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Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of certified used or "certified preowned" vehicles, many used car ads seem to tout the "certified" name without really living up to the name without really living up to the promise of a car that is backed by the manufacturer with an impressive warranty and top notch dealership experience and topnotch dealership experience. Uh??? 1

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Page 1: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

Information and Marketlemons, loans, and genetics

With the rise in popularity of certified used or "certified pre‐owned" vehicles, many used car ads seem to tout the "certified" name without really living up to thename without really living up to the promise of a car that is backed by the 

manufacturer with an impressive warranty and top notch dealership experienceand top‐notch dealership experience.

Uh???

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Page 2: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

OutlineOutline

• Information• Asymmetric information• The market for used cars

P bl h t l– Problem: who wants a lemon– Solution?

• The market for loans– Problem: good borrowers drop out– Solution? More information

• The market for insurance• The market for insurance– Problem: Genetic Testing– Solution?

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Page 3: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

InformationInformation

• How is a consumer to have preferences over all o s a co su e to a e p e e e ces o e apossible goods over all possible times of consumption

• How is a worker to have preference over all possible places he could work at and how long to 

kwork• Clearly we are only partly informed

Th d i i i l i k– Thus decisions involve risk– But what we know differs from one individual to the next.

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Page 4: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

Asymmetric informationAsymmetric information

• What one party to a transaction knows is at o e pa ty to a t a sact o o s sdifferent from the other

• AI. Most often one party (the seller) knows more p yabout the good or service being exchanged than the other.

• Consequences: – the more informed party wants to take advantage of his/her informationhis/her information

– The less informed party must beware of what the more informed party wants to do

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Page 5: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

The market for used carsThe market for used cars• The problem:

– Used cars have observable characteristics and some unobservableUsed cars have observable characteristics and some unobservable characteristics that the owner of the car learns.

– The buyer has to worry about the fact that the seller chooses when to replace his car (or whether to replace it or not)

h l• The model– Cars last two periods– There are two types of people 

• n who like new cars (value them at V h)• n who like new cars (value them at Vnh) • And n who do not care so much (Vnl)

– Used cars are either good (with probability q) or bad (1‐q). • If good they are worth pgg y pg• if bad they are worth 0

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George Akerlof, 1970. “The market for" lemons": Quality uncertainty and the market mechanism.” ‐ The quarterly journal of economics

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If all new cars are soldIf all new cars are sold

• This corresponds to no asymmetric informationp y– Cars who become clunkers are a surprise to everyone

• Then the buyers (who are risk neutral) are willing tto pay qpg

• In equilibrium new cars are bought by the high value individuals and the low value individualsvalue individuals, and the low value individuals buy used cars.  

• CS=(1+d)(nVnh‐npn+ nqpg).g– The used car buyers are indifferent all they surplus goes to new car buyers  

• Can check that other combinations are worseCan check that other combinations are worse

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Page 7: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

The lemons problemThe lemons problem• Suppose the owners of the cars know whether their car is good or bad.• The owner of bad car

– Buy a new car get Usb = Vnh‐pn + qpg

– Keep the good car get Ukb =0

– So always sells• Then the owner of a good car• Then the owner of a good car

– Buy a new car get Us= Vnh‐pn + qpg– Keep the good car get Uk=pg– Us<Uk iff Vnh‐pn<(1‐q)pgs k n n g

• If Us>Uk asymmetric information does not matter• If Us<Uk owners of good cars do not sell so no one buys used cars

– So half the population in each group buys a new car in each periodCS (1 d) (½ V h ½ ½ ) (1 d)(½ V l ½ ½ )– CS2=(1+d) (½nVnh‐ ½ npn + ½nqpg )+(1+d)(½nVnl‐ ½npn + ½ nqpg)

– CS2=(1+d) (½nVnh +½nVnl ‐npn + nqpg) – Compare with CSall =(1+d)(nVnh‐npn+ nqpg).– CS2=(1+d) (½nVnh +½nVnl ‐npn + nqpg) ><(1+d)(nVnh‐npn+ nqpg).2 ( ) ( n n pn qpg) ( )( n pn qpg)– (½nVnh +½nVnl) < (nVnh). Market failure makes people worse off

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Solution?Solution?

• More Information• If there is a way for the car seller to signal that there car is good.• Then the owner of a good car, if use the signal 

– Uses signal and buys a new car gets Us= Vnh‐pn + pg – Does not use the signal buys a new car get Us= Vnh‐pn + qpg– So sells and likes the signal

• Buyer now knows that if no signal then car is bad and offers 0h f b d• The owner of bad car– Buy a new car get Us

b = Vnh‐pn– Keep the good car get Uk

b =0S l ll– So always sells

• CS3= q(1+d)(nVnh‐npn+ npg)+(1‐q)(1+d)(nVnh‐npn). • CS3= (1+d)(nVnh‐npn+nqpg)= CSall

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Page 9: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

UnravellingUnravelling

• A little information that cannot beA little information that cannot be communicated can create a market failure

• A little information that can be communicated• A little information that can be communicated can restore equilibrium

I f l• In fact a more general property

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Page 10: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

Restaurant grade cardsRestaurant grade cards

The Effects of Grade Cards and Disclosureand DisclosureRegulation on Hygiene Scores

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Ginger Jin & Phillip Leslie (2003): "The Effect of Information on Product Quality: Evidence from Restaurant Hygiene Grade Cards," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(2), 409‐51.

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LeasingLeasing• In the last two decades there has been a massive increase in the rate of car leases at the higher end gof the quality market.

• Part of that involves tax avoidancef h l d h k f• Part of that involves avoiding the market for 

lemons. – The lease holder can buy the carThe lease holder can buy the car – but the contract specifies a price that makes undesirable to do so (much higher than the price at which the dealer is prepare to sell the car)which the dealer is prepare to sell the car) 

– Almost all leases are returned. They get certified and sold at a reasonable price

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Michael Waldman “Eliminating the Market for Secondhand Goods: An Alternative 

Explanation for Leasing,” Journal of Law and Economics, 40, April 1997, pp. 61‐92.

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The market for loansA b h t k l l• Assume borrowers who take a loan l, – spend it on a project that succeed with probability pp 

– If success earn π– If fail return αl– If fail return αl. 

• Return to individual p(π‐(1+r)l) Note because individual has limited liability and– Note because individual has limited liability and α<1 bank gets everything if fail 

• Return to the bank p(1+r)l+(1‐p)αlReturn to the bank p(1+r)l+(1 p)αl

Joseph E. Stiglitz, Andrew Weiss “Credit Rationing in Markets with Imperfect f i ” h i i i l 3 ( 98 )

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Information,” The American Economic Review, Vol. 71, No. 3 (Jun., 1981), pp. 393‐410.

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The individual demand for loansThe individual demand for loans• Individual has a return p(π‐(1+r)l) if does not get a loan gets 0get a loan gets 0.   – p(π‐(1+r)l)>0  pπ> p(1+r)l π/l‐1>rThat says for each individual there is a maximum– That says for each individual there is a maximum interest rate r at which they are willing to borrow.

– The max rate does not depend on p just on π andThe max rate does not depend on p just on π and that as π gets larger so does r(π)

• Gross return (not net of borrowing costs) is gpπ+(1‐p)αl.– Notice that depends on p 

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The aggregate demand for loansThe aggregate demand for loans

• Fix α and l. Consider a set of projects (π,p) between (πl,pl) and p j ( ,p) ( l,pl)(πh, pl) such that the social return is constant {pi =pl (πl‐αl)/(πi‐αl)}.

B t ti if th ( ) ( ) S it i th f• By construction if πi > πj then r(πi)>r(πj). So it is the safer projects (low π high p) that drop out first when interest rates rise.

• Let there be ni projects of type (πi,pi)

• Then demand for loans given an interest rate r will simply be

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The supply of loanable fundsThe supply of loanable funds

• The profits of the bank is П= p(1+r)l+(1‐p)αlThe profits of the bank is П= p(1+r)l+(1 p)αl– П=p(1+r‐α)l+αl because α<1 П is increasing in p

The bank likes safe projects– The bank likes safe projects

• Suppose the supply of funds is such that the b k f d lbank can fund m loans.

• Can we reach equilibrium

• The problem is  that p(π) is declining in π. 

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Market failureMarket failure• Let                  So Nl is all projects

• Assume 

• But m<Ni’ bank decided to raise interest rates

• What happens?  – Low risk borrowers drop out and bank profits decline

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Page 17: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

Loans and Asymmetric informationLoans  and Asymmetric information

• Market fails because bank does not know whoMarket fails because bank does not know who the borrowers are

• Solution 1: rationing (run a lotery) in this caseSolution 1: rationing (run a lotery) in this case it efficient why? But it does not maximize profits why?

• Solution 2: a little more information: will always raise profits why?

• Solution 3: change the contract, take an equity position, its efficient why?

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Page 18: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

When information can hurtWhen information can hurtGenetics Chance Outcome

Good1‐p Healthy

Good G P Sick

Individual

1‐GB d

1‐q HealthyBad

q Sick

p<qp<q.Individual buys insurance every yearThe issue is whether to have to have genetic TestingDoes it make the individual better off

Jack Hirshleifer: The Private and Social Value of Information and the Reward to i h i i i l 6 (S 9 )

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Inventive  The American Economic Review, Vol. 61, No. 4 (Sep., 1971),

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Insurance without testsInsurance without tests• Whatever genetic traits cause the difference between p and q 

are not observable. So in the absence of the genetic ginformation individuals are all offered the same contract

• Population is sick with probability Gp+(1‐G)q and the cost of being sick is C. 

• Industry is competitive so price of insurance is (Gp+(1‐G)q)C– Someone who is healthy pays (Gp+(1‐G)q)C– Someone who is sick pays (Gp+(1‐G)q)C and receives CSomeone who is sick pays (Gp+(1 G)q)C and receives C. – Insurance implies that people who get sick are as happy as people who are healthyInsurance company pays C with probability(Gp+(1 G)q) so– Insurance company pays C with probability(Gp+(1‐G)q) so makes no profit

• So the sick are insured. But the healthy (p) population ‘subsidizes’ the less healthy (q) populationsubsidizes  the less healthy (q) population

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Page 20: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

Genetic TestingGenetic Testing• Suppose that to trace some extremely rare disease that can be completely cured at low cost, we mandatecan be completely cured at low cost, we mandate genetic testing and can separate the two populations. Insurance companies learns the result of the test

• Companies will offer different contracts• Companies will offer different contracts– Pooling is not longer an equilibrium– Suppose all companies still continue to charge (Gp+(1‐G) )CG)q)C

– Then it pays for someone to offer a contract pC to all those individuals who have received good news on the test. B > G +(1 G) > C i l th (G +(1 G) )CBecause q>p Gp+(1‐G)q>p so pC is less than (Gp+(1‐G)q)C so all the people with good news take the new contract

– That leaves all the people with bad news with a contract qCqC

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Risk aversion=> keep genetic test secret

• But now consider the individual just beforeBut now consider the individual just before the test is released

• If tests are not released there is full insurance• If tests are not released there is full insurance Us=U(Y ‐(Gp+(1‐G)q)C) 

If l d h i ill i f• If tests are released there is still insurance for health but now there is genetic risk– Ur= GU(Y‐pC)+(1‐G)U(Y‐qC)

• Here the market IS the problem

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Page 22: Information and Market lemons, loans, and geneticsrosentha/courses/ECON11/JLR-EC11-16 lemon… · Information and Market lemons, loans, and genetics With the rise in popularity of

Information (conclusion)Information (conclusion)

• Information is really importantInformation is really important

• Sophisticated people must act on their informationinformation– Choice of buy or sell used car, what contract to offeroffer

• Even more sophisticated people realize that th b b tt i f d th thothers may be better informed than they are

– This may lead markets to shut down

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