457

academic performance, 394–401. See also education

ACS (American Community Survey). See American Com-munity Survey (ACS)

adult children: caregiving for el-derly parents, 289; contact and support from elderly par-ents, 286–89; elderly parents living with, 284; living with parents, 195, 204

adulthood, transition to, 190, 244. See also young adults

advanced degrees: gender gap, 377–80; wages and earnings, 31, 32, 33, 35. See also MA de-gree recipients; PhD degree recipients

affluence, segregation of, 212, 214, 219, 221, 223, 225, 226

affordable housing, 205, 210African Americans. See blacksage group and cohort analyses:

cohabitation, 247; educa-tional attainment, 382–84; home equity, 81, 82; home-ownership rates, 80, 91–92, 200, 201; household income, 114, 132; immigration, 322–23; marriage, 241; mortgage delinquency, 81, 83; negative home equity status, 80–81; racial-ethnic differences in median age, 274; residential mobility, 149, 153, 169; unemploy-ment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 38–39; wealth shifts, 91–93, 96. See also housing and household for-

mation by cohort; specific co-horts

aging of population, 115, 116, 123, 270. See also elderly

agricultural workers, 345, 347, 348

Alderson, Arthur S., 230n16American Community Survey

(ACS): BA degree achieve-ment, 376; description of, 1–2; elderly, 272, 298; family patterns, 239; grandparents, 292; high-skill immigration, 307, 327; homeownership, 184; income segregation, 210, 211; local move rates, 160; re-marriage, 253; residential mo-bility, 139; unauthorized im-migrants, 354

American Indians: child pov-erty, 262, 263; children’s liv-ing arrangements, 259, 260; cohabitation, 248; divorce, 251, 252; education gender gap, 377, 379; elderly popula-tion, 274; marriage, 243; re-marriage, 254, 255; residen-tial integration analysis, 421, 422

Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASES, “March supplement”), 25, 105, 106–7, 116

apprenticeships, 400Armour, Philip, 134n21, 135n31Armstrong, J. E., 394ASES (Annual Social and Eco-

nomic Supplement), 25, 105, 106–7, 116

Asian Americans: child poverty, 262; children’s living arrange-

ments, 259, 260; cohabitation, 248; divorce, 251, 252; educa-tional attainment, 377, 379; education gender gap, 240; el-derly population, 274; family patterns, 238; homeowner-ship, 188, 189, 204; household headship, 196, 197; marriage, 242, 243; in metropolitan ar-eas, 424, 428, 430; in micro-politan areas, 429; in mixed neighborhoods, 447; poverty among elderly, 288; remar-riage, 255; residential disper-sion of, 418; residential inte-gration analysis, 421, 422; residential mobility, 149, 154, 156–59, 164–65, 168–70, 171, 172; segregation, 18, 419, 437, 438, 439–43

assets, rates of return, 84–86assimilation, 354, 417, 421,

448–49Associated Press, 179n49Atkinson, Anthony B., 126,

133n9Atlanta, Ga., segregation in,

443Autor, David, 36, 40, 391

Baby Boomers: cohabitation, 283; description of, 183; fam-ily changes, 271; homeowner-ship, 183–90, 200, 201; household headship, 194–99, 202, 204; household launches, 17, 193; labor market effects, 349–51; median income ef-fects of aging population, 116, 123, 124; retirement, 17, 115, 116, 123, 124, 186, 351

iNdEx

Boldface numbers refer to figures and tables.

458 Index

Bachmeier, James D., 13–14, 341, 368–69n14

BA degree recipients. See college graduates

banks and banking, 60–61, 64, 98

Bean, Frank D., 13–14, 341, 365, 366

Berends, Mark, 410n17Bernstein, Jared, 36“Beveridge Curve,” 56n21Bhagwati, Jagdish, 55n9Bianchi, Suzanne M., 237, 249,

299n1birth control, 391Bischoff, Kendra, 9–10, 208,

221blacks: child poverty, 262, 263;

children’s living arrange-ments, 259, 260; cohabitation, 248; college education, 377, 383, 384–85, 386, 387, 391–92; Democratic Party support, 19; disabilities, 280, 282; di-vorce, 251; education gender gap, 377, 383–84; elderly liv-ing arrangements, 283, 287; elderly population, 274; em-ployment rates, 31, 38; family patterns, 238, 264; grandpar-enthood, 290, 292–93, 296; home equity, 81, 82; home-ownership, 80, 87, 89, 187–88, 200, 204; household head-ship, 195–97, 202, 204; household income, 86, 87, 115, 128; incarceration rates, 38, 393–94; marriage, 240, 242, 243; median age, 274; in metropolitan areas, 424, 428, 430; in micropolitan areas, 429; in mixed neighborhoods, 447; mortgage delinquency, 81, 82; net worth, 86, 87, 89; population statistics, 115, 124, 128, 131, 415; poverty among elderly, 279, 288; poverty rates, 11, 20n4; remarriage, 254, 255; residential integra-tion analysis, 421; residential mobility, 139, 149, 153, 154, 156–59, 164–66, 168–70,

171, 172; segregation, 18, 214–16, 219, 220, 226–27, 419, 437–43; stock owner-ship, 89; unemployment, 16, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 19, 31, 38; wealth, 17, 86–91, 96, 279

black women: college education, 14, 377, 383–85; labor force participation, 392; poverty, 11; renter households, 202

Blau, David, 278Blau, Francine, 135n27, 391,

410n11Bloomberg Business Week, 270blue-collar jobs, 400–401Bound, John, 12–13, 306, 318Bowen, William, 380–81, 387bracero program, 347, 348,

415Bradley, Karen, 380Braga, Breno, 318Brown, Susan K., 13–14, 341Brown v. Board of Education,

229n2Buchmann, Claudia, 14–15,

375, 392, 408, 410n21Bureau of Labor Statistics

(BLS), 25, 55n4, 63–64. See also Current Population Sur-vey (CPS)

Burkhauser, Richard V., 7–8, 105, 108, 133n9, 11, 13, 134n18, 21, 135n31

Burtless, Gary, 126, 127, 135n29

Bush, George W., homeowner-ship promotion, 182

business cycle, 41–47, 48, 108. See also recessions

California: metropolitan area diversity in, 431; unauthorized Mexican immigrants, 348

Canadian PhDs, 327Card, David, 36Career Academies, 49caregiving, 289Case-Schiller housing price in-

dex, 151Casper, Lynne, 237, 249, 251C corporations, 108

Census Bureau, 25, 107, 227, 300n7, 422–23. See also Amer-ican Community Survey (ACS); Current Population Survey (CPS)

census tracts, 229n5, 419–20, 422–23

Central American immigrants, 353–54, 355, 356, 357, 358

Charles, Maria, 380Cherlin, Andrew, 244, 253Chicago, Ill.: immigrant com-

munities, 420; segregation in, 442

childbearing, 256–58child care, 291–95, 356childlessness, 256child outcomes: of children

raised by grandparents, 294–95; educational outcomes and parental unemployment, 44; and family patterns, 238, 256–63; of unauthorized Mexican immigrants, 342, 359–65

children: future population pro-jections, 131; homeownership among families with, 193; liv-ing arrangements, 258–63, 264; poverty rates, 4, 238, 259–61; proportion in metro-politan areas and income seg-regation, 223–24, 225, 226; residential mobility, 149, 153, 167, 170; residential segrega-tion, 208, 211, 217–18

Chilean nationals, H-1B visas, 315

China, postsecondary school en-rollment, 318, 321

Chinese immigrants: educa-tional level, 310; high-skill immigrants, 308; legal perma-nent residents, 344; science and engineering PhDs, 325, 327; segregation, 441, 442, 443; visa allocations, 314

Chinese Student Protection Act (CSPA) of 1992, 314

Chinese students, 316, 317Chingos, Matthew, 387Chinoy, Ely, 400

Index 459

circular migration, 353, 359class-based segregation. See in-

come segregationclerical workers, 24, 40Clinton, Bill, homeownership

promotion programs, 182cohabitation: and child out-

comes, 238, 256–58; children involved in, 258; elderly, 283–84; gender differences, 247, 248, 249, 250; Great Re-cession’s impact on rates, 193; and intergenerational bonds, 271; and poverty, 259, 261, 262; racial-ethnic differences, 247–49, 260, 262; trends, 237, 246–51, 263–64

Cohn, D’Vera, 337n6, 353cohort analysis. See age group

and cohort analysescollective bargaining, 50college attendance: African

Americans, 386; cohabitation, 250; divorce, 252; employ-ment rates, 31; grandparent-hood, 293; household head-ship, 198, 199; immigrants, 309, 329, 355; living arrange-ments of widows, 286; marital status, 334; marriage, 245; mortgage delinquency, 83; rates of, 386–87; residential mobility, 149, 153, 169; trends, 349; unemployment, 44; wages and earnings, 31, 32, 33, 35

college completion rates, gender disparities in. See educational attainment, gender disparities in

college education: admissions and entry, 384–86, 403–4; admittance of women, 394–95; Asian Americans, 240; en-rollment trends, 318–22; fields of study, 380–81, 383; foreign-born students, 306; immigrants, 323–26; parental financial support, 288; path-ways to completion, 381–86; policy considerations, 408; re-marriage, 257; selectivity of,

403–4; student loans, 64, 91; transitions leading to, 384–90; wage premium, 377. See also college attendance; col-lege graduates

college graduates: cohabitation, 249, 250; country of origin, 326; demand for, 317; divorce, 252; elderly, 275, 276, 283; employment rates, 31; finan-cial support for children’s col-lege education, 288, 289; geo-graphic concentration, 329; grandparenthood, 291, 293; homeownership rates, 191, 192; household headship, 187, 198, 199; immigrants, 307, 309, 310, 313, 323, 329, 335–36, 355; income segregation, 219, 220, 224; increase in number of, 221; living ar-rangements of widows, 286; location of degree attainment, 323; marital status, 334; mar-riage, 244, 245, 271; mort-gage delinquency, 83; remar-riage, 256, 257; residential mobility, 149, 153, 169; tem-porary residents, 325; unem-ployment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 31, 32, 33, 35, 39, 275, 318. See also educational attainment, gender disparities in

Colombians, 439, 441, 442, 443communication, 141, 343communities, residential inte-

gration analysis, 422–23community colleges, 49Community Reinvestment Act

(CRA) of 1977, 182computers, 36computer science. See STEM

fieldsCongressional Budget Office, 48conservatives and conservatism,

19construction, employment

growth, 40–41Consumer Price Index Research

Series Using Current Methods (CPI-U-RS), 55n4, 106, 120

coresidence: Asian Americans, 197; children living with par-ents, 195, 204; cohort differ-ences, 196, 198; cultural dif-ferences, 194; Hispanics, 197; and homeownership rates, 192, 193; and household head-ship rates, 195; intergenera-tional, 283, 284, 297

CPI-U-RS (Consumer Price In-dex Research Series Using Current Methods), 55n4, 106, 120

CPS (Current Population Sur-vey). See Current Population Survey (CPS)

craft occupations, 40, 41credentialing, 49credit cards, 79credit rating agencies, 98cross-country comparison, of

college completion rates, 404, 406, 407

Cubans, 439, 441, 442, 443Cumberworth, Erin, 266n2Current Population Survey

(CPS): Annual Social and Eco-nomic Supplement, 25, 105, 106–7, 116; description of, 2; household income trends, 65, 106, 107; incarceration, 393; income inequality, 102–3n25–26, 106; labor market shifts since 1980, 23, 25; residential mobility, 139–40, 154, 160

Currie, Janet, 411n25cyclical unemployment, 41–

47

Daly, Mary, 126data sources, 1–2. See also specific

sourcesdebt, consumer: class compari-

son, 76; Great Recession’s im-pact, 64; leverage analysis, 83–84; middle class, 17, 79–80; trends, 17, 64, 71, 75, 95

debt-equity ratio, 71, 75, 76, 79, 90, 93, 95

debt-to-income ratio, 75, 76, 79, 90, 95

460 Diversity and Disparities

decennial census: description of, 1; elderly, 272, 298; home-ownership, 184; income seg-regation, 210, 211; marital sta-tus, 240

decomposition approaches, 113–16

defined benefit (DB) pension plans, 62, 64

defined contribution (DC) plans, 62, 64, 75

Democratic Party, 19demographic analyses: elderly,

272–80, 296–97; future in-come distribution trends, 123–25; future projections, 131; grandparents, 290–91; household income, 114–16, 123–25; immigrants, 355; in-come inequality, 121, 124–25; labor market since 1980, 37–39; legal permanent residents, 355; political effects, 19; resi-dential mobility, 155; unau-thorized Mexican immigrants, 354–55

DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, 107Denver, Colo., segregation in,

443Depression Babies: description

of, 183; homeownership chances, 200, 201; homeown-ership trends, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192

deregulation, 55n12, 182Dinardo, Jonathan, 36DiPrete, Thomas A., 14–15,

375, 380, 381, 392, 399, 400, 408, 410n20, 21

disabilities, individuals with: el-derly, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 297; immigrants, 356; residential mobility, 149, 153, 170

discrimination, 216, 366Displaced Persons Act of 1948,

312dissimilarity index, 380, 383,

419, 436, 437, 439, 441–43diversity: definition of, 3, 416;

of elderly, 270, 273–75, 296; of family patterns, 237, 238,

265–66; inequality relation-ship, 3, 17–18; literature re-view, 417, 418–20; of metro-politan and micropolitan areas, 423–34; theoretical perspectives and methodol-ogy, 417–18, 420–23; trends, 3–4, 423–34

Diversity Immigration Visa Pro-gram, 337n8

divorce: of couples cohabitating before marriage, 246; elderly, 282, 285; and financial sup-port of adult children, 288; grandparent support during, 295; Great Recession’s impact on rates, 193; highly educated women, 392; and marriage rate, 251–52; racial-ethnic differences, 251–53; trends, 251–53, 263

doctoral degrees. See PhD de-gree recipients

Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010, 97

Dominicans, 438–39, 441, 442, 443

DREAM Act, 359dual-earner families, 258–59,

261

E-1 visas, 333Early Childhood Longitudinal

Study: Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 (ECLS-K), 397–98

Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), 50

earnings. See wages and earningsEcho Boomers. See Generation YECLS-K (Early Childhood Lon-

gitudinal Study: Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999), 397–98

economic growth, 27–28, 348–49

economy, performance trends since 1980, 23

education: college readiness, 404–8; funding inequality, 210; gender differences in aca-demic performance, 394–

401; housing instability ef-fects, 167; neighborhood effects, 209, 210, 218; routes through system, 389. See also college education; high schools

educational attainment: and co-habitation rates, 249, 250; and divorce rates, 252; elderly, 275–76, 296; employment rates by, 31, 32–33, 36; family structure effects, 238; and grandparenthood, 290–91; and high-skill immigration, 318; homeownership effects, 83, 188–89, 191, 192, 200, 201; and household headship, 197–98, 199, 202; immi-grants, 313, 323–24; and in-come segregation, 218, 224, 225; intergenerational trans-mission, 329; and marriage rates, 239–40, 244, 245, 264–65; measurement of, 219; of movers vs. nonmovers, 149; and negative home eq-uity, 81; of parents and chil-dren’s college completion rates, 401–3; and parent’s fi-nancial support of adult chil-dren, 287, 289; policy consid-erations, 49; and remarriage, 256; and residential mobility, 153, 169; trends, 349, 375–77; unauthorized immigrant children, 359–65; and unem-ployment, 44, 45; wages and earnings by, 31, 32–33, 34, 35, 36

educational attainment, gender disparities in, 375–414; by age and cohort, 382–84; BA de-gree, 376–77; and college ad-missions competition, 403–4; college completion rates, 384–90; by field of study, 380–81, 383; as global phe-nomenon, 404, 406, 407; graduate degrees, 377–80; in-troduction, 14–15, 375; and parental educational attain-ment, 401–3; pathways to completion, 381–86; policy

Index 461

considerations, 408; profes-sional degrees, 377–80; racial-ethnic differences, 377, 379; reasons for, 390–401; transitions leading to college graduation, 384–90; trends, 4, 39, 275, 375–77

educational services, employ-ment in, 41

Education Longitudinal Study (ELS), 395

EITC (Earned Income Tax Credit), 50

Elder, Glen, 393elderly, 270–305; cohabitation,

246; data sources, 272, 298–99; definition of, 271; demo-graphic analysis, 272–80, 296–97; diversity of, 270, 273–75, 296; family context and living arrangements, 280–86, 292–93, 297; fore-closures, 179n49; intergenera-tional ties, 286–89; introduc-tion, 11–12, 270–71; marital status, 285; population statis-tics, 131, 270, 272–73; resi-dential mobility, 149, 153, 169; residential segregation by income, 219, 220; resources of, 270–71. See also Depres-sion Babies; grandparents; re-tirement and retired people; War Babies

electoral districts, 19ELS (Education Longitudinal

Study), 395employment, generally. See la-

bor market and employmentemployment-population ratio,

25, 26, 31, 32employment rates: by educa-

tional level, 31, 32–33, 36; el-derly, 276–78, 296; gender differences, 29, 31–34, 36–37, 116–17, 276–77; Great Recession’s impact, 63; His-panics, 29–30, 31, 38; immi-grants, 38, 312–16, 356; in-come effects, 116–17; and income inequality, 122–23; and income segregation, 218;

by occupation and industry, 39–41; racial-ethnic differ-ences, 31, 38; regional differ-ences, 31; and residential mo-bility, 149, 150, 169, 171, 173–74; trends across groups and with time periods, 30–36; women, 29, 116–17, 120, 122, 125, 130, 276–77. See also un-employment

engineering. See STEM fieldsentropy index, 418, 424–25, 444ethnic composition. See racial-

ethnic compositionethnic differences. See racial-

ethnic differencesethnic enclaves, 418ethnic stratification model, 418,

420, 421Eunice Kennedy Shriver Na-

tional Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 299n1, 450n1

European immigrants, 310European PhDs, 327executive compensation, 37, 49,

50extracurricular activities, 398

F-1 visas, 316, 326fair housing laws, 204family income segregation. See

income segregationfamily patterns, 237–69; and

child outcomes, 256–63, 265–66; data sources, 239; diversity of, 237, 238, 265–66; elderly, 280–86, 292–93, 297; high-skill immigrants, 328–29; introduction, 237–39; polarization along racial-ethnic and class lines, 238, 265–66; trends, 263–65, 271. See also cohabitation; marriage; traditional families

family reunification, 312, 348, 359

Fannie Mae, 97, 98Farkas, George, 410n14Farrell, Chad R., 15–16, 415Federal Housing Administration

(FHA), 97, 181

Federal Reserve Board: house-hold wealth definition, 62; Survey of Consumer Finance (SCF), 61, 62–63, 64, 71, 80, 102–3n25; Survey of Financial Characteristics of Consumers (SFCC), 62

female-headed households: child outcomes, 258; children living in, 258; increase in number of, 221; measurement of, 219; poverty, 238, 261, 262; racial-ethnic differences, 260, 262; residential segregation by in-come, 219, 220

Feng, Shuaizhang, 108, 133n8, 9

fertility, 349FHA (Federal Housing Admin-

istration), 97, 181fields of study, 380–81, 383Filipinos, 325, 344, 439, 441,

442, 443finance, insurance, and real es-

tate industry, 41financial crisis (2007–2008), 1.

See also Great Recessionfinancial industry: compensa-

tion, 37, 49; deregulation of, 182; employment in, 41

financial securities. See stock ownership

financial support, of adult chil-dren from parents, 286–88

Finn, Michael, 327Fischer, Claude, 229n1food stamps, 49, 134n21foreclosures: during Great

Recession, 6, 61, 63, 80, 82, 151; policy considerations, 97–98; and residential mobility, 160, 163, 165, 166, 168

foreign-born population. See im-migrants and immigration

401(k) plans, 75Fox, Lindsay, 229n1Freddie Mac, 97, 98Freeman, Richard, 338n6Fulchettore, Gallo, 299n1full-time employment, 116, 119,

120, 130, 276–77

462 Diversity and Disparities

Gallup, 400gateway communities: descrip-

tion of, 420–21; diversity, 423, 424, 426–31, 434; mixed neighborhoods, 446, 447; pol-icy considerations, 449; segre-gation, 436, 437, 439, 441

GDP (gross domestic product), 348

gender differences: academic performance, 394–401; care-giving for elderly parents, 289; cohabitation, 247, 248, 249, 250; employment, 3, 29, 31–34, 36–37, 116–17, 276–77; grandparenthood, 291; immi-grants’ labor market out-comes, 354–55; marriage rates, 241, 243, 245; popula-tion statistics, 18; poverty among elderly, 280; remar-riage, 253–54, 255; retire-ment patterns, 277–78; un-employment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 18, 29, 31–34, 35, 36–37, 392. See also edu-cational attainment, gender disparities in

General Social Survey (GSS), 200, 401

Generation X: description of, 183; homeownership chances, 200, 201; homeownership trends, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188–89; household headship, 194–99, 202; household launches, 193

Generation Y: description of, 183; homeownership chances, 200; homeownership trends, 17, 183, 184–85, 189; house-hold headship, 194–99, 204. See also young adults

geocentric studies, 418–19geographic or regional analyses:

employment rates, 31; high-skill immigrants, 328, 329; homeownership chances, 200; residential mobility, 141, 144–47, 148, 149, 159, 168, 170; unemployment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 30, 31, 38

GI bill, 181, 392–93Gini coefficient, 67, 68–69,

109–11, 218“glass ceiling,” 55n10globalization, 36, 37global neighborhoods, 18, 420Golden, Joseph, 318Goldin, Claudia, 392, 395,

410n15, 18, 25“good jobs,” 41, 50grades, 394–95graduate degrees. See advanced

degreesgrandparent families: immi-

grants, 259; poverty, 262; racial-ethnic differences, 259, 260, 262; trends, 258, 259

grandparents: demographics, 290–91; role of, 271, 289–96, 297; unauthorized immigrant status and grandchild’s educa-tional achievement, 364–65

“Great Boom,” 27–28Great Depression, 181Great Recession: dates of, 150–

51; financial impact, 4; geo-graphic mobility effects, 4; household income, 16, 105, 108–9, 118–21, 125; immi-gration effects, 2; income in-equality, 109–11; racial di-vide, 86–91; recovery, 48–49; residential mobility, 139, 141–42, 143, 144–46, 150–67; social effects of, 2; unemployment, 42–47, 48; young adults, 17

green cards, 312–14, 330Grogger, Jeff, 327gross domestic product (GDP),

348group-centric research, 418group quarters, elderly living in,

281, 284, 286, 287, 297GSS (General Social Survey),

200, 401Guatemalans, 439, 441, 442,

443

H-1A visas, 314H-1B visas, 314–16, 318, 322,

326–27, 330, 332, 345, 346

H-1C visas, 337n15H-1 visas, 314, 315H-2A visas, 345, 346H-2B visas, 345, 346Hahn, Markus, 133n11Hall, Matthew, 353Hanson, Gordon, 327HARP (Home Affordable Refi-

nance Program), 98Hart-Celler Act of 1965, 312,

347–48, 415Hawaii: micropolitan diversity,

431Health and Retirement Study

(HRS), 272, 277, 290, 298health care costs, 55n5health insurance, 356health services, employment

growth, 40, 41health status, 280, 294–95highly skilled workers: supply

and demand, 36, 37; women, 391. See also high-skill immi-gration

High School and Beyond (HSB), 395

high school dropouts: cohab-itation, 249, 250; cohort analysis, 9; divorce, 252; employment rates, 31; grand-parenthood, 291, 293; home-ownership rates, 190, 192; household headship, 187, 198, 199; immigrants, 307, 309, 329, 355; income segregation, 218, 219, 220; living arrange-ments of widows, 286; marital status, 334; marriage, 244, 245; mortgage delinquency, 83; population trends, 349, 351, 352; remarriage, 256, 257; residential mobility, 149, 153, 169; unemployment, 44; wages and earnings, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 275, 366

high school graduates: cohabita-tion, 250; divorce, 252; el-derly, 275, 276, 283; employ-ment rates, 31; financial support for children’s college education, 288, 289; grand-parenthood, 293; homeowner-

Index 463

ship rates, 80; household headship, 198, 199; immi-grants, 309, 329, 355; living arrangements of widows, 286; marital status, 334; marriage, 245; mortgage delinquency, 83; optimism of, 400; popula-tion trends, 275, 276, 349, 352; remarriage, 257; residen-tial mobility, 149, 153, 169; unemployment, 44; wages and earnings, 28, 31, 32, 33, 35, 39, 391

high schools: college readiness, 408; coursework, 394–97; grades, 394–97; graduation trends, 375; policy consider-ations, 408; technical educa-tion, 49; transition to college, 386–90. See also high school dropouts; high school gradu-ates

high-skill immigration, 306–40; age at entry, 322–23; country of origin and degree attainment, 325–26; data sources, 307, 330–31; educa-tion level at immigration, 323–24; geographic concen-tration, 328, 329; introduc-tion, 12–13, 306–7; labor market determinants of, 317–22, 330; marriage and family formation, 328–29; pathways to entry, 322–28; persistence and stay rates, 326–28; policy considerations, 309–17, 330–31; trends, 307–9; U.S. higher education enrollment, 324–25

Hirsch, Barry, 55n12Hispanics: child poverty, 262,

263; children’s living arrange-ments, 259, 260; cohabitation, 247–49, 248; definition of, 299; disabilities, 280, 282; di-vorce, 251; education gender gap, 377, 379; elderly living arrangements, 287; elderly population, 274, 275; employ-ment rates, 29–30, 31, 38; family patterns, 238; grand-

parenthood, 290, 292, 293, 296; home equity, 81, 82; homeownership, 80, 88, 89, 91, 188, 204; household head-ship, 196, 196, 197; household income, 87, 89, 115, 128; marriage, 240, 243; median age, 274; in metropolitan ar-eas, 424, 428, 430; in micro-politan areas, 429; in mixed neighborhoods, 447; mortgage delinquency, 81, 82; net worth, 88, 89, 91; political participation, 19; population statistics, 115, 123, 124, 128, 131, 221; poverty among el-derly, 279, 288; poverty rates, 20n4; remarriage, 254, 255; Republican Party’s difficulty attracting, 19; residential dis-persion of, 418; residential in-tegration analysis, 421, 422; residential mobility, 149, 154, 156–59, 164–65, 166, 168–70, 171, 172; segregation, 18, 215–16, 219, 220, 226–27, 419, 438–43; unemployment, 16, 44, 45; wages and earn-ings, 29, 31, 38; wealth, 17, 86–91, 96, 279

Hlavac, Marek, 4–5, 23, 55n5HOLC (Home Owners Loan

Corporation), 181Holzer, Harry J., 4–5, 23, 41,

55n5, 55n13, 56n18Home Affordable Refinance

Program (HARP), 98home equity: age differences,

93, 94; Hispanics, 96; middle class, 78, 79; older Ameri-cans, 278–79; racial differ-ences, 89, 90; trends, 71, 73, 74–75, 82, 95; by wealth class, 6, 76, 77

home equity loans, 60, 79, 98homelessness, 205homemakers, 390homeownership: age or cohort

comparisons, 91–92, 182–90, 191, 192; Generation Y, 17; government programs to in-crease, 181–82; Great Reces-

sion’s impact, 62–63; house-hold headship analysis, 190–99; measurement of, 181, 190; middle class, 77; ra-cial differences, 87–88, 89; and residential mobility, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 156, 158–59, 170, 172; social and eco-nomic benefits of, 181; trends, 16, 62–63, 80, 181–82; wealthy Americans, 77; young adults, 4

Home Owners Loan Act of 1933, 181

Home Owners Loan Corpora-tion (HOLC), 181

hours of work, 355–57household formation. See hous-

ing and household formation by cohort

household headship, 132n3, 190–99, 202–4, 205

household income. See income, household

housing, as reason for local moves, 155, 171, 173–74

housing and household forma-tion by cohort, 181–208; Gen-eration Y, 17; homeownership trends, 182–90, 204; house-hold headship, 190–99, 202–4, 205; intergenerational de-cline in housing status, 199–204, 205; introduction, 181–82; trends, 4

housing bubble, 63, 74, 79, 80, 96, 182

housing market: discrimination, 216; during Great Recession, 80–83, 141; subprime mort-gage crisis, 61, 97, 182, 227

housing prices: during Great Re- cession, 61, 74, 80, 81–82, 151; during housing bubble, 63, 74, 79, 182; spatial patterns, 209

housing vouchers, 210Hoxby, Caroline, 403HRS (Health and Retirement

Study), 272, 277, 290, 298HSB (High School and Beyond),

395Hughes, Lauren, 425–26, 450n1

464 Diversity and Disparities

I-94 status, 345Iceland, John, 15–16, 415IIMMLA (Immigration and In-

tergenerational Mobility in Metropolitan Los Angeles), 360

immigrants and immigration: age of entry, 322–23; child poverty, 261, 262; children’s living arrangements, 259, 260; cohabitation, 246–47, 248, 250; college education, 323–26; community typology, 420–21; country of origin, 275, 310, 325–26, 341; definition of, 337n2; demographics, 355; divorce, 252, 253; educational attainment, 313; elderly popu-lation, 274–75; employment rates, 38, 312–16, 356; family patterns, 238, 265; grandpar-ents, 293, 295, 296; Great Recession effects, 2; home-ownership chances, 200, 201; integration theories, 354; labor demand, 4; marital status, 334; marriage, 240–46, 265; in metropolitan areas, 424; re-marriage, 254, 255, 256, 257; residential mobility, 148, 149, 153, 170; residential segrega-tion by income, 219, 220; trends, 2, 307–9, 341; U.S. law, 309–17, 337n7, 341, 347–48, 365, 367n9, 415. See also naturalization and naturalized citizens; visas; specific groups

Immigration Act of 1990, 314Immigration and Intergenera-

tional Mobility in Metropoli-tan Los Angeles (IIMMLA), 360

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, 312, 314

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (Hart-Celler Act), 312, 347–48, 415

Immigration Reform and Con-trol Act (IRCA) of 1986, 365, 367n9

Immigration Restriction Act of 1921, 337n7

incarceration, 38, 393–94income, household, 105–38;

class comparison, 71; data sources, 105–8; decomposi-tion of factors accounting for trends, 114–21, 125–27; and demographic changes, 114–16, 123–25; and earnings changes, 116–18; and employ-ment changes, 116–17; future projections, 123–25; Great Recession’s impact, 16, 105, 108–9, 118–21, 125; and homeownership rates, 80; in-troduction, 7–8, 105–6; mea-surement of, 132–34n4, 13; model for shifts in, 111–13; and mortgage delinquency, 81, 83; and negative home equity, 81; racial differences, 86, 87–88, 90, 128; and residential mobility, 149, 153, 170; sources of, 116–18, 129; trends, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 96, 105–6, 108–11, 125. See also wages and earnings

income, per capita and income segregation, 219, 220

income inequality, 105–38; data sources, 105–8; decomposi-tion of factors accounting for trends, 121–24; demographic factors, 121, 124–25; and earnings changes, 121–23; and employment changes, 122–23; and income segregation, 219, 220, 225, 226; introduction, 7–8, 105–6; measurement of, 218; metropolitan area differ-ences and income segregation, 217; model for shifts in, 111–13; racial-ethnic issues, 17–18; trends, 4, 67, 68–69, 96, 105–6, 108–11, 123, 125, 221, 342

income segregation, 208–33; changes over time, 211–25; data sources, 210; definition of, 211; future research oppor-tunities, 227; impacts of, 227; importance of, 209–10; intro-duction, 9–10, 208; measure-

ment of, 210–12, 227–28; and metropolitan characteristics, 216–21; research methodol-ogy, 210–11; trends, 17, 212–16, 225–26

India: postsecondary school en-rollment, 318, 321

Indian (Asian) immigrants: edu-cational level, 310; high-skilled immigrants, 308; seg-regation, 440, 441, 442, 443; visa allocations, 314

Indians, American. See Ameri-can Indians

industry, labor market outcomes by, 39–41

inequality: definition of, 3; di-versity relationship, 3, 17–18; trends, 3–4. See also income inequality

inflation, 26, 120information technology (IT),

318Inside Higher Ed Survey of Col-

lege and University Admis-sions Officers, 403

institutions, labor market trend effects, 37

Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS), 25, 239, 272, 393, 409n8

integration, residential, 415–56; definitions, 416–17; diversity trends, 423–34; future pro-jections, 449; immigrant com-munity context, 420–21; in-troduction, 15–16, 415–16; literature review, 418–20; mixed neighborhood preva-lence and stability over time, 444–48; segregation trends, 435–44; theoretical perspec-tives and methodology, 417–18, 420–23

intergenerational coresidence, 283, 284, 297

intergenerational relationships, 286–89. See also grandparents

Internal Revenue Service (IRS), 61, 105, 106, 107–9

International Social Survey Pro-gramme (ISSP), 286

Index 465

international trade, 343interracial households, 449interracial marriage, 242, 264interstate migration, 141, 142,

143, 145, 166investments, 75IPUMS (Integrated Public Use

Microdata Series), 25, 239, 272, 393, 409n8

IRAs, 75IRCA (Immigration Reform and

Control Act) of 1986, 365, 367n9

IRS (Internal Revenue Service), 61, 105, 106, 107–9

Irwin, Douglas, 324ISSP (International Social Sur-

vey Programme), 286

J-1 exchange visitor visas, 316, 326, 333

Jacobs, Jerry, 380–81Japanese Americans and immi-

grants, 327, 439, 441, 442, 443

Jargowsky, Paul A., 230n9Jasso, Guillermina, 357Jenkins, Stephen, 108,

134n20job creation, 49job growth trends, 348–49job quality, 49job vacancy rates, 46, 47Johnson, Lyndon B., immigra-

tion policy, 347Jurajda, Stepan, 135n30

Kahn, Lawrence, 135n27, 30, 391, 410n11

Katz, Lawrence, 36, 410n15, 18, 25

Kearney, Melissa, 36Kenny, Charles, 270Kerm, Philippe Van, 134n20Kerr, William, 322, 327n1Khatiwada, Ishwar, 119Kimmel, Michael, 398Kleykamp, Meredith, 393Kopczuk, Wojciech, 135n31Koreans, 327, 441, 442, 443Koretz, Daniel, 410n17Kuziemko, Ilyana, 410n15, 18

L-1 visas, 315–16, 326, 333labor demand, 36–37, 48, 317–18laborers, employment distribu-

tion, 40labor force participation: during

“Great Boom” of 1990s, 27; women, 135n27, 278, 391–92

labor market and employment: Baby Boomers’ impact, 349–51; high-skill immigrants, 317–22, 330; job creation, 49; job growth trends, 348–49; job quality, 49; job vacancy rates, 46, 47; low-skill immi-grants, 4; polarization of, 36, 40; supply and demand in, 36–37, 48, 317–22; unauthor-ized Mexican immigrants, 353–59; women, 3, 24. See also employment rates; occu-pational analyses

labor market trends since 1980, 23–59; business cycle effects, 41–47, 48; data sources, 25; demographic breakdown, 37–39; introduction, 4–5, 23–25; outcomes by occupation and industry, 39–41; policy impli-cations, 48–50; regional dif-ferences, 37–39; trend causes, 36–37; trends across groups and within time periods, 30–36, 48–49; trends overall, 25–30, 47

labor supply, 36–37, 48, 318–22

Larrimore, Jeff, 7–8, 25, 105, 107, 108, 113, 123, 133n13, 134n18, 21, 22, 135n31

Las Vegas, Nev., local move rates, 160

Latin American immigrants, 307–8, 310. See also Hispanics

Latinos. See HispanicsLawrence, Robert, 55n9laws and legislation, 19. See also

specific legislative actsLazarus, Emma, 415Leach, Mark A., 13–14, 341Learning the Hard Way: Masculin-

ity, Place, and the Gender Gap in Education (Morris), 398

Lee, Barrett A., 15–16, 415, 425–26

Lee, Jennifer, 341legal permanent residents

(LPR): demographics, 355; la-bor market outcomes, 353–59; from Mexico, 342, 343–45, 348, 353–59; pathways to, 312–14; STEM workers, 326

Legewie, Joscha, 399LEHD (Longitudinal Employer

Household Dynamics), 56n18Lerman, Robert, 56n29less-educated workers: EITC

expansion to, 50; employment rates, 38–39, 44; homeowner-ship, 192; immigrants, 307, 309; labor demand for, 36; la-bor market gains since 1980, 24; unemployment, 16, 45; wages and earnings, 29. See also high school dropouts; high school graduates

less-skilled work and workers, 342, 349–52

leverage, 83–84, 95Lichter, Daniel, 419life-cycle changes, as reason for

local move, 155, 171, 173–74life expectancy, 273Lincoln, William, 322, 337n1liquid assets as percentage of

household wealth: age differ-ences, 93, 94; middle class, 78; racial differences, 90; trends, 71, 73, 74; by wealth class, 75, 76, 77

living arrangements: of chil-dren, 258–63, 264; of elderly, 280–86, 287, 297; of grand-parents, 292–93. See also co-residence; family patterns

local moves and movers: charac-teristics of, 147–50; definition of, 140; Great Recession’s im-pact, 150–54, 166–67; by metropolitan area, 160–66; racial differences, 156–59; reasons for, 154–56, 171, 173–74; during recessions, 143; regional variation, 144–46, 159; trends, 139, 141–42

466 Diversity and Disparities

Logan, John R., 1, 20n2, 3, 229n1, 299n1, 420, 447

Longitudinal Employer House-hold Dynamics (LEHD), 56n18

Longitudinal Tract Data Base (LTDB), 450n7

Los Angeles, Calif., segregation in, 441–42

Lowell, Lindsay, 314, 315, 328low-income households: afford-

able housing, 205, 210; Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), 50; homeownership rates, 182; mortgage delin-quency, 82, 97; rent as per-centage of income, 205. See also income segregation

low-skill immigrants and immi-gration: age analysis, 322; country of origin, 310; de-mand for, 4; trends, 307–8, 309. See also unauthorized im-migrants

low-wage workers, demand for, 36

LPR (legal permanent resi-dents). See legal permanent residents (LPR)

LTDB (Longitudinal Tract Data Base), 450n7

Lu, Bo, 246Luo, Ye, 299n1

MacLean, Alair, 393MacLeod, Jay, 410n19Macunovich, Diane, 135n27MA degree recipients: age of en-

try for immigrants, 323; country of origin, 325, 326; distribution by immigration status, 313; entry visa status, 335–36; gender disparities, 378–80, 382; geographic con-centration, 329; immigrants vs. other workers, 309; loca-tion of degree attainment, 323; marital status, 334; tem-porary residents, 325; U.S. university education, 324– 26

Maestas, Nicole, 277

male-headed households: chil-dren living in, 258; poverty, 261, 262; racial-ethnic differ-ences, 260, 262

managerial workers, 40, 391Mann, Alison, 380, 381manufacturing: decline of, 24,

30, 40, 41, 221, 351, 368n10, 400; income segregation and percentage of workers employed in, 218, 219, 220, 224, 226

March Current Population Sur-vey, 25, 105, 106–7, 116

marginal membership integra-tion, 354

marital status: by citizenship status, 334; elderly, 285; homeownership chances, 200, 201; and residential mobility, 149, 153, 170

marketable wealth, 62. See also net worth

marriage: age analysis, 241; ben-efits of, 239, 265; and child outcomes, 238, 258; of cou-ples cohabitating before, 246; educational differences, 239–40, 244, 245, 264–65; educa-tion as sorting mechanism, 238; elderly, 285; gender dif-ferences, 241, 243, 245; Great Recession’s impact on, 193; high-skill immigrants, 328–29; immigrants, 240–46, 265; income effects, 115; in-terracial marriage, 242, 264; promotion by government, 239; racial-ethnic differences, 240, 241–42, 245–46, 253, 265; remarriages, 253–56, 263, 271, 288, 295; “serial,” 256; trends, 237, 239, 240–46, 263–65. See also divorce

The Marriage-Go-Round (Cher-lin), 253

married couples: children living with, 258, 260; earnings-household income growth cor-relation, 118; homeownership rates, 80, 81; mortgage delin-quency, 81; negative home eq-uity, 81; poverty, 261, 262

masculine identity, 397, 398–400, 401

math coursework and testing, 394–97

Mayer, Susan, 210McCarran-Walter Act of 1952,

347McLanahan, Sara, 251McManus, Patricia, 410n20McPherson, Michael, 387Measurement of Economic and

Social Performance (MESP), 62

media, 346–47median income. See income,

householdMedicaid, 49men: cohabitation, 247, 248,

250; employment rates, 116–17, 119–20, 130, 276–77; grandparenthood, 291; less-skilled workers, 350; life ex-pectancy, 273; marital status of elderly population, 285; marriage rates, 241, 243, 245; remarriage, 253–54, 255, 257; residential mobility, 149, 153, 170; wages and earnings, 29, 116–17, 119, 130, 275–76. See also gender differences

MESP (Measurement of Eco-nomic and Social Perfor-mance), 62

metropolitan areas: definition of, 230n8, 422; diversity trends, 423–34; immigrant community context, 422–23; income segregation, 216–25; local move rates, 160–66; mixed neighborhoods, 444–48; segregation studies, 419; segregation trends, 435–44

Mexican Americans and immi-grants: immigration trends, 274, 341, 343–46; segrega-tion, 439, 441, 442, 443; visa allocations, 314. See also His-panics; unauthorized immi-grants

Mexico: “push” factors influenc-ing unauthorized immigra-tion, 346–47

Index 467

Meyer, Bruce, 135n30micropolitan areas: definition

of, 422; diversity, 423–34; immigrant community con-text, 422–23; mixed neigh-borhoods, 444; segregation, 419, 435–44

middle class: American conno-tations, 60; economic situa-tion, 17; income, 109

middle class, Great Recession’s impact on, 60–104; data sources, 61–62; debt, 79–80; employment, 63; housing market, 62–63, 80–83; intro-duction, 5–7, 60–61; policy considerations, 96–98; racial inequality, 86–91; research methodology, 61–62; stock market, 63; wages and earn-ings, 63–64; wealth changes, 64–65, 83–86, 95–96; wealth inequality rise, 65–75, 83–86; wealth portfolio com-position analysis, 75–80

middle-skill occupations, 40, 391

Midwest: employment rates, 31; homeownership chances, 200; manufacturing employment decline, 40; residential mobil-ity, 144–47, 168, 170; unem-ployment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 30, 31, 38, 39

migration, 141, 142, 143, 145, 166. See also immigrants and immigration; mobility, resi-dential

Mihm, Steven, 55n11military service, 392–93Millennials. See Generation Yminimum wage, 37, 50mining, employment in, 41mixed neighborhoods, 444–48mobility, residential, 139–80;

consequences of increase in, 166–67; data sources, 139–40; and Great Recession, 139, 141–42, 143, 144–46, 150–67; introduction, 8, 139–40; by metropolitan area, 160–66; mover characteristics,

147–54; racial-ethnic differ-ences, 149, 153–54, 156–59, 164–66, 168–70, 171, 172; reasons for local moves, 154–56, 171, 173–74; and reces-sions, 142–43; regional differ-ences, 141, 144–47, 148, 149, 159, 168, 170; trends, 3, 4, 16, 17, 139, 140–42

mobility, social, 37, 354more-educated workers: labor

market gains since 1980, 24; retirement age, 39; supply and demand for, 29, 37. See also college graduates

Moretti, Enrico, 411n25Morgan, Philip, 266n2Morris, Edward, 398mortgage crisis, 61, 96, 182,

227mortgages: age analysis, 91, 93;

class comparison, 75, 77; debt trends, 63, 74–75, 80, 95; de-linquency and defaults, 81, 82–83, 97; Home Affordable Refinance Program, 98; mid-dle class, 76, 79–80, 95; predatory lending, 61, 97; ra-cial differences, 90, 91; regu-latory reform, 96–98; securi-tization of, 60, 97; subprime market, 61, 97, 182, 227; un-derwater status, 6, 7, 80–82, 98; underwriting, 182

moving. See mobility, residentialMoving to Opportunity (MTO)

program, 179n52, 210Mulligan, Casey B., 135n30multigenerational families,

237multivariate analysis, of home-

ownership chances, 199–204Myers, Dowell, 191–92, 193

NAEP (National Assessment of Education Progress), 403

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) professional workers, 332

NASDAQ, 1National Assessment of Educa-

tion Progress (NAEP), 403

National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), 143, 150

National Education Longitudi-nal Study (NELS), 386–90, 395

National Housing Act of 1934, 181

National Institute of Aging, 299n1

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 318

National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS-72), 395

National Science Foundation (NSF), 327, 337n3, 380

National Survey of College Graduates (NSCG), 307, 323, 325, 327–28

National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), 286– 87

Native Americans. See American Indians

native communities: definition of, 420; diversity, 423, 424, 426–31; mixed neighbor-hoods, 446, 447; segregation, 437, 439, 441

nativity, definition of, 239naturalization and naturalized

citizens: assimilation, 354; en-try visa status, 335, 336; labor market outcomes, 353–59; likelihood of those entering with temporary visas, 326; Mexican immigrants, 360–61

NBER (National Bureau of Eco-nomic Research), 143, 150

negative home equity, 6, 7, 80–82, 98

neighborhoods: composition ef-fects studies, 209–10; local moves between, 155, 166–67, 171, 173–74; median income computation, 211–12; poverty rates, 20n4; preferences for, 209

Neighborhood Stabilization Pro-gram, 167

NELS (National Education Lon-gitudinal Study), 386–90, 395

468 Diversity and Disparities

net worth: age analysis, 91, 92, 93; definition of, 62; elderly, 278; Great Recession’s im-pact, 65; leverage impact, 83–84; middle class, 95–96; nega-tive or zero, 65, 68, 87–88; racial-ethnic differences, 86–89, 91; rates of return, 84–86; trends, 65, 66, 67, 93–95, 182; young adults, 17

new immigrant destinations, 420, 421

New Immigrant Survey (NIS), 331, 357

New York City: immigrant communities, 420; residential integration, 416; segregation in, 442

New York Times, 98Nielsen, Francois, 230n16NIH (National Institutes of

Health), 318NIS (New Immigrant Survey),

331, 357NLS-72 (National Longitudinal

Study of the High School Class of 1972), 395

nonlabor income, 118, 120, 129, 131

nonmarital childbearing, 256nonmarital fatherhood, 38North American Free Trade

Agreement (NAFTA) profes-sional workers, 332

Northeast: employment rates, 31; homeownership chances, 200; residential mobility, 144–47, 160, 168, 170, 175n12; unemployment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 31, 38

NSCG (National Survey of Col-lege Graduates), 307, 323, 325, 327–28

NSF (National Science Founda-tion), 327, 337n3, 380

NSFH (National Survey of Fam-ilies and Households), 286– 87

nurses: country of origin, 326; entry visa status, 335–36; Fili-pino immigrants, 325; geo-graphic concentration, 329;

H-1A program, 314; immi-grants, 309, 312

O-1 visas, 316, 332Oberlin College, 394occupational analyses: by immi-

grant legal status, 356; immi-grants, 308–9, 311–12, 325–26, 355; labor market outcomes, 39–41

occupational sex segregation, 391

OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), 404, 406, 407

Office of Management and Bud-get (OMB), 230n8, 422

Offner, Paul, 55n13offshoring, 36, 330oil crisis, 26older workers: labor market

participation, 39; unemploy-ment, 44, 45; wages and earn-ings, 38. See also Baby Boom-ers; elderly; retirement and retired people

OMB (Office of Management and Budget), 230n8, 422

one percent, 69–71, 72. See also wealthy Americans

OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum-Exporting Coun-tries), 26

operators, employment distribu-tion, 40

optimism, 60, 400ORG (Outgoing Rotation

Groups), 25Organization for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD), 404, 406, 407

Orrenius, Pia, 337n1Outgoing Rotation Groups

(ORG), 25outpost areas: description of,

420–21; diversity, 423, 424, 426–31; mixed neighbor-hoods, 446, 447; segregation, 436, 437, 439, 441

overstays, visa, 342, 345, 368n14

Pacific Islanders, residential in-tegration analysis, 421–22

Panel Study of Income Dynam-ics (PSID), 62, 82, 287

panethnicity, 450n4parents and parenting: educa-

tional attainment and chil-dren’s college completion rates, 401–3; educational in-vestment, 401–3; financial support of adult children, 287, 289; support for children’s ac-ademic performance, 397–98, 408

part-time employment, 119, 120, 130, 277

Pascoe, C. J., 410n19Passel, Jeffrey, 337n6, 353pension accounts: age differ-

ences, 93, 94; middle class, 78–79; racial differences, 89, 90; share of households with, 95; trends, 73, 74, 75, 95; by wealth class, 76, 77; wealth measurement, 62, 64

per capita income, and income segregation, 219, 220

permanent residency, immi-grant pathways to, 312–14, 326

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconcili-ation Act (PRWORA) of 1996, 239

Pew Research, 256PhD degree recipients: age of

entry for immigrants, 323; country of origin, 326; distri-bution by immigration status, 313; entry visa status, 335–36; gender disparities, 378–80, 381, 382; geographic con-centration, 329; immigrants vs. other workers, 309; loca-tion of degree attainment, 323; marital status, 334; stay rates, 327; temporary resi-dents, 325; U.S. university education, 324–26; wages and earnings, 318

physicians: country of origin, 326; geographic concentra-

Index 469

tion, 329; immigrants, 309, 312; J-1 visas, 316; visa prefer-ence, 313

Piketty, Thomas, 107, 133n9polarization of labor market, 36,

40policy considerations: foreclo-

sures, 97–98; gateway com-munities, 449; gender dispari-ties in educational attainment, 404–8; high-skill immigra-tion, 309–17, 330–31; job training, 49; middle class, 96–98; minority-white in-come gap, 125; unauthorized Mexican immigration, 343, 365–66

political participation, 19political power, 210population: by age, 131; chil-

dren, 131; economic- population growth imbalance, 348–49; elderly, 131, 270, 272–73, 274; gender, 18; high school dropouts, 349, 351, 352; high school graduates, 275, 276, 349, 352; and in-come segregation, 219, 220, 224, 225; measurement of, 218; minorities, 115, 124, 128, 131, 415

poverty: children, 4, 238, 259–61; cohort analysis, 184; el-derly, 278–80, 281, 284, 288, 296–97; female-headed house-holds, 238, 261, 262; grand-parents, 294, 296; and home-ownership chances, 200, 201; and household headship, 202; and residential mobility, 149, 150, 152, 156, 158–59, 167, 170, 172; segregation of, 212, 214, 216, 219, 221, 223, 225

predatory lending, 61, 97, 204private investment income, 129Proctor, Bernadette, 107productivity, labor, 49, 55n6professionals: age of entry for

immigrants with, 323; distri-bution by immigration status, 313; employment distribution, 40; gender disparities in de-

gree attainment, 377–80, 381, 382; immigrants, 309; labor demand for, 36; marital status, 334; women, 391

PSID (Panel Study of Income Dynamics), 62, 82, 287

public administration, 41public transfers, 120–21, 123,

129, 131public use microdata area

(PUMA), 177n35Public Use Microdata Series

(PUMS), 184, 299Puerto Ricans, 439, 441, 442,

443

Qian, Yue, 266n1Qian, Zhenchao, 11, 19n1, 237Queensborough Community

College (QCC), 416quotas, 337n7, 347, 415

race, measurement of, 299racial-ethnic composition: el-

derly population, 273–74; metropolitan areas, 428; mi–cropolitan areas, 429; residen-tial integration analysis, 421–22; trends, 3, 128

racial-ethnic differences: child poverty, 261–63; children’s living arrangements, 259, 260; cohabitation, 247–49, 260, 262; disabilities, 280; di-vorce, 251–53; educational at-tainment, 377, 379; elderly living arrangements, 283, 287; employment rates, 31, 38; family patterns, 238, 265–66; grandparenthood, 290, 292–93; homeowner-ship, 80, 186–88; household headship, 195–97; income in-equality, 17–18; income trends, 115; marriage, 240, 241–42, 245–46, 253, 265; median age, 274; mortgage delinquency, 81, 82; negative home equity, 81; poverty among elderly, 279, 288; re-marriage, 254; residential mo-bility, 149, 153–54, 156–59,

164–66, 168–70, 171, 172; residential segregation by in-come, 214–16, 226–27; un-employment, 16, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 29, 31, 38–39; wealth, 16–17, 86–91, 96. See also specific racial or ethnic group

racialization, 354rank-order information theory

index, 212rates of return, 84–86, 95–96reading, 395real earnings and wages: Great

Recession’s impact, 63–64; measurement of, 25; trends, 26, 63–64, 69

Reardon, Sean F., 9–10, 208, 221

recessions: 1980s, 23; 1990s, 23, 27; household income changes, 118–21; and residen-tial mobility, 142–43; unem-ployment during, 41–47, 48. See also Great Recession

redistricting, 19reemployment services, 49refugees, 337n8regional analyses. See geographic

or regional analysesremarriage, 253–56, 263, 271,

288, 295renter households, 191–92, 202,

205Republican Party, 19Reserve Officers’ Training

Corps (ROTC), 393residential integration. See inte-

gration, residentialresidential segregation. See seg-

regation, residentialretail trade, 41retirement and retired people:

Baby Boomers, 17, 115, 116, 123, 124–25, 186, 351; em-ployment, 277–78; homeown-ership, 204; immigrants, 356; residential mobility, 148, 149, 153, 170; retirement age, 39; Social Security, 62, 129, 131, 276–77; women, 277–78. See also pension accounts

470 Diversity and Disparities

rich Americans. See wealthy Americans

The Rise of Women: The Growing Gender Gap in Education and What It Means for American Schools (DiPrete and Buch-mann), 408

“Roaring Nineties,” 27–28Rosenbaum, Emily, 8–9, 19n1,

181Rosenbaum, James, 408Rosenzweig, Mark, 324ROTC (Reserve Officers’ Train-

ing Corps), 393Roubini, Nouriel, 55n11rural areas, residential mobility,

149, 153, 170

Saez, Emmanuel, 107, 133n9, 135n31

safety net, grandparents as, 271, 291, 297

sales workers, employment dis-tribution, 40

Salvadorans, 344, 439, 441, 442, 443

same-sex families, 237SC (Survey of Consumers), 272,

287, 288, 298–99SCF (Survey of Consumer Fi-

nance), 61, 62–63, 64, 71, 80, 102–3n25

Schmitt, John, 25school enrollment, and and resi-

dential mobility, 149, 153, 170. See also education

science, high school course-work, 395–97. See also STEM fields

S corporations, 108second-generation immigrants,

educational attainment, 360–64

sectoral training programs, 49securitization of mortgage

loans, 60, 97SED (Survey of Earned Doctor-

ates), 327, 337n3segmented assimilation, 354,

417segregation, residential: benefits

of, 450n5; class issues, 17; def-

inition of, 416–17; literature review, 419; measurement of, 419; theoretical perspectives and methodology, 417–18, 420–23; trends, 4, 18, 435–44. See also income segregation

segregation of affluence, 212, 214, 219, 221, 223, 225, 226

segregation of poverty, 212, 214, 216, 219, 221, 223, 225

Seltzer, Judith A., 11–12, 270September 11, 2001, 1Servicemen’s Readjustment Act

of 1944 (GI bill), 181, 392–93service sector, 36, 40, 351SFCC (Survey of Financial

Characteristics of Consum-ers), 62

Sharp, Greg, 450shift-share analysis, 105, 111–13Silent Generation. See Depres-

sion Babies; War BabiesSimon, Kosali, 133n13, 134n18Singapore nationals, H-1B visas,

315Singer, Audrey, 420single-parent families, 237, 264.

See also female-headed house-holds; male-headed households

single persons: elderly, 285; home equity, 81, 82; home-ownership rates, 80; mortgage delinquency, 81; population trends, 240, 263; poverty rates, 261

SIPP (Survey of Income and Program Participation), 353–54

skill-biased technological change, 36, 37, 317

Smith, Jessica, 107SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition

Assistance Program), 134n21social mobility, 37, 354Social Security, 62, 129, 131,

276–77Social Security Administration,

327social structure, definition of, 2SOI (Statistics of Income), 61,

106, 107–8Solomon, Barbara Miller, 395

Sommers, Christina Hoff, 408Song, Jae, 135n31Song, Xi, 299n1Sorensen, Elaine, 55n13sorting, 217, 238The South: employment rates,

31; metropolitan area diversity in, 431; residential mobility, 144–47, 160, 163, 168, 170; unemployment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 31, 38

Soviet Scientists Immigration Act of 1992, 314

spatial assimilation model, 417, 418, 420, 448–49

spatial resource distribution ef-fects, 209, 210

spouses’ earnings, 118, 122–23SSI (Supplemental Security In-

come), 129, 131standardized test scores, 394,

403Standard & Poor’s (S&P), 98Standard & Poor’s (S&P) 500 in-

dex, 63Stanley, Marcus, 392–93Statistics of Income (SOI), 61,

106, 107–8Statue of Liberty, 415stay-at-home mothers. See tradi-

tional familiesSTEM fields: foreign-born em-

ployment in, 311, 312; gender segregation, 381; high-skill immigrants in, 308–9; loca-tion of degrees attained by foreign-born workers in, 323–24; optional practical training, 316; stay rates of foreign-born workers, 327; wages and earn-ings, 318, 319, 320

stepfamilies, 238, 253, 271, 288stock market, 60, 63, 96stock ownership: age differ-

ences, 93, 94; middle class, 78; racial differences, 89, 90; trends, 73, 74; by wealth class, 75, 76, 77

Stoll, Michael A., 8, 139structural unemployment, 44–

47student loans, 64, 91

Index 471

student visas, 316–17Stults, Brian J., 20n3, 229n1,

299n1subprime mortgage loans, 61,

97, 182, 227Sum, Andrew, 119Supplemental Nutrition Assis-

tance Program (SNAP), 134n21

Supplemental Security Income (SSI), 129, 131

Survey of Consumer Finance (SCF), 61, 62–63, 64, 71, 80, 102–3n25

Survey of Consumers (SC), 272, 287, 288, 298–99

Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED), 327, 337n3

Survey of Financial Characteris-tics of Consumers (SFCC), 62

Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 353–54

Taiwanese PhDs, 327Tannery, Frederick, 135n30tax reform, 19teachers, 390Tea Party, 19technical education, 49technical workers, employment

distribution, 40temporary visas, 314–16, 326–

28, 332–33, 342, 345–46third-generation immigrants,

educational attainment, 364–65

time assistance, 289–95TN visas, 332top-coding, 25, 107Torrecilha, Ramon, 300n3traditional families: children liv-

ing in, 258; decline of, 237; immigrants, 259; poverty, 259, 261, 262; racial-ethnic differences, 260, 262, 263, 264

training programs, 49transportation, 41, 141, 343Treas, Judith, 300n3The Truly Disadvantaged (Wil-

son), 215

Turner, Sarah, 12–13, 306, 318, 380–81

UI (unemployment insurance), 49, 120–21, 129, 131

unauthorized immigrants, 341–74; and children’s educational outcomes, 353, 359–65, 366; data sources, 353–54, 360; definition of, 342; demograph-ics, 354–55; educational at-tainment, 309; factors ex-plaining growth of, 346–53; introduction, 13–14, 341–43; labor market outcomes, 353–59; outcomes of, 341–42; pathways to entry, 342; policy considerations, 343, 365–66; trends, 343–46, 365

unemployment: 1990s, 27; fore-casts, 48; Great Recession’s impact, 63–64; by immigrant legal status, 355, 356; and in-come segregation, 218, 219, 220, 224; racial-ethnic differ-ences, 16, 44, 45; during re-cessions, 42–47, 48; and resi-dential mobility, 149, 151–53, 156, 158–59, 160, 163–65, 166, 168, 169, 172; trends, 16, 221

unemployment insurance (UI), 49, 120–21, 129, 131

UNESCO, 321unincorporated business equity,

73, 76, 78, 90, 93, 94, 102n22

unions and unionization, 37, 50, 356

United Kingdom: grandparent study, 291

universities. See college educa-tion

University of Michigan: Health and Retirement Study, 272, 277, 290, 298; Institute for Social Research, combined public use files, 272; Survey of Consumers, 272, 287, 288, 298–99

unmarried childbearing, 256–58

US2010 Project, 2, 16, 18U.S. Census Bureau, 25, 107,

227, 300n7, 422–23. See also American Community Survey (ACS); Current Population Survey (CPS)

vacated property, 167Valetta, Robert G., 126Van Hook, Jennifer, 13–14,

341, 368n14verbal tests, 394veterans benefits, 129, 131,

181Vietnamese, 441, 442, 443Vietnam War, 377visas: overstays, 342, 345,

368n14; student, 316–17; temporary, 314–16, 326–28, 332–33, 342, 345–46

wages and earnings: age group analysis, 38–39; college grad-uates, 31, 32, 33, 35, 39, 275, 318; by educational level, 31, 32–33, 34, 35, 36; elderly, 275–76; gender differences, 18, 29, 31–34, 35, 36–37, 392; geographic or regional differences, 30, 31, 38; Great Recession’s impact, 63–64; high school dropouts, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 275, 366; high school graduates, 28, 31, 32, 33, 35, 39, 391; high-skill im-migration effects, 322; house-hold income effects, 116–18; measurement of, 25; Mexican or Central American immi-grants by legal status, 358; racial-ethnic differences, 29, 31, 38–39; STEM fields, 318, 319–20; trends across groups and with time periods, 30–36; trends overall since 1980, 25–30; unauthorized immigrant impact, 346, 355–57; women, 29, 36, 116–17, 120, 122, 125, 130, 275–76, 391; young adults, 17. See also real earn-ings and wages

Waite, Linda, 299n1

472 Diversity and Disparities

War Babies: description of, 183; homeownership chances, 200, 201; homeownership trends, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192; household headship, 202, 203

Ward, Russell, 286Washington, D.C., segregation

in, 442, 443Watson, Tara, 218wealth: age group shifts, 91–93,

96; distribution across income classes, 69–71, 72; elderly, 278–80; Great Recession’s impact, 64–65; middle class, 64–65, 83–86; portfolio composition, 71–79; racial-ethnic differences, 16–17, 86–91, 96; trends, 64–65, 93; young adults, 4. See also net worth

wealth inequality: 1983–1989, 64–65; Great Recession’s rise in, 65–75; and leverage, 83–84; middle class, 65–75, 83–86; trends, 93; between younger and older adults, 278–79. See also income in-equality

wealthy Americans: segregation of, 212, 214, 219, 221, 223, 225, 226; wealth composition, 75–79; wealth trends, 69–71, 72

welfare, 129, 131, 239well-being, of children and fam-

ily environment, 259–63, 265–66

West: employment rates, 31; homeownership chances, 200; metropolitan area diversity in, 431; residential mobility, 144–47, 160, 163, 168, 170; unemployment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 31, 38

Where Are All the Good Jobs Going? (Holzer), 41

“white flight,” 216whites: child poverty, 262; chil-

dren’s living arrangements, 260; cohabitation, 248; col-lege attendance rates, 388; college completion rates, 384–85, 389; disabilities, 282; divorce, 251; education gender gap, 377, 382, 383–84; elderly living arrange-ments, 283, 287; elderly pop-ulation, 274; employment rates, 31; family patterns, 238, 264; grandparenthood, 290, 292, 296; homeowner-ship, 80, 87, 88, 89, 186; household headship, 196, 202; household income, 86, 87, 115, 128; marriage, 241–42, 243, 244; median age, 274; in metropolitan areas, 424, 428, 430; in micropolitan areas, 429; in mixed neighborhoods, 447; mortgage delinquency, 81; negative home equity, 81; neighborhood poverty rates, 20n4; net worth, 86, 87, 88, 89; population statistics, 2, 128, 131; poverty among el-derly, 279, 288; remarriage, 254, 255; residential integra-tion analysis, 421; residential mobility, 149, 154, 156–59, 164–66, 168–70, 171; resi-dential segregation by income, 216; segregation, 437, 438, 439, 440, 442; stock owner-ship, 89; unemployment, 44, 45; wages and earnings, 19, 31, 38; wealth, 86–91, 96, 279

wholesale trade, 41widows and widowers, 282–83,

285, 286, 287Wilkins, Roger, 133n11Williamson, Jaffrey, 324Wilson, James, 299n1Wilson, William Julius, 215,

224Wimer, Christopher, 266n2Wolff, Edward N., 5–7, 60, 64

women: cohabitation, 247, 248, 250; economic and social pressures, 18; elderly popula-tion, 273; employment rates, 29, 116–17, 120, 122, 125, 130, 276–77; grandparent-hood, 291; homeownership chances, 200; household head-ship, 202; labor demand for, 36–37; labor force participa-tion, 135n27, 278, 391–92; la-bor market gains, 3, 24; less-skilled workers, 350; life expectancy, 273; marital sta-tus of elderly population, 285; marriage rates, 241, 243, 245; poverty among elderly, 279–80; remarriage, 253–54, 255, 257; retirement patterns, 277–78; wages and earnings, 29, 36, 116–17, 120, 122, 125, 130, 275–76, 391. See also black women; gender dif-ferences

women’s rights movement, 391workers’ compensation (WC),

129, 131working parents, 258–59, 261“working poor,” 261World Top Incomes Database,

96World War II, 390–91, 393

Yahirun, Jenjira J., 11–12, 270young adults: economic situa-

tion, 17; employment, 44; fu-ture population projects, 131; homeownership, 183; living with parents, 195, 204; mar-riage, 240, 244; residential mobility, 149, 153, 169; wages and earnings, 17. See also Gen-eration Y

Yu, Zhou, 191–92, 193

Zavodny, Madeline, 337n1Zhang, Charles, 20n2, 420, 447zoning, 209, 418