas.

Conclusions Within the limitations of this cross-sectional studies it may be concluded that excess F- level in drinking water affects the IQ of children specially those suffering from dental fluorosis. Thus for the benefit of future generations, urgent attention is needed in implementing public health measures to reduce the fluoride exposure levels in high fluoridated regions.

Acknowledgement

The author express thanks to Dr. Nirmal Kumar Bhuyan, Scientist, Central Water Commission,

Table 2 Comparison of IQ distribution of normal and dental fluorosis affected children Status of Fluoride

conc.

Area/Health No. Of Children

Intellectual Ability Outstanding Excellent Above

average Average Borderline Low

Medium Dasapalla 185 Normal 129 0.3 3.8 43.7 35.4 10.3 6.5 Dental

fluorosis 56 0.1 3.1 39.2 28.2 16.6 12.8

High Khandapada 182 Normal 104 0.0 2.4 40.1 26.9 10.6 20.0 Dental

fluorosis 78 0.0 1.5 36.4 21.3 17.5 23.3


BBSR for co-operation in analysis, Mrs Meerabala Mohapatra, Principal, Stewart Science College for providing laboratory facility and UGC for providing financial assistance.

References 1. Xiang Q, Liang Y, Chen L, Wang C, Chen B, Chen

X, Shanghai Z M & China P R, Fluoride, 36(2) (2003) 84.

2. Raven J, in Manual for Raven's Progressive Matrices

and Vocabulary Scales, Research Supplement No.1(1981): The 1979 British Standardisation of the Standard Progressive Matrices and Mill Hill Vocabulary Scales, Together With Comparative Data From Earlier Studies in the UK, US, Canada, Germany and Ireland. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.

3. Flynn J R, Psycholog Bull, 101 (1987) 171. 4. Turkheimer E, in LIFE Newsletter (Max Planck

Institute for Human Development) (spring 2008): 2. Retrieved 29 June 2010.

5. Trivedi M H, Verma R J, Chinoy N J, Patel R S & Sathawara N G, Fluoride, 40(3) (2007) 178.

6. Standard Analytical Procedures for Water Analysis, “HYDROLOGY PROJECT TECHNICAL ASSITANCE” Government of India and Government of Netherland, May (1999).

7. Li J, Yao L, Shao Q L, Wu C Y, Fluoride, 41 (2008) 165.

8. Seraj B, Shahrabi M, Falahzade M, Falahzade F, Akhondi N, J Dent Med, 19 (2006) 80.

9. Guan Z Z, Wang Y N, Xiao K Q, Dai D Y, Chen Y H, Liu J L, Sindelar P & Dallner G, Neurotoxicol

Teratol, 20 (1999) 537. 10. Rzeuski R, Chlubek D & Machoy Z, Fluoride,

31(1998) 43. 11. Mullenix P J, Denbesten P K, Shunior A & Kernas W

J, Neurotoxicol Teratol, 17(2) (1995) 169. 12. Susheela A K, Bhatnagar M, Vig K & Mondal N K,

Fluoride, 38(2) (2005) 98.

ISSN: 2394-3165 (Print)

2395-3217 (Online)


Evaluation of NO2 Pollution Levels among Four Different Air Quality

Monitoring Stations around Dhenkanal Industrial Project Sites near

Banarpal, Odisha

G S Mohanty1, S R Nath

2*, S P Panda

3 & R C Mohanty

4

1Environmental R&D Laboratory, Environment Management Division, Bhushan Steel Limited, Dhenakanal,

Orissa 2Environmental R&D Laboratory, Bhushan steel limited, Dhenkanal

3Environment R&D Laboratory, Environment Cell, Hindalco Industries limited, Hirakud, Sambalpur

4Departement of Botany, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar

Received 29 October 2015; revised 25 November 2015; accepted 26 November 2015

Abstract To assess the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and its concentration data sets measured from different types of ambient quality monitoring (AQM) stations in and around Dhenkanal, Industrial project sites near Banarpal, Angul, Odisha. The target Ambient Air Quality monitoring stations were selected to represent the urban traffic (A-type), urban background (B-type), suburban(C-type) and rural areas (D-type) centering 10kms radius of Banarpal areas. Banarpal is 14 km away from the District head quarter Angul . NH-42 runs from Cuttack to Rourkela passing through Banarpal. Most of the industrial activities are carried out within 10km of the town, like Talcher Thermal Power Station of NTPC, NALCO, Bhushan Steel, Navabharat Ferro Alloys, BRG Steel, Hind Metals, and Rana Sponge etc. The mean concentrations of NO2 were clearly distinguished both between the A- and B-type stations and between the C- and D-type stations. The mean concentration of NO2 in urban traffic and urban background(A, B-type)varies from 4 1.6 to12 2.0; sub urban (C-type)is from 4.0 1.0 to 5 1.0 and the mean concentration of NO2 in Rural areas (D-type) varies from 4.0 0.85 to 5.0 1.0.The comparison of seasonal patterns indicated that the NO2 values tend to consistently peak increase during the winter (or spring) months of A and B type of stations as 8.0 g/m3 to 18 g/m3, C-type 9.0 g/m3 to 12 g/m3 and D-type 5.0 g/m3 to 7.0 g/m3 than other seasons. The long term compared NO2 data indicates the gradual and substantially decrease the values in most of the study sites. However, the patterns for such annual changes tend to differ between major urban (A and B), Suburban(C) and Rural stations (D). It was found that such decreasing trends were clearer in the former pairs than others. The overall results of our analysis from diverse ambient quality monitoring station types indicate that the distribution characteristics of NO2 may have been controlled rather sensitively through time by social &environmental changes, which forced the reduction of NO2 emissions. Keywords Nitrogen dioxide; Ambient; Roadside; Background; Banarpal

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as "oxides of nitrogen," or "nitrogen oxides (NOx)." Other nitrogen oxides include nitrous acid and nitric acid. EPA’s National Ambient Air Quality Standard uses NO2 as the indicator for the larger group of nitrogen oxides. NO2 forms quickly from emissions from cars, trucks

and buses, power plants, and off-road equipment. In addition to contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone, and fine particle pollution, NO2 is linked with a number of adverse effects on the respiratory system1.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) contribute to smog and acid rain and are hazardous to human health and the environment. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is released during the combustion of fossil fuels, mainly by vehicles, electricity generation, and manufacturing processes2. NO2 is primarily a traffic-related pollutant, and emissions are highest in urban areas. It can block the transmission of light, reducing visibility in urban areas. On a larger scale, nitrogen

Corresponding Author: S R Nath

e-mail: [email protected]

52

Int J Energy Sustain Environ Eng, November 2015

oxides can originate in one place and be transported long distances by prevailing winds, contributing to poor air quality and acid rain in other urban and rural areas.

The rapid industrial growth is often in enhanced emission of undesirable and harmful pollutants such as Nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The potential role of nitrogen dioxide is well known for it can contribute to the degradation of air quality in both spatial and temporal scale3. Nitrogen Dioxide is the harmful pollutants emitted from anthropogenic sources such as industrial activity and vehicular movement4. The concentration of NO2 in the study area acquired from four different types of ambient air quality monitoring station; these four types are selected to represent viz. Urban traffic, Urban backgrounds, Suburban backgrounds and Rural backgrounds. Through an application of diverse statistical analysis, we attempted to describe the pollution patterns of NO2 that can represent such environmental settings in relation.

Materials and Methods To determine the environmental behavior of NO2, its concentration data monitored continuously from four different types of ambient air quality monitoring station.

The methods of sample collection, equipment used and analysis procedures are given in Table 1.

The Banarpal location is the main junction, from where all flying vehicles are changes their route i.e. to Angul to Balanda. The MCL trucks are flying over the Balanda route via Talcher, the one of the hottest spot of India. Data measured from the monitoring locations were analyzed in this study. All the monitoring stations were categories in to four categories Urban traffic (A-type), Urban Background (B-type), Sub-Urban background(C-type) and Rural background (D-type). A and B-TYPE STATION a. Urban traffic (Near Banarpal P.S) b. Urban Background( Banarpal near post office) c. Urban traffic NALCO Square d. Urban Background near Giranga, NALCO C-TYPE STATION e. Sub-urban background (Motanga) f. Sub-urban background (Nuahata) g. Sub-urban background (Chainpal) h. Sub-urban background (Meramundali)

D-TYPE STATION i. Rural background (Budhapanka) j. Rural background (Nalatangra) k. Rural background (Kulada) l. Rural background (Tentulahata)

The A- types stations were identically towns and blockhead quarter and located near road sides, where B- type monitoring stations were situated road sides but less than that of Banarpal where only vehicle from Cuttack to Rourkela are passing. The C- type monitoring stations were basically railway stations and D-type monitoring stations were residential areas. The NO2 concentration data obtained from all locations in and around Banarpal can hence be used to explore the spatial and temporal distribution patterns of NO2 in relation with varying environmental and source conditions.

The raw data sets of NO2 from all stations were collected twice in a week in 24 intervals and analyzed as per Central pollution Control Board notification 11.04.94 in West and Geake method using Respirable Dust Sampler, UV/Visible Spectrophometer at 560nm. A detailed analysis of NO2 data were made after converting initial data sets recorded twice in a week in twenty four intervals in monthly scale. The total seasonal NO2 data were derived up to 120 Samples. The monthly data sets from each individual station were then combined together to derive values

representing each of all types of stations. These monthly data were then evaluated for spatial and temporal patterns after being grouped into various temporal (Monthly, Seasonally). The frequency distribution of NO2 was also evaluated for each data group to learn the occurrence patterns of its pollution. In addition to the above relationship between the same sites pairs for a given location were also investigated to directly or indirectly compare the effects of different source.

Results and Discussion Comparison of spatial difference in NO2 data sets

in all four types of areas

According to the geographical specificity for each ambient air quality station, the NO2 data sets, collected from each station type were examined initially based on the closeness of the physical locations. The comparison of the A and B group

Table 1 Methodology of Sampling, Analysis and Equipment used

Sl. No Parameters Instrument / Apparatus used Method followed Reference 1 Nitrogen Oxides

(NOx) RDS/HVAS with Impinger tubes, spectrophotometer

Jacobs and Hochheiser modified (Na-arsenite)

Method

CPCB notification of 11-4-94

53

Mohanty G, Nath S R, Panda S P & Mohanty R C: Evaluation of NO2 Pollution Levels

data sets can hence allow describing the differences in the NO2 concentration levels between highly and moderately urbanized areas in line with such site selection scheme. As such the relationship between C and D station types in the provisional area can also allow a comparison of NO2 distribution pattern between sub urban and rural area background stations. The statistical summary of the NO2 measurement data comparison of urban traffic with urban background and Suburban with rural background locations are given in Table 2 to 4 respectively and Fig. 1.

Table 2 Average summary of NO2 measurement in Urban Stations (µg/m3) Sl.No.

Location Urban stations Mean SD Total

number of Observation

1 Banarpal Traffic

12.0 2.0 90

2 Urban Background

7.0 1.5 96

3 NALCO Square

6.0 2.0 92

4 Giranga, NALCO

4.0 1.6 89

Table 3 Average summary of NO2 measurement in Sub-Urban Stations. (µg/m3) Sl.No.

Location Sub-Urban stations Mean SD Total


1 Motanga 5.0 1.2 79 2 Chainpal 4.0 1.0 85 3 Nuahata 5.0 1.1 90 4 Meramundali 4.0 1.4 88

Table 4 Average summary of NO2 measurement in Rural Stations. (µg/m3) Sl.No.

Location Rural stations Mean SD Total


1 Nalatangara 4.0 2.0 85 2 Kulad 5.0 1.3 88 3 Budhapanka 4.0 1.1 90 4 Tentulihata 4.0 0.85 86

Temporal trend of NO2 distributions seasonal

Examination of seasonal variation patterns can provide valuable information in that such analysis can offer better insight into the interactions between temporal factors and NO2 behavior. A comparison of the seasonal distribution patterns is made for all the four types of stations. The results indicates that the seasonal mean values for the A types of stations

were much higher than the B types of stations (Tables 5 – 7 and Fig. 2).

Table 5 Average Seasonal summary of NO2 measurement in Urban Stations (µg/m3) Sl. No.

Location Seasonal Mean Concentration Winter Spring Summer Fall

1 Banarpal Traffic

18.0 14.0 10.0 4.0

2 Urban Background

12.0 8.0 7.0 5.0

3 NALCO Square

9.0 6.0 6.0 4.0

4 Giranga, NALCO

8.0 7.0 5.0 4.0

Table 6 Average Seasonal summary of NO2 measurement in Sub-Urban Stations (µg/m3) Sl. No.


1 Motanga 10.0 7.0 5.0 4.0 2 Chainpal 12.0 8.0 6.5 4.2 3 Nuahata 9.0 5.0 4.2 4.0 4 Meramundali 11.0 8.0 6.0 4.0

Table 7 Average Seasonal summary of NO2 measurement in Rural Stations (µg/m3) Sl. No.


1 Nalatangara 7.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 2 Kulad 6.0 4.0 4.0 BDL 3 Budhapanka 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4 Tentulihata 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

Fig. 1 (a) Sub-urban, (b) Urban and (c) Rural NO2 comparison

54


Fig. 2 (a) Urban, (b) Sub-urban and (c) Rural Seasonal comparison

Conclusions Due to rapid industrial growth in around Dhenkanal industrial project sites near Banarpal, Odisha, enhanced emission of undesirable and harmful pollutants such as Nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The overall results of our analysis from diverse ambient quality monitoring station types indicate that the distribution characteristics of NO2 may have been controlled rather sensitively through time by social &environmental changes, which forced the reduction of NO2 emissions.

References 1. Munn T, Timmerman P & Whyte A, Bull Am Met

Soc, 81 (2000) 1603. 2. Hewitt C N, Atomspher Environ, 35 (2000) 1155. 3. Tegen I, Holling P, Chin M, Fung I, Jacod D &

Penner J E, J Geophys Res, 102 (1997) 23859. 4. Panday J S, Kumar R & Devotta S, Atmospher

Environ, 39 (2005) 6868; Reddy M S & Venkararaman C, Atmospher Environ, 36 (2002) 677; Isobe Y, Yamada K, Wang Q, Sakamoto K, Uchiyama I, Mizoguchi T & Zhou Y, Water Air Soil

Pollut, 163 (2005) 34; Wright R F & Schindler D W, Water Air Soil Pollut, 85 (1995) 89.

ISSN: 2394-3165 (Print)

2395-3217 (Online)


Solar Energy; an Alternative Renewable Energy: A Review

Nayan Ranjan Samal

Department of Electrical Engineering, Orissa Engineering College, Bhubaneswar – 751 007, India

Received 30 September 2015; revised 25 October 2015; accepted 30 October 2015

Abstract Solar Energy a clean renewable resource with zero emission has got tremendous potential of energy which can be harnessed using a variety of devices. With recent developments, solar energy systems are easily available for industrial and domestic use with the added advantage of minimum maintenance. Solar energy could be made financially viable with government tax incentives and rebates. Most of the developed countries are switching over to solar energy as one of the prime renewable energy source. The National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the Government of India and State Governments to promote ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India’s energy security challenge. It will also constitute a major contribution by India to the global effort to meet the challenges of climate change. The National Action Plan on Climate Change also points out: “India is a tropical country, where sunshine is available for longer hours per day and in great intensity. Solar energy, therefore, has great potential as future energy source. It also has the advantage of permitting the decentralized distribution of energy, thereby empowering people at the grassroots level”.

Keywords Fossil fuels, Photovoltaic, Doped, Impurities

As the power demand is going on increasing day-by-day, it is responsible for our engineers to make it available as per the demand. Many of the power generating plant are using non-renewable sources as their primary source. But these may become extinct at any time and before facing the situation we have to choose an alternative to avoid the power crisis. One of the best alternatives is choosing Non-conventional sources like solar energy, Wind Energy, Tidal energy, Bio-mass energy etc as the primary sources for power generation in power stations. The power from these sources is several times greater than the one, which we are using at the present. Out of these energy sources, the best one which suits for our country is the solar energy that is Renewable Energy.

Renewable energy is non-polluting. It does not create greenhouse gases, such as oil based energy does, nor does it create waste that must be stored, such as nuclear energy. It is also far more quiet to create and harness, drastically reducing the noise pollution required to convert energy to a useful

form. Residential size solar energy systems also have very little impact on the surrounding environment, in contrast with other renewable energy sources such as wind and hydro electric power. The goal in using renewable energy sources is to reduce the negative environmental effects associated with non-renewable energy sources such as coal and natural gas1. Opting to use a renewable energy source will not only translate into cost savings for you over the long haul, but will also help protect the environment from the risks of fossil fuel emissions of non-renewable energy sources.

General Advantages of Most Renewable

Energies The environmental advantages of switching to renewable energy are unmistakable. The Environ-mental Protection Agency (EPA) stresses the importance of being able to produce energy without creating harmful greenhouse gas emissions or air pollution2. On an individual level, using many of the renewable energy sources will reduce your carbon footprint because alternative sources such as solar energy, wind power, and hydroelectricity produce no emissions. Many forms of renewable energy produce no solid waste, reducing pollution production. With solar and wind energy, there is no water discharge, making your overall environmental impact from using these energy sources minimal.

Corresponding Author: Nayan Ranjan Samal



Considering that your home energy and cooling and heating costs contribute to the greatest amount of your carbon footprint, choosing renewable energy can greatly reduce your overall environmental impact. These sources are not detrimental to the earth since they do not require any mining or drilling.

Solar Energy Solar energy is one form of renewable energy that you can install in your home. You gain energy independence when you install a solar system in your home. For individual consumers and society at large, solar power is ultimately cost-effective. Solar energy requires what you may consider to be a large initial investment. Your cost includes installation and maintenance of the system. Unlike fossil fuels, solar energy taps into an infinite source. Solar energy is free and renewable and as long as the sun shines, you have a source of energy (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Source of Solar Energy

The power from the sun intercepted by the earth

is approximately 1.8*1011 MW, which are many thousands of times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy sources. Thus if we convert this to other forms of energy, it may be one of the most promising of the non- conventional energy resources. As we know that the tropic of cancer passes midway through the earth, our country is one of hottest country in the world after the continent Africa. There are some places in the country where the mercury level raises up to 500c during summer. Solar power is created through the use of panels and other methods of collecting heat from the sun and converting it into energy. Solar power allows consumers to be more self-sufficient with regards to their energy supply. The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) indicates that the modular nature of solar power systems makes them less likely to succumb to widespread collapse, which is good for individual consumers and good for society as a whole.

Basics of solar

PV is an acronym that stands for photovoltaic. The term photovoltaic represents the union of two words: photo meaning light and voltaic meaning electricity. Photovoltaic systems convert light energy, photons, into electricity through the photoelectric effect. A complete solar electric system is made up of several building blocks. At the smallest level there are solar cells. Cells are manufactured from semiconductor materials, such as crystalline silicon, sometimes "doped" with boron and phosphorous. Cells are electrically connected and packaged to form a solar module.

Solar modules are wired together in series and parallel to create the PV array, producing direct current (DC) electricity when exposed to sunlight. Because almost all commercial buildings utilize alternating current (AC) electricity, the PV generation must travel through an inverter, which changes the DC electricity from the array into AC electricity for the building's consumption. PV systems are either roof mounted or ground mounted. The mounting systems and securing methods are determined by type of roof, available space, structural requirements, etc. Why Solar: An Overview

Solar energy provides a healthy return both environmentally and financially. Tax credits, rebates and incentive programs are available at state and federal levels to help businesses, nonprofits, and municipalities implement solar photovoltaic (PV) projects with accelerated returns. Solar PV electricity generation does not emit poisonous air pollutants into our atmosphere such as CO2, SO2, NOx, VOCs. These pollutants contribute to global warming as well as a wide variety of adverse health effects, particularly with children.

PV installations are low maintenance and most generate power for many years with minimal intervention. Ongoing operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies. Solar PV peak output matches well with peak electrical demand on the utility grid, thereby reducing the chance of brownouts and blackouts by producing the most power when it is most needed. Solar PV is a renewable and domestically harvested energy source, lessening our dependence on fossil fuels and foreign energy sources.

Solar energy is a powerful vehicle for domestic job creation and economic growth. The recently enacted stimulus package contains over $60 billion of energy related expenditures. This will expand tax credits, guarantee loans for businesses investing in solar, fund R&D, finance clean energy projects, and support “green” workforce development.

http://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/Advantages_and_Disadvantages_of_Solar_Power

http://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/How_Do_Solar_Panels_Work

http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/public-benefits-of-renewable.html#.VJDNfSvF9vU

http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/public-benefits-of-renewable.html#.VJDNfSvF9vU

57 Samal N R: Solar Energy; an Alternative Renewable Energy: A Review

Benefits of solar energy over distributed grid

energy As a distributed energy resource available nearby load centres, solar energy could reduce transmission and distribution (T&D) costs and also line losses. According to World Resources Institute (WRI), India’s electricity grid has the highest transmission and distribution losses in the world – a whopping 27%. Numbers published by various Indian government agencies put that number at 30%, 40%, and greater than 40%. Solar technologies like PV carry very short gestation periods of development and, in this respect, can reduce the risk valuation of their investment. They could enhance the reliability of electricity service when T&D congestion occurs at specific locations and during specific times. By optimizing the location of generating systems and their operation, distributed generation resources such as solar can ease constraints on local transmission and distribution systems. They can also protect consumers from power outages. For example, voltage surges of a mere millisecond can cause brownouts, causing potentially large losses to consumers whose operations require high quality power supply. Moreover, the peak generation time of PV systems often closely matches peak loads for a typical day so that investment in power generation, transmission, and distribution may be delayed or eliminated.

System Components A basic photovoltaic system consists of five main components.

Solar panels: A solar cell is any device that directly converts the energy in light into electrical energy through the process of photovoltaic. The performance of a solar or photovoltaic (PV) cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at converting sunlight into electricity3. There are a variety of solar cell materials available, which vary in conversion efficiency. An individual solar panel is made of many solar cells. The cells are electrically connected to provide a particular value of current and voltage. The individual cells are properly encapsulated to provide isolation and protection from humidity and corrosion.

There are different types of modules available on the market, depending on the power demands of your application. The most common modules are composed of 32 or 36 solar cells of crystalline silicon3. These cells are all of equal size, wired in series, and encapsulated between glass and plastic material, using a polymer resin (EVA) as a thermal insulator. The surface area of the module is typically between 0.1 and 0.5 m2. Solar panels usually have two electrical contacts, one positive

and one negative. Some panels also include extra contacts to allow the installation of bypass diodes across individual cells. Bypass diodes protect the panel against a phenomenon known as “hot-spots”. A hot-spot occurs when some of the cells are in shadow while the rest of the panel is in full sun. Rather than producing energy, shaded cells behave as a load that dissipates energy. In this situa-tion, shaded cells can see a significant increase in temperature (about 85 to 100ºC.) Bypass diodes will prevent hot-spots on shaded cells, but reduce the maximum voltage of the panel. They should only be used when shading is unavoidable. It is a much better solution to expose the entire panel to full sun whenever possible.

Photovoltaic Cell: Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current results that can be used as electricity.’ The photovoltaic effect is the means by which solar panels or photovoltaic modules generate electricity from light. A solar cell is made from a semiconductor material such as silicon (Fig. 2). Impurities are added to this to create two layers,

i. n-type material, which has too many electrons. ii. p-type material, which has too few electrons. The junction between the two is known as a p-n

junction. This process is known as doping.

Fig. 2 Photovoltaic solar cell to photovoltaic solar array

When these photons hit the cell, they are either reflected, absorbed or pass straight through, depending on their wavelength. The energy from those which are absorbed is given to the electrons in the material which causes some of them to cross the p-n junction. If an electrical circuit is made between the two sides of the cell a current will flow. This current is proportional to the number of photons hitting the cell and therefore the light intensity.


Batteries

Batteries accumulate excess energy created by your PV system and store it to be used at night or when there is no other energy input. Batteries can discharge rapidly and yield more current that the charging source can produce by itself, so pumps or motors can be run intermittently. There are two types of batteries (i) Lead Acid Batteries and (ii) Nickel Cadmium Batteries. Lead Acid Batteries are made of five basic components; (i) A resilient plastic container, (ii) Positive and negative internal plates made of lead, (iii) Plate separators made of porous synthetic material, (iv) Electrolyte, a dilute solution of sulphuric acid and water, better known as battery acid and (v) Lead terminals, the connection point between the battery and whatever it powers.

Power Conditioning Unit

The Single phase Power Conditioning Unit (PCU) (Fig. 3) provides single-phase AC power to the specified loads. The Power Conditioning unit mainly comprises of MPPT, PWM Solar Charge Controller and Converter/Inverter.

MPPT: The MPPT Charger is microprocessor based system designed to provide the necessary DC/DC conversion to maximize the power from the SPV array to charge the battery bank. The charge controller is equipped with necessary software that allows precise charging of the battery bank. Many protection features are also included to ensure that no abnormal or out of range charge conditions are encountered by the battery bank. The system incorporates a front to panel display with LEDs and a switch to indicate the "operational status" and "fault status" of the system, reset system faults and implement various operating modes4.

Fig. 3 Schematic Diagram of Power Conditioning Unit

Converter: The regulator provides DC power at a specific voltage. Converters and inverters are used

to adjust the voltage to match the requirements of your load.

DC/DC Converters: DC/DC converters transform a continuous voltage to another continuous voltage of a different value. There are two conversion methods which can be used to adapt the voltage from the batteries: linear conversion and switching conversion. Linear conversion lowers the voltage from the batteries by converting excess energy to heat. This method is very simple but is obviously inefficient. Switching conversion generally uses a magnetic component to temporarily store the energy and transform it to another voltage. The resulting voltage can be greater, less than, or the inverse (negative) of the input voltage. The efficiency of a linear regulator decreases as the difference between the input voltage and the output voltage increases. For example, if we want to convert from 12 V to 6 V, the linear regulator will have an efficiency of only 50%. A standard switching regulator has an efficiency of at least 80%.

DC/AC Converter or Inverters: An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation. Inverters are used when your equipment requires AC power. Inverters chop and invert the DC current to generate a square wave that is later filtered to approximate a sine wave and eliminate undesired harmonics. Very few inverters actually supply a pure sine wave as output. Most models available on the market produce what is known as "modified sine wave", as their voltage output is not a pure sinusoid. When it comes to efficiency, modified sine wave inverters perform better than pure sinusoidal inverters. A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat (Fig. 4). The high efficiency inverter converts the DC power available from the Array/Battery back into single phase AC, by incorporating IGBT devices for power conversion5. During day time when the solar power is available, the charge controller charges the battery by transferring as much as solar current to battery as required. During this time the battery voltage is monitored continuously. When in the night time, the solar energy is not available the system enables the battery to deliver the current


through inverter to meet the demand for powering the street lights. The microprocessor controlled inverter incorporates Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technology and incorporates all the desired safety features.

Fig. 4 The output achieved from the inverter with the subsequent harmonics.

Charge controller: A solar charge controller is needed in virtually all solar power systems that utilize batteries. The job of the solar charge controller is to regulate the power going from the solar panels to the batteries. Overcharging batteries will at the least significantly reduce battery life and at worst damage the batteries to the point that they are unusable.

Important features/protections in the PCU Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Array ground fault detection. LCD keypad operator interface menu driven. Automatic fault conditions reset for all

parameters like voltage, frequency and/or black out. MOV type surge arrestors on AC & DC

terminals for over voltage protection from lightening induced surges.

PCU operation from -5° to 55° C, All parameters shall be accessible through an

industry standard communication link. Over load capacity (for 30 sec.) shall be 150% of

continuous rating. Since the PCU is to be used in solar photovoltaic

energy system, it shall have high operational efficiency > 92%. The idling current at no load shall not exceed two percent of the full load current.

In PCU, there shall be a direct current isolation provided at the output by means of a suitable isolating transformer.

Equipment or load

It should be obvious that as power requirements increase, the expense of the photovoltaic system also increases. It is therefore critical to match the size of the system as closely as possible to the

expected load. When designing the system you must first make a realistic estimate of the maximum consumption. Once the installation is in place, the established maximum consumption must be respected in order to avoid frequent power failures.

Home Appliances

The use of photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for heat-exchange applications (electrical heating, refrigerators, toasters, etc.) Whenever possible, energy should be used sparingly using low power appliances.

Here are some points to keep in mind when choosing appropriate equipment for use with a solar system:

The photovoltaic solar energy is suitable for illumination. In this case, the use of halogen light bulbs or fluorescent lamps is mandatory. Although these lamps are more expensive, they have much better energy efficiency than incandescent light bulbs. LED lamps are also a good choice as they are very efficient and are fed with DC.

It is possible to use photovoltaic power for appliances that require low and constant consumption (as in a typical case, the TV). Smaller televisions use less power than larger televisions. Also consider that a black-and-white TV consumes about half the power of a colour TV.

Photovoltaic solar energy is not recommended for any application that transforms energy into heat (thermal energy). Use solar heating or butane as alternative.

Conventional automatic washing machines will work, but you should avoid the use of any washing programs that include centrifuged water heating.

If you must use a refrigerator, it should consume as little power as possible. There are specialized refrigerators that work in DC, although their consumption can be quite high (around 1000 Wh/day).

Types of Photovoltaic Systems

Stand Alone systems

These systems are generally employed where there is no availability of grid power. The system operates autonomously and supplies power to the electrical loads independent of the electric utility. The energy created by the Solar Panel array is stored in batteries. Whenever electricity is a needed, the energy is drawn from batteries.

Grid Connected systems

A grid-connected system powers the home or small business with renewable energy during those periods when the sun is shining. Any excess


electricity produced is fed back into the grid. When renewable resources are unavailable, electricity from the grid supplies your needs, thus eliminating the expense of electricity storage devices like batteries. Working Principle Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms. Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface.

When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an external load, electricity flows.

The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. Climate conditions (e.g., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a photovoltaic array and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology photovoltaic modules are about 10 percent efficient in converting sunlight. Further research is being conducted to raise this efficiency to 20 percent.

Steps showing how electricity is being generated:

Step 1: Sunlight strikes the modules: When photons from the sun reach the solar module, a certain portion are absorbed by the cell's semiconducting silicon, knocking its electrons loose and channeling them into a flow of DC (direct current) electricity.

Step 2: The direct current is carried to an inverter: An inverter changes DC (direct current) into AC (alternating current)—the type of electricity we use almost exclusively to power our homes and businesses.

Step 3: The alternating current is integrated into your available power supply: AC electricity flows from the inverter into the building's electrical service gear, where it is drawn as needed into electrical loads throughout the facility.

Circuit Description

Square waveform with fundamental sine wave component, 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic are described in Fig. 4. In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the centre tap of the primary winding.. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit (Fig. 5). The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact5. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth.

Fig. 5 A realization of the inverter with a transformer with a movable switch and a current source. Historical growth of the solar market in india The Rural Electrification Program of 2006 was the first step by the Indian Government in recognizing the importance of solar power. It gave guidelines for the implementation of off-grid solar applications. However, at this early stage, only 33.8MW (as on 14-2-2012) of capacity was installed through this policy. This primarily included solar lanterns, solar pumps, home lighting systems, street lighting systems and solar home systems. In 2007, as a next step, India introduced the Semiconductor Policy to encourage the electronic and IT industries. This included the Silicon and PV manufacturing industry as well. New manufacturers like Titan Energy Systems, Indo Solar Limited and KSK Surya Photovoltaic Venture Private Limited took advantage of the Special Incentive Scheme included in this policy


and constructed plants for PV modules. This move helped the manufacturing industry to grow, but a majority of the production was still being exported. There were no PV projects being developed in India at that stage. There was also a need for a policy to incorporate solar power into the grid.

The Generation Based Incentive (GBI) scheme, announced in January 2008 was the first step by the government to promote grid connected solar power plants. The scheme for the first time defined a feed-in tariff (FIT) for solar power (a maximum of Rs. 15/kWh). Since the generation cost of solar power was then still around Rs. 18/kWh, the tariff offered was unviable. Also, under the GBI scheme, a developer could not install more than 5MW of solar power in India, which limited the returns from scale. One of the main drawbacks of the GBI scheme was that it failed to incorporate the state utilities and the government in the project development, leaving problems like land acquisitions and grid availability unaddressed. As a result, despite the GBI scheme, installed capacity in India grew only marginally to 6MW by 2009.

Future growth of solar in India The solar industry's structure will rapidly evolve as solar reaches grid parity with conventional power between 2016 and 2018. Solar will be seen more as a viable energy source, not just as an alternative to other renewable sources but also to a significant proportion of conventional grid power. The testing and refinement of off-grid and rooftop solar models in the seed phase will help lead to the explosive growth of this segment in the growth phase.

Global prices for photovoltaic (PV) modules are dropping, reducing the overall cost of generating solar power. In India, this led to a steep decline in the winning bids for JNNSM projects5. With average prices of 15 to 17 cents per kilowatt hour (kWh), solar costs in India are already among the world's lowest. Given overcapacity in the module industry, prices will likely continue falling over the next four years before leveling off. By 2016, the cost of solar power could be as much as 15 percent lower than that of the most expensive grid-connected conventional energy suppliers. The capacity of those suppliers alone, nearly 8 GW in conventional terms, corresponds to solar equivalent generation capacity potential of 25 to 30 GW. Due to implementation challenges, however, it's unlikely that all of this potential will be realized by 2016. Grid parity will be an inflection point, leading to two major shifts in the solar market. First, thanks to favorable project economics, grid-connected capacity will rise at a much faster rate than before, and second, regulations and policy measures will be refined to promote off-grid generation.

According to one estimates, the combination of electricity demand growth, fossil fuel cost and availability challenges, and supportive environmental regulations could increase solar power capacity to more than 50 GW by 2022. The market will see a significant change after 2016. Lower solar costs combined with rising prices of grid power will convince offtakers (including distribution companies, private firms using open access, and firms putting up their own captive capacity) that solar power is economically viable. This shift will signal the start of the growth phase, during which grid-connected solar capacity will rise rapidly to about 35 GW by 2020 as developers build capacity to meet both RPO requirements and demand from off takers seeking cost-efficient alternatives to conventional power.

System Commissioning

System commissioning is the process of checking and testing the installation and putting it into service. It may be tempting to hurry this procedure; time may be running short and the user may be impatient to see the system working. However, the future reliability of the entire system depends on careful commissioning. If the equipment you are using has any specific commissioning instructions then follow those in preference to the instructions below.

Visual check: With the help of the wiring diagram the system should be carefully examined to ensure that everything is as it should be. Particular attention should be paid to the polarity of connections and the battery earth

Connections: The security of all the connections to the control gear and any other connections that have been made already, such as the battery negative and earth connections should be checked.

Applying power With any load isolators or circuit breakers switched off, the loads to the controller and / or inverter should be connected.

Next, the battery terminal voltage should be recorded and measured and the battery positive terminal should be connected. The battery fuse should be inserted, if fitted. Since a spark is likely to occur, ensure that the room is well ventilated and the battery caps should be blown across first to clear any hydrogen if the battery is of the vented type.

Recommissioning

Repeating the commissioning of a system that was previously commissioned is called re-commissioning. Usually, re-commissioning should be the last step in any substantial maintenance project, such as after replacing major components,


especially inverters; after adding additional modules; after a non–self-clearing alarm is diagnosed and repaired, such as a ground fault; and as part of a system checkup or regular annual maintenance visit. In addition, if the original commissioning was performed during less than optimal seasonal conditions, like shading or extended poor weather, a re-commissioning event may be called for during better conditions or in the summer. Re-commissioning results should be closely compared to those from the original commissioning.. Re-commissioning performance results should also be compared to updated expected performance numbers and discrepancies addressed.

Advantages of Solar Power

Solar energy remains popular because it is both a renewable and clean source of energy. These advantages along with the hope that eventually nations can use solar power to decrease global warming ensure its popularity.

Renewable Solar energy is a true renewable resource. All areas of the world have the ability to collect some amount of solar power and solar power is available for collection each day.

Clean Solar energy is non-polluting. It does not create greenhouse gases, such as oil based energy does, nor does it create waste that must be stored, such as nuclear energy. It is also far more quiet to create and harness, drastically reducing the noise pollution required to convert energy to a useful form. Residential size solar energy systems also have very little impact on the surrounding environment, in contrast with other renewable energy sources such as wind and hydro electric power.

Low Maintenance Solar panels have no moving parts and require very little maintenance beyond regular cleaning. Without moving parts to break and replace, after the initial costs of installing the panels, maintenance and repair costs are very reasonable.

This system of energy conversion is noise less and cheap.

They have long life. Highly reliable.

Dis-advantages of Solar Power

Cost The largest problem of using primarily solar energy is the cost involved. Despite advances in technology, solar panels remain almost prohibitively expensive. Even when the cost of the panels is ignored, the system required to store the energy for use can also be quite costly.

Weather Dependent Although some solar energy can be collected during even the cloudiest of

days, efficient solar energy collection is dependent on sunshine. Even a few cloudy days can have a large affect on an energy system, particularly once that fact that solar energy cannot be collected at night is taken into account.

Geographic Limitations While some areas would benefit from adapting solar power, other parts of the world would receive little benefit from current solar systems. Solar panels still require direct sunlight to collect large amounts of power, and in many areas of the world there are few days that would efficiently power a system.

Low energy density 0.1 to 1 KW/m2. Large area is required to collect the solar energy. Direction of rays changes continuously. Energy is not uniform during cloudy weather

and not available during the nights. Energy storage is essential. High initial cost. Low efficiency.

Applicaions

Residential

The number of PV installations on buildings connected to the electricity grid has grown in recent years. Government subsidy programs (particularly in Germany and Japan) and green pricing policies of utilities or electricity service providers have stimulated demand. Demand is also driven by the desire of individuals or companies to obtain their electricity from a clean, non-polluting, renewable source. These consumers are usually willing to pay only a small premium for renewable energy. Increasingly, the incentive is an attractive financial return on the investment through the sale of solar electricity at premium feed-in tariff rates. In solar systems connected to the electricity grid, the PV system supplies electricity to the building, and any daytime excess may be exported to the grid. Batteries are not required because the grid supplies any extra demand. However, to be independent of the grid supply, battery storage is needed to provide power at night.

Commercial

On an office building, roof areas can be covered with glass PV modules, which can be semi-transparent to provide shaded light. On a factory or warehouse, large roof areas are the best location for solar modules. If the roof is flat, then arrays can be mounted using techniques that do not breach the weatherproofed roof membrane. Also, skylights can be partially covered with PV.

Industrial

For many years, solar energy has been the power supply choice for industrial applications, especially




where power is required at remote locations. Because solar systems are highly reliable and require little maintenance, they are ideal in distant or isolated places. Solar energy is also frequently used for transportation signaling, such as offshore navigation buoys, lighthouses, aircraft warning light structures, and increasingly in road traffic warning signals. Solar is used to power environmental monitoring equipment and corrosion protection systems for pipelines, well-heads, bridges, and other structures. For larger electrical loads, it can be cost-effective to configure a hybrid power system that links the PV with a small diesel generator.

Remote Applications Remote buildings, such as schools, community halls, and clinics, can benefit from solar energy. In developing regions, central power plants can provide electricity to homes via a local wired network, or act as a battery charging station where members of the community can bring batteries to be recharged. PV systems can be used to pump water in remote areas as part of a portable water supply system. Specialized solar water pumps are designed for submersible use or to float on open water. Large-scale desalination plants can also be PV powered using an array of PV modules with battery storage.

Conclusions The Indian solar energy sector has been growing rapidly, in the past few years, majorly due to Government’s initiatives such as tax exemptions and subsidies. Due to technical potential of 5,000

trillion kWh per year and minimum operating cost, Solar Power is considered the best suited energy source for India. Today the Solar power, has an installed capacity of 9.84 MW which is about less than 0.1 percent of the total installed renewable energy of India’s~ currently total installed renewable energy stands at 13,242.41 MW as per MNRE.

India's power sector has a total installed capacity of approximately 1,46,753 Megawatt (MW) of which 54% is coal-based, 25% hydro, 8% is renewable’s and the balance is the gas and nuclear-based. Power shortages are estimated at about 11% of total energy and 15% of peak capacity requirements which is likely to increase in the coming years. The cost of production range is Rs 15 to Rs 20 per unit for the solar energy, which is very high when compared to, Rs 2 to Rs 5 per unit for other conventional sources in India.

So, if our engineers work in such a way so as to reduce that cost and in further developments of the equipment, we can definitely meet the power demand in the future and this will be an ENERGY

SOLUTION.

References 1. www.wikipedia.com 2. http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/rene

wable/solar.html 3. http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter15.html 4. http://www.scienceonline.co.uk/energy/renewable-

energy.html#solar 5. Rai G D, in Non-Conventional energy sources,

Khanna publications.

ISSN: 2394-3165 (Print)

2395-3217 (Online)


Conservation and Regeneration of Mangroves in Hukitola Island

R K Nayak1*, J K Nayak

2, D Prusty

1, M K Pradhan

1, S Sahoo

1, K K Das

1, P Pradhan

1,

M Raj1, A P Sahoo

1 & B Satapathy

1

1Department of Botany, J K B K Govt College, Cuttack-753003, India

2Department of Botany, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack-753003, India

Received 26 September 2015; revised 26 November 2015; accepted 28 November 2015

Abstract Hukitola Island in the state of Odisha in India harbors a significant portion of the mangrove forests of the Mahanadi delta. Past floristic studies reveals that mangroves of Mahanadi delta was much rich in remote past .In course of time, these have been subjected to severe biotic pressures which includes the establishment of Paradeep Port, Paradeep Phosphates Ltd., settlement of immigrants, conversion of mangrove forests into paddy fields, piscicultures as a result of which the present mangrove vegetation is extant in most denuded condition in various locations of this region which needs an urgent attention for conservation. Mangroves of Hukitola island possesses a special significance as it is free from human settlement and as such is an ideal site for in situ conservation.

Keywords Conservation, Mangroves, Hukitola Island, Mahanadi delta Mangroves are peculiar groups of salt tolerant plants having special ecological adaptations and as such constitute important vegetation which are found in different estuarine belt of the world. These are important source of timber, fire wood, tannin etc. Besides, these groups of plants play an important role in the coastal environment by protecting shore line and checking the intensity of tropical cyclones. As per the status report of the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, 19871, mangroves of India constitutes 7% of the world mangroves covering an area of 6740 sq.km. Mahanadi delta within the state of Odisha harbors is an important mangrove vegetation in the Indian sub-continent. It lies between 19°45’-20°30’ N latitudes and 85°15’ E – 86°50’ E longitudes covering an area of 13600 Km2. Of these, only 120 Km2 is covered with mangrove forests in different estuarine zones of Mahanadi delta.

The distribution of mangroves shows much variation in different locations of Mahanadi delta such as Paradeep, Batighar, Jambu, Ramnagar, Khararnasi and Hukitola island. Among these

locations the Hukitola Island harbors an important portion of the mangrove forests of Mahanadi delta. Since past few decades, Mangroves of Mahanadi delta have been subjected to severe biotic pressures. From the past floristic studies conducted by earlier workers2-9, it is evident that mangroves of Mahanadi delta was much rich in remote past. In course of time, these have been subjected to severe biotic pressures which includes the establishment of Paradeep Port, Paradeep Phosphates Ltd., settlement of immigrants, conversion of mangrove forests into paddy fields as a result of which the present mangrove vegetation is extant in much denuded conditions which needs an urgent attention for conservation.

Keeping the above fact in mind the present investigation have been conducted to get a comprehensive idea about the distributional pattern of mangroves in Hukitola Island and the impact of various biotic factors on the mangrove vegetation and to develop various strategies for its conservation.

Materials and Methods Literatures pertaining to past floristic studies in these areas have been consulted to have a clear idea about the distribution and the status of mangroves and their associates in past. The herbarium of the Central National Herbarium has been consulted to have a clear idea about the abundance and

Corresponding Author: R K Nayak


65


distributional patter of mangroves and their associates in this region.

Regular field trips have been conducted in different seasons of the year to identify plants of

Table 1 Distribution of mangroves and their associates in Hukitola island and other areas of Mahanadi delta Sl. No. Name of the Species Family Habit Distribution 1. Acanthus ilicifolius L. Acanthaceae Shrub Paradeep, Batighar, Jambu island, Ramnagar,

Kharnasi,Hukitola Island 2. Acrostichum aureum L. Polypodiaceae Shrub Paradeep, Batighar, Jambu island, Kharnasi,

Hukitola island 3. Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb. Plumbaginaceae Shrub Paradeep, Hukitola island 4 Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco Myrsinaceae Shrub Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island, Jambu

island 5. Avicennia alba Bl. Avicenniaceae Tree Batighar, Jambu island, Hukitola island 6. Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Avicenniaceae Tree Paradeep, Hetamundia, Hukitola island 7. Avicennia officinalis L. Avicenniaceae Tree Paradeep, Batighar, Hetamundia, Jambu

island, Hukitola island 8. Brownlowia tersa (L.) Kosterm Tiliaceae Tree Paradeep, Batighar, Jambu island 9. Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Bl. Rhizophoraceae Tree Batighar, , Jambu island, Hukitola island 10. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Savigny Rhizophoraceae Tree Paradeep, Batighar, Hetamundia, Jambu

island, Hukitola island 11. Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae Shrub Batighar, Hukitola island 12. Caesalpinia crista L. Caesalpiniaceae Climber Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island,

Ramnagar 13. Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding-Hou. Rhizophoraceae Shrub Hukitola island Jambu island 14. Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob. Rhizophoraceae Shrub Hukitola island 15. Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. Verbinaceae Shrub Paradeep, Batighar, Jambu island, Hukitola

island 16. Cynometra iripa Kostel Caesalpinianceae Tree Jambu island, Hukitola island 17. Cyperus malaccensis Lamk. Cyperaceae Herb Paradeep, Hukitola island 18. Dalbergia spinosa Roxb. Fabaceae Shrub Paradeep, Batighar , Hukitola island 19. Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae Shrub Jambu island 20. Derris trifoliata Lour. Fabaceae Shrub Batighar 21. Excoecaria agallocha L. Euphorbiaceae Tree Paradeep, Batighar, Jambu island, Ramnagar,

Kharnasi, Hukitola island 22. Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl Cyperaceae Herb Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island 23. Finlaysonia obovata Vahl Asclepiadaceae Climber Paradeep, Jambu island 24. Heritiera fomes Buch.- Ham. Sterculiaceae Tree Paradeep. Hukitola island 25. Heliotropium curassavicum L. Boraginaceae Herb Paradeep, Hukitola island 26. Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Malvaceae Tree Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island , Jambu

island, Ramnagar, Kharnasi 27. Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.)

R. Br. Convolvulaceae Herb Paradeep, Batighar, Jambu island, Hukitola

island 28. Kandelia candel (L.) Druce Rhizophoraceae Shrub Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island,

Ramnagar, Kharnasi 29. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Combretaceae Tree Batighar 30. Merope angulata (Kurz) Swingle Rutaceae Shrub Jambu, Hukitola island 31. Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex

Steud.) Hook. f. Poaceae Shrub Paradeep, Hukitola island

32. Phoenix paludosa Roxb. Arecaceae Shrub Paradeep, Batighar, Jambu island 33. Porteresia coarctata (Roxb.) Tateoka Poaceae Grass Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island,

Ramnagar, Kharnasi 34. Rhizophora apiculata Bl. Rhizophoraceae Tree Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island 35. Rhizophora mucronata Poir. Rhizophoraceae Tree Batighar, Hukitola island 36. Salicornia brachiata Roxb. Asclepiadaceae Shrub Batighar 37. Salvadora persica L. Salvadoraceae Shrub Batighar 38. Sarcolobus globosus Wall. Asclepiadaceae Shrub Paradeep, Batighar, 39. Scirupus litoralis Schrader Cyperaceae Sedge Jambu island, Hukitola island 40. Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. Aizoceae Herb Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island Jambu

island, Ramnagar, Kharnasi 41. Sonneratia alba Smith Sonneratiaceae Tree Batighar, Hukitola island 42. Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. Sonneratiaceae Tree Batighar, Hukitola island 43. Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. Chenopodiaceae Herb Batighar, Hukitola island 44. Tamarix troupii Hole Tamaricaceae Tree Paradeep, Batighar, Hukitola island 45. Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. Ex

Correa Malvaceae Tree Hukitola island

46. Tylophora tenuissima (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn. ex Wight. Contrb.

Asclepiadaceae Twinner Paradeep, Hukitola island

66

Nayak R K, et al.: Conservation and Regeneration of Mangroves in Hukitola Island

ecological, medicinal and other socio-economic importance along with distributional data in and around Hukitola Island. Special attention has been given to the sociability, distributional pattern and abundance, flowering and fruiting time.

Results and Discussion During the present investigation, intensive floristic surveys have been conducted in different seasons of the year to identify plants of ecological, medicinal and other socio-economic importance and to collect their distributional data in Hukitola island. Till now as many as 658 angiospermic taxa have been collected and identified from Hukitola island and its adjoining region after consulting the regional floras2, 3, 10. During the present investigation 48 species of mangroves and their associates have been reported from various locations of Mahanadi delta including 36 species of mangroves and their associates from Hukitola islands which have been recorded in the Table-1.

As stated above, Hukitola Island harbors quite a good number of potential medicinal plants and other plants of various socio-economic importances. These include some mangrove species and their associates11, 12. Flora of Hukitola island possesses a special significance as it is free from human settlement. Hence, vegetation of this island is comparatively less interfered in comparison to any other locations in the Mahanadi delta. This area of course, is less interfered by biotic pressures than any other areas of Mahanadi delta due to geographical isolation. Yet the plants are in the threshold of danger as some plants are being used for fuel and other purpose by the immigrants of Bangladesh and some local people. Because of geographical isolation, Hukitola Island is an ideal site for in situ conservation of medicinal plants including the mangroves and their associates.

Loss of mangrove vegetation has intensified the rate of various environmental hazards like tropical cyclones, encroachment of sea towards land, floods etc. This is clearly evident from the devastations caused in the last Super cyclone of October ‘99 which was accompanied with high speed of wind and unusual rise of sea water from the Bay of Bengal that has washed away many lives of human beings, cattle and other animals. Large number of trees have been uprooted and severely damaged in the coastal regions of Odisha. It is to be noted here that the Bhitarkanika area and its adjoining regions in the state of Odisha was least affected in the Super cyclone due to thick mangrove vegetation. It is a matter of significance that the mangroves of Hukitila Island had played a key role in the

protection of the adjoining regions from the impact of last Super Cyclone in the state of Odisha.

Conclusions During the present investigation it has been observed that mangroves of Mahanadi delta have been depleted at an alarming rate due to the operation of various biotic factors cited earlier. Restoration of mangroves in the degraded areas of Mahanadi delta such as Pardeep, Jambu, Ramnagar, Kharnasi should be done on top priority by growing some species of mangroves and their associates which are better adopted in these region .As stated above, mangroves of Hukitola island have a special significance due to its geographical isolation. As such in situ conservation of the existing mangrove vegetation is much essential for the conservation of this unique biodiversity. It is also a matter of great concern that there is proposal from some sectors to promote ecotourism in Hukitola island. Care should be taken to promote in situ conservation of mangroves and their associates in this area. Regeneration of some species of mangroves and their associates which are better adapted in and around Hukitola island should be done for the protection of the environment in this region. References 1. Mangroves in India: Status report. (Govt of India,

Ministry of Environment & Forests, New Delhi, India), 1987.

2. Haines H H, in The Botany of Bihar and Orissa, 6 parts, London, 1921-1925.

3. Mooney H F, Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and

Orissa (Catholic Press, Ranchi, India), 1950. 4. Banerjee L K & Das G C, Bull Bot Surv India, 14 (1-

4) (1972) 1984. 5. Rao T A & Banerjee L K, Tidal mangroves of the

Mahanadi Delta, Utkal Coast, India. Proc. Seminar.

Res. Dev. & Env. In Eastern Ghats (Waltair), 1982. 6. Choudhury B P, in Forest, Wildlife, Environment,

edited by M V Subba Rao (Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India). 1994, 33.

7. Choudhury B P, Biswal A K & Subudhi H N, Rheeda

1(1-2) (1991) 62. 8. Choudhury B P, Biswal A K & Subudhi H N, Biosci

Res Bull, 1 & 2 (1993) 11. 9. Subudhi H N, Choudhury B P & Acharya B C, J

Econ Tax Bot, 16 (1992) 479. 10. Saxena H O & Brahmam M, in The Flora of Orissa,

Vol. 1-4 (Orissa Forest Development corporation, Bhubaneswar, India), 1994-1996.

11. Nayak R K, Geobios, 32(2-3) (2005) 219. 12. Nayak R K & Choudhury B P, in Environmental

Biotechnology and Biodiversity Conservation, edited by M K Das (Daya Publishing House, Delhi, India), 2008, 145.

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