Intelligence

Defining Intelligence

IntelligenceAn inferred characteristic of an individual, usually defined as the ability to profit from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, act purposefully, or adapt to changes in the environment.

g factorA general intellectual ability assumed by many theorists to underlie specific mental abilities and talents.

Psychometrics

The measurement of: Mental abilitiesTraitsProcesses

The Invention of IQ Tests

In 1905 the French psychologist Alfred Binet published the first modern intelligence test called the Binet-Simon intelligence scale.

His principal goal was to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum.

Along with his collaborator Theodore Simon, Binet published revisions of his intelligence scale in 1908 and 1911, the last appearing just before his untimely death, at the age of 54.

The Invention of IQ Tests

In 1912, the German psychologist William Stern coined the abbreviation "I.Q.," a translation of the German Intelligenz-Quotient ("intelligence quotient"), proposing that an individual's intelligence level be measured as a quotient of their estimated "mental age" and their chronological age. I Q = 100 x Mental Age/Chorological Age

A further refinement of the Binet-Simon scale was published in 1916 by Lewis M. Terman, from Stanford University, who incorporated Stern's proposal, and this Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale formed the basis for one of the modern intelligence tests that remains in common use.

Wechsler Scales

In 1939 David Wechsler published the first intelligence test explicitly designed for an adult population, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, or WAIS.

Subsequent to the publication of the WAIS, Wechsler extended his scale for younger ages, creating the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, or WISC.

Wechsler Scales

The Wechsler scales contained separate sub-scores for verbal and performance IQ, thus being less dependent on overall verbal ability than early versions of the Stanford-Binet scale.

14 subtests of the WAIS-III7 Verbal and 7 Performance Verbal subtests

Information  Degree of general information acquired from culture (e.g. Who is the president of Russia?)

Comprehension Ability to deal with abstract social conventions, rules and expressions (e.g. What does "Kill 2 birds

with 1 stone" metaphorically mean?) Arithmetic

Concentration while manipulating mental mathematical problems (e.g. How many 45c. stamps can you buy for a dollar?)

Similarities Abstract verbal reasoning (e.g. In what way are an apple and a pear alike?)

Vocabulary The degree to which one has learned, been able to comprehend and verbally express vocabulary

(e.g. What is a guitar?) Digit span

Attention and concentration (e.g. given the sequence of digits '123', reverse the sequence.) Letter-Number Sequencing

Attention and working memory (e.g. Given Q1B3J2, place the numbers in numerical order and then the letters in alphabetical order)

14 subtests of the WAIS-III7 Verbal and 7 Performance Performance subtests

Picture Completion Ability to quickly perceive visual details

Digit Symbol — Coding Visual-motor coordination, motor and mental speed

Block Design Spatial perception, visual abstract processing & problem solving

Matrix Reasoning Nonverbal abstract problem solving, inductive reasoning, spatial reasoning

Picture Arrangement Logical/sequential reasoning, social insight

Symbol Search Visual perception, speed

Object Assembly Visual analysis, synthesis, and construction

Optional post-tests include Digit Symbol - Incidental Learning and Digit Symbol - Free Recall.

Wechsler Scales

Was the first intelligence scale to base scores on a standardized normal distribution rather than an age-based quotient.

Gaussian Bell CurveNormal Distribution

IQ Scores Distributed Normally

Very high and very low scores are rare.

68% of people have IQ scores between 85 and 115

99.7% between 55 and 145

Below-average Cognitive Ability

Profound mental retardation - Below 20

Severe mental retardation - 20–34

Moderate mental retardation - 35–49

Mild mental retardation - 50–69

Borderline mental retardation - 70–79

More on Mental Retardation

Children with mental retardation may learn to sit up, to crawl, or to walk later than other children, or they may learn to talk later.

Both adults and children with mental retardation may also exhibit the following characteristics: Delays in oral language development. Deficits in memory skills. Difficulty learning social rules. Difficulty with problem solving skills. Delays in the development of adaptive behaviors such as self-

help or self-care skills. Lack of social inhibitors.

More on Mental Retardation

Mental retardation affects approximately 1-3% of the population in developed countries.

Until recently, a significant proportion of individuals with mental retardation were cared for in residential facilities such as state-run training schools.

The recent trend has been to move individuals who are mentally disabled out of institutional settings and into more community-based living arrangements such as group homes.

This trend underscores the idea that mental retardation cannot be categorized as a mental illness in the strictest sense of the term. Thus, these individuals should be viewed as a population requiring more-than-average help in the daily chores of living.

Risk Factors

Infections (Rubella, Toxoplasmosis, HIV, Herpes, etc.) Chromosomal abnormalities (Down Syndrome and others) Environmental (Deprivation Syndrome) Genetic abnormalities and inherited metabolic disorders (PKU) Metabolic (Hypoglycemia due to uncontrolled diabetes) Nutritional (Malnutrition) Toxic (Alcohol, street, Rx & over the counter drugs, lead, mercury) Trauma (before and after birth) Unexplained (this largest category is for unexplained occurrences

of mental retardation, about 75 % of all cases)

Prevention

Genetic Prenatal screening for genetic defects and genetic counseling for families at risk

for known heritable disorders. Social

Government programs to ensure adequate nutrition to the underprivileged during prenatal months and most critical years of life.

Early intervention in situations involving abuse and deprivation. Early testing and proper diet for PKU.

Toxic Environmental programs to reduce exposure to lead, mercury, and other toxins. Increased public awareness of the risks of alcohol and drugs during pregnancy.

Infectious Prevention of congenital rubella syndrome. Increased public awareness on the risk of HIV, Herpes, and other infections. Limiting exposure to cat litter that can cause toxoplasmosis .

More on Mental Retardation

Of individuals with mental retardation, an estimated 40-70% have diagnosable psychiatric disorders.

The Burton Blatt Institute at Syracuse University works to advance the civic, economic, and social participation of people with disabilities.

Can IQ tests be culture free?

Attempts to make IQ tests culture fair or culture free have backfired because different cultures have different problem-solving strategies.

Culture affects a person’s. . .Attitude toward examsComfort in settings required for testingMotivationRapport with test providerCompetitivenessEase of independent problem solving

Expectations and IQ

Scores are affected by expectations for performance.

Expectations are shaped by stereotypes.

Stereotype threat:Burden of doubt one feels about his/her performance due to negative stereotypes about his/her group.

Stereotype threat affects African-Americans, Latinos/Latinas, low-income people, women, and the elderly.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Componential (analytic)Comparing, analyzing, and evaluating.This type of process correlates best with IQ.

Experiential (creative)Inventing solution to new problems.Transfer skills to new situations.

Contextual (practical)Applying the things you know to everyday contexts.

Emotional intelligence

Ability to identify your own and other people’s emotions accurately.

Ability to express your emotions clearly.

Ability to manage emotions in self and others.

Appears to be biologically based (Damasio, 1994).

The Psychometric and Cognitive Approaches to Intelligence

Motivation and intelligence Comparing 100 most successful men with 100

least successful, researchers found that motivation, not IQ, made the difference.

Motivation to work hard at intellectual tasks differs as a function of culture.

American children are as knowledgeable as Asian children on general skills.

Asian parents, teachers, and students are more likely to believe that math ability comes from studying.

Americans are more likely to view math and other abilities as innate.

American parents had lower academic standards for kids.

American children value education less.