Improving the bulk standard Japanese junior high school

Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.

Improving the bulk standard Japanese junior

high school English syllabus: a case study.


Contents 1 Introduction 1

2 A description of the syllabus under discussion 2

3 Evaluation of the syllabus with practical suggestions for improvement 2

3.1 General goals and specific objectives 3

3.2 Methodology 6

3.3 Materials 7

3.3.1 Joint justifications for the improvements to methodology and materials 8

3.4 The Program of Study document 12

3.5 Student assessment 12

3.6 Syllabus evaluation and accountability 14

3.7 Cultural education 15

4 Conclusion 16

Appendices 16

References 37


List of appendices 1 A sample of the textbook's isolated pedagogic grammars and contrived texts 18

2 A Present-Practice-Production (PPP) lesson plan for prepositions 19

3 A C-R / TBL lesson plan to replace the PPP lesson plan for prepositions 21

4 The Program of Study document 28

5 The end-of-term student assessment and associated answer sheet 31

6 Native Americans 34

7 George Stephenson (1781-1848): inventor and engineer 35

8 Halloween 36


1

1 Introduction

Since 1996 the author has taught at various state junior high schools in Okayama city,

Japan as an Assistant English Teacher (AET), team-teaching English as a Foreign Language

(EFL), with Japanese Teachers of English (JTEs). The syllabus that he describes evaluates and

suggests some improvements for here comes from such a setting.

As an AET the author is not responsible for any aspect of syllabus design or

implementation other than making occasional supplementary materials and recording listening

comprehension tests for students' assessments. However, from his experiences, he believes that

for several reasons, many of which are beyond the JTE's control, materials and methods for

instruction, practice and assessment lag behind and are incompatible with updated goals and

objectives statements, a situation also described by McDonough and Shaw (1993: 6).

There is then a very real concern that genuine attempts by the Ministry of Education

(M.o.E. or Monbusho) to improve state EFL education will falter very early on, because of

shortcomings in the syllabus. This paper therefore serves a dual purpose. The first is academic:

to demonstrate the writer's understanding of issues relating to syllabus design and his ability to

evaluate and improve upon a syllabus. The second is practical: to show the JTE and perhaps

others, how those areas over which she possesses some control may be improved to enhance her

students' Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and personal and academic development.

Initially, a brief, general description of the syllabus is given to put what comes after in to

context. Then, to make the paper as comprehensive, yet as readable as possible, it is divided into

sections, each relating to a particular component of syllabus design (goals and objectives,

methodology, materials, the program of study document, student assessment and course

evaluation). Most sections take the same format: a more detailed description followed by an

evaluation, suggested improvements and their justifications. Since improvements in

methodology and materials share common justifications these are given together in section

3.3.1. A final section on cultural education helps the reader to understand how this aspect of

EFL education fits into the syllabus.

The justifications are given with respect to learners and context. This is important

because ultimately change should directly or indirectly benefit the learner and because while an

'improvement' may be appropriate and desirable in one setting, it may not be so in another.


2

2 A general description of the syllabus under discussion. The syllabus under discussion is for 2nd grade junior high school students of EFL, aged

12-13, who have completed one year of formal EFL education. In general terms it is a type A

syllabus (White, 1988) with a linguistic focus on mainly grammatical, lexical and phonological

content (Willis, 2000: 24).

The recently updated goals and objectives set by Monbusho are technically non-

negotiable and relate to language use for meaningful communication with foreigners. To achieve

a degree of standardisation nationwide these aims are to be realised only through the use of

Monbusho-authorised course materials and teacher-produced supplementary materials. The

current authorised materials at this school consist of a coursebook (Morimizu, 1996a), the

associated student workbook (Morimizu, 1996b) and teacher's manual (Morimizu, 1996c), plus

local government approved materials for reviewing the coursebook material (OCJHSESG).

The JTE's preferred methodologies for instruction and practice are the grammar-

translation and Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) approaches. This is the norm in Japanese

state schools and strongly reflects the type of training JTEs receive.

The Program of Study document is designed by the JTE, although the model provided

by Monbusho is usually used as a framework. Student assessment, also designed by the JTE,

generally tests for structural knowledge about the target language (TL) via multiple choice

questions, rather than students' proficiency in use. There is however usually a multiple choice

listening comprehension component.

There is no evaluation of the syllabus itself, though each JTE’s performance is assessed

annually by a member of the Board of Education (B.o.E).

Cultural education is done either via issues raised by the course materials or on an ad

hoc basis with the AET. In line with Willis' (2000: 15) experience, there is no systematic

approach taken to cultural education.

3 Evaluating the syllabus and practical suggestions for improvement

In the following subsections the author describes in more detail and evaluates aspects of

the syllabus and makes practical suggestions for improvement. By 'practical', I will accept


3

Collins Cobuild's definition:

1 ATTRIB ADJ involving real situations, rather than ideas or theories………… 3 ADJ able to be carried out successfully.

(Collins Cobuild's, 1990: 432)

Conceptual definition is important because only improvements which are practical in

this sense and which consider learners and context are productive.

Before beginning, it is perhaps worthwhile acknowledging those things that it is

impractical to change in the short- to mid-term.

a). Monbusho's general goals for foreign language programs and specific objectives for

EFL education.

b). Monbusho's authorised materials.

c). Monbusho's policies regarding teacher training and development.

d). Timetabling and contact time.

e). The teacher's workload.

While a), b) and c) are issues of government policy, d) and e) are institutional issues.

They are however all equally unchangeable from the viewpoint of the teacher who designed

parts of this syllabus, either due to lack of power or for historical, cultural or sociological

reasons.

3.1 General goals and specific objectives

The syllabus goals are:

1). To attempt a general understanding and appreciation of language and culture through the study of foreign languages.

2). To develop positive attitudes in students towards active communication in foreign languages.

3). To develop the basic ability for practical communication through listening and speaking.

(Monbusho, 1999a: 6)


4

These are transfer objectives (Stern, 1992: 93) because the intended outcomes are skills

or attitudes that are potentially transferable to novel languages or cultural experiences later in

life.

Though they may seem fairly conventional by Western standards, they signal a major

shift in educational philosophy for the Japanese M.o.E. Previously, the focus was on structural

knowledge about language rather than how language may be used. The new emphasis on

culture, communication and foreigners (as opposed to native speakers) is long-awaited

recognition at government level of the changing social context here in Japan and the need for

Japan to adapt to those changes. The above goals are entirely appropriate given Monbusho's

wider curriculum goals for compulsory education (Monbusho, 1999b), and are consistent with

them.

The specific objectives for English language study are:

1). To be used to and to derive enjoyment from listening to English and to be

able to understand the speaker's meaning when using elementary English.

2). To be used to and to derive enjoyment from speaking English and to be

able to express your ideas verbally through elementary English.

3) To be used to and to derive enjoyment from reading English and to be

able to understand the writer's meaning when using elementary English.

4). To be used to and to derive enjoyment from writing English and to be

able to express your ideas in writing through elementary English.

(Monbusho, 1999a: 9)

These objectives are affective-behavioural hybrids. The first clause of each is affective

because they call for ‘a feeling of familiarity and liking for [the foreign language].’ (Stern, 1992:

86-87). The second clause of each is loosely behavioural (Brindley, 1989: 5) since it specifies

performance, e.g. ‘be able to understand the speaker's meaning’ and the expected standard, i.e.

‘elementary’. However, the condition statement appears to be absent.

While Mager (1962, cited in Clark, 1987: 17) favours behavioural objectives because

they facilitate measurement of changes in students' second language (L2) behaviour over time,


5

Clark (1987: 35) takes the more humanistic view that affective objectives or ‘higher order

outcomes’ (ibid.) should not be rejected simply because they are difficult to state explicitly or,

this author believes because their assessment is more problematic. The above objectives

therefore strike a good balance between these two objective types, while covering all four

language skills.

However, these are not necessarily the goals and objectives towards which teachers

actually work. As Stern predicted:

[The program's aims] were determined more by tradition than by deliberate policy.

(Stern, 1992: 61)

In other words, JTEs disregard the formal objectives in favour of historically accepted

ones that relate to linguistic competence, not communicative competence.

One improvement is possible: that students be informed of the existence, nature,

meaning, purpose and relevance of these goals and objectives. This is currently not the case.

Nunan points out a clear advantage of doing so:

…if [course objectives] are conveyed to the learners, [they can] play an important part in the process of sensitising learners to what it is to be a language learner.

(Nunan, 1988: 60-61)

Students will of course also have a clearer idea of what it is they are expected to achieve.

Currently they have only an intuitive assumption to go on that the objective is, in some vague

way, to improve their English. If these objectives and their relevance to students as individuals

growing up in a changing society are not explicitly stated and explained, it is difficult to expect

students to be enthusiastic, highly motivated or focused in their EFL studies.

Also, even within the context of the Japanese state education system where job security

is high, the issue of accountability should still be pertinent. Non-disclosure of the EFL course's

intended outcomes clearly has implications for accountability to students, their parents and other

internal and external parties. How can the extent of the course's success be gauged if it is unclear

to all but the teacher what the course was intended to achieve in the first place?


6

3.2 Methodology

Though some view methodology as separate from syllabus specification (Sinclair and

Renouf, 1988: 145-6), others disagree (Nunan, 1988: 175; Lewis, 1996: 11; Willis 2000: 22).

The methodology is so central to this syllabus that it could not justifiably be excluded.

The JTE predominantly uses the PPP methodology. The presentation phase is done

through traditional grammar-translation, followed by individual or pair, controlled practice and

freer (though still controlled) group or class production.

Several reasons have been proposed attempting to explain PPP's longevity. It is

singularly trainable (Lewis, 1996: 13, Skehan, 1998: 94-95, reported by Willis, 2000: 14-15),

usable (Stern, 1983: 453; Richards and Rodgers 1986: 4) and offers accountability and a sense

of professionalism (Skehan, ibid.). It conforms to teachers' and learners' expectations of their

respective roles and power relationships (Richards and Lockhart, 1994: 101; Richards and

Rodgers, 1986: 23-4) and may therefore have some positive motivating effect. It facilitates

division of lessons with surgical precision into discrete blocks of time and behaviour (Lewis,

1996: 13). All the above are not disputed here. However, as justifications for the continued use

of a generally discredited method, these are all inadequate.

Hopkins and Nettle's (1994) advocate PPP, but their claims appear superficial. They

claim that PPP makes ‘communicative demands on students’ (ibid: 158). However, using

Brazil's (1992) distinction between 'speaking English' and 'conversation', it follows that PPP is

not communicative but, at best, only interactive. Further, Ellis (1988: 37) would point out that

the production which they claim PPP encourages (ibid: 157) only develops ‘reproductive

competence’. As Willis notes:

The danger with focusing mechanically on form too early in the methodological cycle is that students see what follows not as an opportunity to use language for communication, but rather as an opportunity to produce the prescribed form as often as possible. The focus on form gets in the way of fluency practice and all we have are a series of activities designed to elicit a particular language form.

(Willis, 1990: 73)

This grammar-translation - PPP combination then only develops reproductive skills, but

this is only to be expected since it is based upon invalid or discredited theory (Richards and

Rodgers, 1986: 4-5; Rutherford, 1987: 3-6; Ellis, 1988: 24; Ellis and Hedge, 1993: 5 Skehan,


7

1996: 18-19; Lewis, 1993: 151-2, 1996: 11). It also focuses on teaching, not on learning

processes (Yalden 1987: 52; White, 1988: 44-5) and emphasises linguistic competence, not

ability to use the TL (Stern, 1983: 454; Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 3; White, 1988: 46; Willis,

1990: 72; Lewis, 1993: 151; McDonough and Shaw, 1993: 58; Brown, 1994: 17; Skehan, 1996:

18; Willis, 2000: 9). As Clark notes of grammar-translation in particular:

[it has] little concern for the development of everyday conversational or correspondence skills.

(Clark, 1987: 11)

This helps to explain Ellis' and Brazil's observations that even students who are

proficient in reading and writing often cannot speak the TL or understand it when they hear it

(1984, cited by White, 1988: 46 and 1992: 2 respectively). This is a problem the Japanese in

particular are renowned for.

The author suggests that the JTE shifts from the grammar-translation plus PPP

combination to consciousness-raising (C-R) plus Task Based Learning (TBL). At first glance

this appears to be an overly ambitious suggestion. However, it is not only pedagogically

justifiable (see section 3.3.1) but also practical in that neither C-R nor TBL are entirely alien to

the JTE's present methods. Grammar-translation ‘embodied’ C-R (Willis and Willis, 1996: 63)

and PPP and TBL share many features, though the sequencing and rationale are very different

(Willis, 1996: 62). The author accepts that while the change may be justifiable and practical, it

would require a major re-evaluation by the JTE of how she views L2 learning and teaching, but

he believes this is healthy, desirable and necessary for her continued professional development.

3.3 Materials

The coursebook (Morimizu, 1996a) is based on a type A grammatical syllabus and

presents itemised pedagogic grammars and lexis within contrived texts to 'exemplify' their use

(appendix 1). It has frequent speaking, listening and writing exercises, while the texts also serve

as reading practice. The associated materials provide additional practice for individual study,

either in class or at home. These are supplemented ad hoc with JTE- or AET-produced PPP type

practice materials (appendix 2).

There is only sufficient scope here to evaluate the materials with respect to their effect

on SLA and learner development. Since the materials' design is largely based upon the same


8

erroneous assumptions regarding SLA processes as the methodology, they are susceptible to the

same criticisms. Their ease of application and compatibility with, and reinforcement of the

methodology are insufficient justifications for their use, either for instruction or practice of the

TL, given that they are based upon discredited theory and dubious pedagogic rationale.

As with the methodology, these materials reinforce the culturally accepted roles of

learner as passive and submissive and teacher as dominating and all-knowing, even though these

roles run counter to Monbusho's wider curriculum goals:

To encourage the development of young people with an increased awareness of themselves as members of an international community...to enhance children's ability to think and learn for themselves...to develop a comfortable educational environment which successfully equips students with essential knowledge and skills as well as develops students' individual personalities.

(Monbusho, 1999b)

The implication for learner development of the continued use of methods and materials

which are both pedagogically dubious and at odds with the M.o.E's formal goals and objectives,

is that Japanese students will in the future, as they are now, be ill-equipped to use English for

communicative purposes in the changing social and international contexts in which Japan

increasingly finds itself.

In this syllabus then, methodology and materials are closely linked, as has been

recognised is often the case (Nunan, 1988: 175, 1995: 213; McDonough and Shaw, 1993: 5;

Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 25; Lewis, 1996 cited in Willis, 2000; Sinclair and Renouf, 1988:

145-6). Therefore the change suggested to improve the methodology requires parallel change in

the materials used. Appendices 2 and 3 illustrate how the same linguistic forms may be

presented and practiced using the PPP and C-R / TBL approaches respectively.

3.3.1 Joint justifications for the improvements to methodology and materials

Direct support for the shift from grammar-translation and PPP methodologies and

materials to those of C-R and TBL comes from Ellis and Hedge (1993: 5); Skehan (1996);

Willis, (1990: 73, 1996); Lewis (1996) and Willis and Willis (Forthcoming: 8) who have

advocated identical or very similar proposals. The justifications here relate to SLA, learners'

development and teaching context and are presented in table 1 as contrasts between the present

and suggested methodological combinations.


9

The author concedes that it is not possible to dispense with the mandatory materials'

syntactical or lexical items. However, Skehan (1996: 28-29) points out that though neither PPP

or C-R / TBL approaches guarantee SLA, the latter may provide the conditions by which

acquisition of particular language items will probably occur, whilst simultaneously satisfying

the need for both focus on TL form and complexity.

Yalden (1987: 97) rightly advises caution when changing a course design. Replacing

one methodology with another, more pedagogically desirable one is still unjustifiable if it fails

to recognise and allow for the reality of the teaching context as it currently stands. However, the

justifications given here strongly suggest that the changeovers in methodology and materials are

not only entirely practical, even within the present setting, but that they are strongly desirable

and clearly necessary if Monbusho's educational goals and objectives are to be met in the

foreseeable future.

Paul

Mor

itosh

i, Th

e U

nive

rsity

of B

irmin

gham

, 200

0.

10

Tabl

e 1 - C

ontra

sts b

etwe

en th

e pre

sent

and

sugg

este

d m

etho

dolo

gica

l com

bina

tions

Seco

nd L

angu

age

Acq

uisi

tion

The

com

bine

d gr

amm

ar-t

rans

latio

n/PP

P ap

proa

ch

The

com

bine

d C

-R/T

BL

app

roac

h

Indi

vidu

al d

iffer

ence

s in

cogn

itive

or l

earn

ing

styl

es

or d

evel

opm

enta

l seq

uenc

e. V

iew

s lea

rner

s as a

hom

ogen

ous g

roup

that

hav

e no

in

divi

dual

diff

eren

ces r

elev

ant t

o SL

A.

Allo

ws f

or in

divi

dual

diff

eren

ces i

n L2

lear

ning

by

atte

mpt

ing

to "

harn

ess n

atur

al [l

angu

age

acqu

isiti

on]

proc

esse

s" (W

illis

and

Will

is, f

orth

com

ing:

8).

Ded

uctiv

ism

ver

sus.

indu

ctiv

ism

. Is

ded

uctiv

e or

teac

her-

cent

red.

I

s ind

uctiv

e or

stud

ent-c

entre

d (J

ohns

, 199

1: 4

-5,

1994

: 297

), w

hich

Bro

wn

(199

4b: 9

2) p

oint

s out

ass

ists

SL

A.

Expo

sure

of l

earn

ers t

o au

then

tic m

ater

ial o

r dat

a.

Sev

erel

y re

stric

ted

(Cla

rk 1

987:

11;

Will

is &

Will

is,

1996

: 63)

. E

xten

sive

ly u

sed

(Joh

ns, 1

991:

4-5

, 199

4: 2

94; N

unan

, 19

91: 1

50).

Focu

s and

orie

ntat

ion.

Focu

s on

form

, whi

ch d

oes l

ittle

to e

nhan

ce S

LA

(Ske

han,

199

6: 2

0; C

lark

198

7: 1

0-11

). I

s orie

nted

tow

ards

ling

uist

ic c

ompe

tenc

e (Y

alde

n,

1987

: 30-

31; W

hite

, 198

8: 4

6; S

tern

, 199

2: 8

1).

Foc

us o

n fo

rm-f

unct

ion

rela

tions

hips

(Will

is 2

000:

20)

Allo

ws f

or n

egot

iate

d m

eani

ng (S

keha

n, 1

996:

20-

21;

Ellis

, 198

8: 2

6).

Is o

rient

ed to

war

ds b

oth

lingu

istic

and

com

mun

icat

ive

com

pete

nce

(Yal

den,

198

7: 3

1).

Lear

ner p

rodu

ctio

n.

Dem

ands

imm

edia

te a

nd a

ccur

ate

prod

uctio

n of

ne

wly

pre

sent

ed T

L ite

ms,

whi

ch is

unr

ealis

tic (W

illis

an

d W

illis

, 199

6: 7

6).

Acc

epts

that

stud

ents

nee

d tim

e to

inte

rnal

ise

new

ly

pres

ente

d TL

item

s (W

hite

, 198

8: 5

9; L

ewis

, 199

3: 1

52;

Ellis

and

Hed

ge, 1

993:

6; S

keha

n, 1

996:

29)

.

TL h

ypot

hesi

s and

ge

nera

lisat

ion

form

atio

n.

Lea

rner

s are

pro

vide

d w

ith a

'com

plet

e' pe

dago

gic

gram

mar

, whi

ch is

unr

ealis

tic (R

uthe

rfor

d, 1

987:

17;

Jo

hns,

1991

: 3) a

nd e

xpec

ted

to le

arn

its ru

les.

The

lock

step

nat

ure

of th

is m

etho

dolo

gy ra

rely

pro

mot

es

gene

ratio

n, te

stin

g, e

valu

atio

n or

mod

ifica

tion

of

hypo

thes

es o

r gen

eral

isat

ions

abo

ut th

e TL

.

Act

ivel

y pr

omot

es a

nd e

ncou

rage

s lea

rner

s to

gene

rate

, tes

t, ev

alua

te a

nd (i

f nec

essa

ry) m

odify

thei

r hy

poth

eses

and

gen

eral

isat

ions

abo

ut h

ow th

e TL

op

erat

es (J

ohns

, 199

1: 2

; Rut

herf

ord,

198

7: 1

8; W

illis

J.

1993

: 90)

. T

he T

BL

fram

ewor

k al

so sp

ecifi

cally

allo

cate

s pl

anni

ng ti

me

that

may

giv

e st

uden

ts o

ppor

tuni

ties t

o re

stru

ctur

e th

eir I

L sy

stem

s (W

hite

, 198

8: 1

03-4

; Fo

ster

, 199

6: 1

35).

Plac

ing

TL in

con

text

. C

onte

xt is

usu

ally

pro

vide

d th

roug

h ar

tific

ial o

r co

ntriv

ed te

xtua

l, si

tuat

iona

l or v

erba

l exa

mpl

es.

By

its v

ery

natu

re T

BL

puts

lang

uage

item

s in

cont

ext

(Will

is, J

. 199

6: 5

2).

Paul

Mor

itosh

i, Th

e U

nive

rsity

of B

irmin

gham

, 200

0.

11

Lea

rner

dev

elop

men

t T

he c

ombi

ned

gram

mar

-tra

nsla

tion/

PPP

appr

oach

T

he c

ombi

ned

C-R

/TB

L a

ppro

ach

Ach

ievi

ng M

onbu

sho'

s (1

999b

) cur

ricul

um g

oals

an

d M

onbu

sho'

s (19

99a)

fo

reig

n la

ngua

ge le

arni

ng

goal

s for

stud

ents

' per

sona

l an

d ac

adem

ic d

evel

opm

ent.

Thi

s com

bine

d ap

proa

ch g

ener

ally

fails

to a

chie

ve

any

of th

ese

goal

s as i

t rei

nfor

ces d

epen

denc

e up

on th

e te

ache

r for

info

rmat

ion

(Joh

ns, 1

994:

295

; Will

is, D

. 19

97: 1

04),

the

tradi

tiona

lly a

ccep

ted

teac

her a

nd

lear

ner r

oles

and

off

ers f

ew o

ppor

tuni

ties f

or fr

ee o

r cr

eativ

e th

ough

t or e

xpre

ssio

n.

Thi

s com

bine

d ap

proa

ch w

orks

tow

ards

thes

e go

als b

y en

cour

agin

g st

uden

ts to

dev

elop

aut

onom

ous l

earn

ing

stra

tegi

es a

nd st

rate

gies

to c

onve

y m

eani

ng (J

ohns

, 19

94: 2

95; W

illis

, D, 1

997:

104

). I

t off

ers t

rans

fera

bilit

y of

kno

wle

dge

and

skill

s fro

m

one

situ

atio

n to

ano

ther

.

The

prof

icie

ncy

obje

ctiv

e.

It i

s "gr

amm

ar te

achi

ng a

s a m

eans

to a

chie

ving

the

prof

icie

ncy

obje

ctiv

e [r

athe

r tha

n] a

s a d

esira

ble

end

in

its o

wn

right

" (S

tern

, 199

2: 8

1).

Vie

ws p

rofic

ienc

y in

the

TL a

s a w

orth

whi

le e

nd in

its

elf (

Ster

n, 1

992:

71)

.

T

he te

achi

ng c

onte

xt

Prep

arat

ion

for

stru

ctur

al e

xam

s.

Tra

ins s

tude

nts f

or th

e hi

ghly

stru

ctur

al in

tern

al

exam

s and

seni

or h

igh

scho

ol a

nd u

nive

rsity

ent

ranc

e ex

amin

atio

ns.

Prov

ides

suffi

cien

t foc

us o

n fo

rm to

ena

ble

stud

ents

to

do w

ell i

n in

tern

al a

nd se

nior

hig

h sc

hool

ent

ranc

e ex

amin

atio

ns, w

hile

als

o en

ablin

g st

uden

ts to

use

la

ngua

ge fo

r com

mun

icat

ive

purp

oses

.

Tim

e ef

ficie

ncy.

H

as b

een

criti

cise

d fo

r bei

ng v

ery

time-

inef

ficie

nt

(Elli

s, 19

88: 3

8; S

tern

, 199

2: 2

96).

May

be

a m

ore

effe

ctiv

e us

e of

wha

t lim

ited

cont

act

time

is a

vaila

ble.

Flex

ibili

ty in

use

. T

he v

ario

us te

chni

ques

that

can

be

used

for p

ract

ice

with

in P

PP o

ffer

flex

ibili

ty in

size

of g

roup

s, fr

om

indi

vidu

al to

who

le c

lass

.

TB

L of

fers

flex

ibili

ty in

the

sam

e w

ays t

hat t

he

curr

ent m

etho

ds d

o. It

can

als

o:

a. e

mpl

oy "

two

or th

ree

min

i-tas

k cy

cles

",

b. o

mit

certa

in st

ages

in th

e TB

L fr

amew

ork

if th

ey a

re

u

nnec

essa

ry o

r if t

ime

is sh

ort,

c. b

e w

eigh

ted

"dep

endi

ng o

n th

e ne

eds a

nd

b

ackg

roun

ds o

f the

stud

ents

". (W

illis

J, 1

996:

58-

59)

C

haud

ron

(198

8:29

) agr

ees t

hat T

BL

is v

ery

flexi

ble.

JTE

deve

lopm

ent

Doe

s not

dev

elop

the

JTE'

s tea

chin

g pr

actic

es in

ligh

t of

cur

rent

SLA

rese

arch

, but

is m

erel

y a

cont

inua

tion

of p

ract

ices

whi

ch h

ave

cons

iste

ntly

dis

rega

rded

the

findi

ngs o

f SLA

rese

arch

.

Upd

ates

the

JTE'

s tea

chin

g pr

actic

es in

ligh

t of S

LA

rese

arch

. Will

is, J

. (19

96: 6

1-62

) sho

ws t

hat e

ven

thos

e te

ache

rs u

sed

to u

sing

PPP

can

be

retra

ined

to u

se T

BL,

th

ough

Ske

han

(199

6: 3

0) su

gges

ts th

at it

mak

es m

any

dem

ands

upo

n th

e te

ache

r's c

ompe

tenc

e.


12

3.4 The Program of Study document

The JTE-designed Program of Study (P.o.S) document (appendix 4) takes its framework

from the B.o.E.-issued model and is based on the textbook's table of contents. It specifies month,

time allocation, unit titles and general descriptions of each unit's activities and generally

conforms to Brumfit's (1984) "administrative document" (reported by Willis, 2000: 1-2): it is a

teaching schedule.

There are several weaknesses here. Modelling a syllabus on that of others does not

promote critical thought or judgement regarding its pedagogical validity (Willis, 2000: 31). It

also reinforces the JTE's view that the position-oriented syllabus is the most suitable, retarding

development of a perhaps more appropriate design or approach. It also contains the defects

noted by Sinclair and Renouf (1988: 145-6), regarding the design rationale and its reliance on

the methodology inherent within the coursebook.

The authorised materials are predetermined and compulsory, the JTE has no training or

experience in creating alternative designs and, counter to Nunan's (1987a: 17) proposal, no

support systems exist to help her do so. However, rather than using the P.o.S. document merely

as a scheduled table of contents, she might consider how it can be used to incorporate the C-R

and TBL materials and methodologies suggested above.

It is the P.o.S. document, not the formal goals or objectives which is explained to

students at the beginning of the course. Ideally both would be provided, but outlining the P.o.S.

document with respect to the principles underlying materials and methodologies selection would

give early clarification to students of the course's rationale, how it will proceed, learners' and the

teacher's expected roles in it and how the EFL learning context might differ from that of other

curriculum subjects.

3.5 Student assessment

The most recent end-of-term test (appendix 5) consisted of pronunciation, punctuation,

transformation, word order, gap-fill, written question-answer and listening comprehension

exercises, marked by a discrete point scoring system. There was no oral component.

There should be a clear connection between the goals or objectives and assessment

(Widdowson, 1983: 6-7, cited by White, 1988: 26; Brindley, 1989: 4; Stern, 1992: 98).


13

However, the above assessment, largely fails to make this link, a situation that is not uncommon

(Willis, 2000: 9-10), particularly in Japanese schools. The official objectives emphasise use of

the TL for meaningful communication and so should be assessed using tests of proficiency

(Nunan, 1988: 135). Instead, students are assessed using questions that test knowledge about the

TL and which relate to the topics used in the coursebook and are therefore achievement tests

(Brown, 1994: 259).

The distinction is important because it illustrates the general tendency of JTEs to

overlook the formal goals and objectives in favour of unofficial, unspoken ones which they

perceive as more useful and relevant to learners in the short-term: ones which will help learners

pass up-coming, highly structural senior high school (and later university) entrance

examinations. Therefore, assessment design here isn't just influenced by the course content: it is

also determined by the perceived need to train students for upcoming entrance examinations.

Also, as Clark points out:

The norm-referenced form of assessment associated with classical humanism normally provides little information to teachers, pupils or parents as to what students can or cannot do. It indicates how a student has performed in relation to others in the group...[It is] designed to respond to society's requirement for a quick and easy way to judge a pupil's competence vis-à-vis others in the group...[and is] often out of touch with the realities of what is required in the classroom.

(Clark, 1987: 12-13)

Once again, the implication for Monbusho's revised EFL goals and objectives and

learning outcomes is that their long-term success may already be in serious jeopardy unless

steps are taken to retrain JTEs in the design, implementation and grading of appropriate tests

which actually assess the intended outcomes with respect to proficiency, not achievement.

Two suggestions can be made here. Firstly, that the JTE should attempt to incorporate

some type of oral component into her tests. Monbusho's educational reforms specifically require

students to be able to communicate orally, albeit at an elementary level, but this skill is not

tested. Until relatively recently, communication with foreigners was largely written, not oral, but

in the changing social context the oral faculty is becoming increasingly more relevant.

Secondly, she needs to replace achievement tests with proficiency tests. Though the

novelty may confuse both learners and teacher and possibly add to the latter's workload initially,


14

the confusion may be overcome if the JTE explains the changes to students both in non-

technical, pedagogical terms (Willis, 1996: 60) and in terms of Monbusho's new intended

learning outcomes (section 3.1). This should help all concerned to understand not only what

they are expected to achieve but also that both focus on form and meaning are important. It is

essential that the former is not overlooked because while striving for updated, more

communicative outcomes, context demands that teachers also prepare their students for the

highly structural senior high school entrance examinations.

3.6 Syllabus evaluation and accountability.

The syllabus is not evaluated as a coherent program. Only the JTE's teaching practices

are evaluated, by a former teacher from the B.o.E., through annual observation of a JTE-led

demonstration lesson. That evaluation focuses on the methodology and materials used and

feedback is provided in a post-lesson meeting. Other JTE-designed components, i.e. the

Program of Study document and student assessments are not evaluated. Though the former is

submitted to the B.o.E. for archiving, the JTE receives no feedback on it.

There are no serious, negative consequences associated with failing to adhere to

Monbusho goals, objectives, guidelines for materials, consistently poor teaching practices (even

those noted by the B.o.E. evaluation), designing assessments incompatible with the goals or

objectives or consistently poor student grades. The author's experience suggests that this is the

norm for state education. It is also highly undesirable.

Whether evaluation serves to enforce accountability or enhance program development

and whether accountability is contractual or professional, evaluation serves two purposes: to

improve the syllabus and assess its efficacy (Weir and Roberts, 1994: 4). What little evaluation

exists here fails to achieve the former because no penalties are imposed for not improving

teaching practices and fails to achieve the latter because it is partial and piecemeal. If teachers

are not, in actuality, accountable to anyone, the evaluation fails to provide JTEs with sufficient

intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to make their teaching practices more compatible with the new

goals and objectives. Chaudron asks:

how do we know that what is actually happening in the program matches it's official description?

(Chaudron, 1988: 29)


15

and the answer here must be that it is not possible to know.

Currently, teachers are permitted to continue practices which, though perhaps

appropriate 50 years ago, are now outdated and at odds with the new goals and objectives. Why

this is the case in a system that claims to be democratic, transparent and which has the authority

to enforce M.o.E. policy is unclear, though warrants further investigation.

The only practical improvement to suggest here is that the JTE occasionally reflects on

those parts of the syllabus over which she has some control, i.e. supplementary materials,

methodology, the Program of Study document and student assessment, with a view to bringing

them more in line with those necessary to achieve the intended outcomes. She is perhaps the

best placed to do this because of her experience and knowledge of the learners, context and what

can realistically be achieved within the prevailing constraints of both.

3.7 Cultural education

The coursebook covers Japanese and foreign cultural topics, which are JTE-fronted

during non-team-teaching lessons, using supplementary materials from Morimizu (1996c)

(exemplified in appendix 6). Additionally, AET-fronted presentations introduce aspects of

British culture (C2), (e.g. housing) through a comparative approach, along with British historical

figures (e.g. George Stephenson, appendix 7), national symbols (e.g. cricket) and festivals (e.g.

Halloween, appendix 8) as advocated by Stern (1992: 216-7). These illustrate British life and

values and occasional links are made as to how C2 influences native speech.

The important role of C2 knowledge in L2 learning is generally recognised (Clark, 1987:

219; Brown, 1994: 183-7; Byram, 1994, 5-14 and Carter, 1998). Stern agrees:

It is not possible to achieve any of the proficiency goals without including certain aspects of sociocultural information.

(Stern, 1992: 83)

However, Monbusho's goals do not require this C2-L2 connection to be stated explicitly

and as a non-native speaker the JTE lacks the in-depth knowledge of either C2 or L2 to do so

accurately or consistently. She is required only to introduce the coursebook's cultural topics and

to promote discussion and an exchange of students' ideas through the support materials, which

she does conscientiously. It is unclear however to what degree these activities assist learners'


16

understanding of either C2 or its relationship to the TL, or to which they enhance SLA.

The AET's cultural presentations serve not only to dispel the inaccurate cultural

stereotypes of which Willis (2000: 79) writes, but also attempt to promote learners' acceptance

of C2, which Schumann (1978, cited by Byram, 1994: 7 and reviewed and critiqued by Larsen-

Freeman and Long, 1991: 251-266) says is necessary for continued advances in L2 proficiency.

The occasional demonstration of how C2 influences TL is useful because it serves to inform

both the learners and the JTE.

An AET is transient, present at a school for only a term, with relatively very little

contact time with any one class. Longer-term improvements must therefore focus on the JTE.

Though Stern (1992: 222-3) noted the lack of cultural education resources available to

teachers, the internet now gives access to a wealth of information which the JTE can use to

collect background information for supplementary cultural materials, thus providing year-round

C2 instruction in a very wide range of topics. However, this would probably still not explicitly

demonstrate how C2 and L2 are linked.

To achieve this, she can task each new AET with highlighting ways in which C2 and L2

are related, (the author believes that most AETs would welcome such a specific brief). This joint

use of supplementary materials AET-tasking would be far more mutually complementary than

the present system and give greater year-round continuity to the cultural education that learners

receive, while overcoming many of the logistical and scheduling difficulties inherent within the

AET and team-teaching systems.

4 Conclusion This paper has described and evaluated a 2nd grade Japanese junior high school EFL

syllabus. It examined various aspects of the syllabus’ design and suggested how these might be

improved to meet the formal goals and objectives, with justifications offered with respect to

learners' SLA and development and context (classroom, teaching, institutional, social, national

or international).

It is clear that Monbusho's reformed goals and objectives are not being implemented at

the most influential level: the classroom. Since JTEs are employed specifically to implement

Monbusho's educational policies, there seems little justification for not putting the above


17

suggestions into action, yet social and cultural beliefs, tradition and historically accepted

practices are very powerful forces, especially in Japan.

It must be recognised that the JTE is not entirely responsible for this syllabus'

shortcomings. As Nunan (1987b: 62-63) and Lewis (1996: 16) have pointed out, the system

within which teachers operate often conspires to constrain them and that is certainly so here.

Peer practices, Monbusho's own authorised materials, the lack of appropriate training,

development, support and evaluation procedures and senior high school entrance examinations

give JTEs little room for manoeuvre or opportunities for change. Perhaps Monbusho would do

well to take Clark's advice:

Drawing on the most positive aspects of [classical humanism, reconstructionism and progressivism]... it seems altogether reasonable to seek through an educational system to maintain and develop the wisdom and cultural traditions of the past, to attempt to work together in a deliberate way towards a fairer and better future for all.

(Clark, 1987: 100)

In other words, by taking the best of those three standpoints, it should be possible to preserve

Japan's cultural values whilst simultaneously advancing teaching practices that are more

appropriate to the changing social context, as has happened in many western nations since

World War II (Yalden, 1987: 52-3; White, 1988: 21 and Brown, 1994: 14-15). Tradition and

progress need not be mutually opposed: one may indeed enhance the other.

The conflicts shown here between previous versus current educational philosophies and

'traditional' versus 'modern' methodologies and materials need to be resolved, preferably by

adaptation to what is and will be needed in the future rather than by a reversion to what was

used in the past. These changes will undoubtedly challenge many JTEs, particularly those who

have been using grammar-translation and PPP for many years, but it is a challenge that, sooner

or later, needs to be faced and met if Monbusho's reforms are to be realised. Until that time these

reforms face serious setbacks. Further investigation into the factors that delay or prevent

implementation of these reforms at classroom level is highly recommended.

Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance generously given by Yumi Onogi and

the English department of Fukuhama Junior High School, Okayama City during the preparation

of this article. Thanks are also due to his wife, Nobuko Moritoshi, for her efforts in translation.


18

Appendix 1

A sample of the textbook's isolated pedagogic

grammars and contrived texts


19

Appendix 2

A Present-Practice-Production (PPP) lesson plan for prepositions

Greetings • Greet the class. Check today's day, date and weather in English. Presentation • Use a doll to introduce the prepositions: on, under, in, next to, near, by, in front of and

behind, in relation to various other things in the classroom (e.g. a box, the teacher's desk, a student).

• Students repeat each word. Check students' pronunciation. • Write an example sentence for each preposition on the blackboard. • Students make notes in their notebooks.

15 minutes Practice • Explain practice activity 1 on page 31 of the coursebook. • Students do the practice activity. They write as many sentences in their notebook as

possible. • Check students' answers while they are writing. • Show the common mistakes on the blackboard. • Students repeat model sentences again.

10 minutes Practice 2 • In pairs, students take 5 things from their schoolbag (e.g. a book, a notebook, a pencil, an

eraser and a ruler). • Student A uses the new words to tell their partner where one thing is in relation with

another. Student B listens, watches and checks student A's English. 10 minutes

Production • Explain practice activity 2. • All the students stand up, walk around the class and do the practice activity with various

friends. They write their partner's answer in the memo box. 15 minutes


20

(Morimizu, 1996a: 31).


21

Appendix 3

A CR / TBL lesson plan to replace the PPP lesson plan for prepositions

Target Language items: Prepositions / things in a student's room.

Materials: A bedroom plan with a bed, a desk and a bookshelf on it. A recording of a native English speaker describing his room. Pictures and the gap-fill worksheet for the practice activity.

Procedure

1. Introducing the topic and task. Brainstorming (prepositions and things in a room).

2. Students are given a room plan card A or B and draw things on the plan. They can draw things that they do or don't really have in their own bedroom. The have to draw more than seven things on the plan.

3. When they have finished drawing, in pairs, they describe their room plan to their partner.

Planning The teacher circulates and advises students on language. She corrects and suggests phrases. Emphasis is on grammatical accuracy.

Report Students report their plans to the class, showing their room plans on the overhead projector. Teacher comments and rephrases but does not correct overtly. Teacher and class give applause after each report to encourage the students.

Input Students listen to the recording of the native English speaker describing his bedroom:

"This is my room. I have a rug in the centre of the room and it has a robot on it. There's a plant in the northwest corner and the bed's along the western wall. My comic collection is by the door and there's a clock next to the PC on the desk. I keep my floppy disks in the desk. The baseball and bat are in a box by the east window. The chair's under the desk and I keep my guitar in the southeast corner. My cat usually sleeps under my bed. The banana behind the desk is for when I get hungry at night. On my bed, the pillow is nearest the northwest corner. Finally, there're many SF books on the left side of the bookshelf".

Then the teacher gives the above transcript to the students. They underline the prepositions used and compare their use of prepositions with native speech.

Language Analysis - Review and Practice

Exercise 1 Each student receives a picture (number 1, 2 or 3) which they use to complete the gap-fill worksheet.

Exercise 2 Each picture is different. Students describe their picture without showing it to their partner and try to find 8 differences.


22


23


24


25


26


27

Exercise 1 Use your picture to write a suitable preposition in these sentences. Picture 1. There are shoes ( ) the rug. There is a clock ( ) the wall. A candle is ( ) the candle stand ( ) the dresser. A dress is ( ) the chair. A witch's hat is ( ) the rug and the chair. A bed is ( ) the window. Picture 2. There is a mouse ( ) the table. There is a banana ( ) front ( ) the cup and the bowl. An orange flower is ( ) the glass ( ) the table. There are dishes, plates and cups ( ) the cupboard. The bowl is ( ) the spoon and the cup. The peanut butter is ( ) the Krispy Kreeps. Picture 3. There is a lamp ( ) the table ( ) the corner ( ) the room. An apple is rolling ( ) the table. The witch is looking at two ants ( ) the carpet. A couch is ( ) the small table and ( ) the big table. There are two pictures ( ) the wall. ( ) the big picture, the house is ( ) two trees.

(Courtesy of Yumi Onogi).


28

Appendix 4

The Program of Study document

Units containing cultural components are highlighted in red. Those containing isolated linguistic items are highlighted in bold.

Month No. of hours Unit and sub-unit title. Activities and content.

April 10

*Classroom English. *Life in Australia. *Let's talk 1 - When you ask the way

*Introduce yourself *To know about different cultures through the experience of living in foreign countries *To know about Australian life, society, aborigines etc. *Review regular past form (positive and negative), question form and answer forms. *Where is ~? *Walk along~. *Go straight~. *Turn~.

May 23

*English Diary. *Let's write 1. *Who 'discovered' America? *Let's listen 1.

*To know about how to write an English diary and the diary's importance. *To develop an understanding of poetry. *Co-operating with the older generation. *To think about AIDS at school and in the home. *Teach irregular past form (positive and negative), question form and answer forms. *To study how to write an English diary. *Write about yourself in your diary. *To think about the period of the great Western voyages. *To know about Columbus and Vespucci. *Past forms 'was' and 'were' (positive and negative), question form. *Past continuous form (was [were] ~ing). *To listen to Peter's daily schedule.

June 6

*Computers in schools of the future. *Let's talk 2.

*To think about the computer age and human communication. *will ~ and must~ *To be able to inquire or answer about the weather.


29

June (cont.)

*Rain forests *Let's try 1.

*To think about the destruction of the rain forests and wildlife and conservation. *There is [are] ~ formative and negative *Are there ~ *be going to ~ *Learning the names of the body parts.

July 4

*Let's write 2. *Let's read 1.

*To write about your summer vacation plan in English. *To express your opinion in English using a dictionary. *To make a composition without worrying about making mistakes. *To translate a story from L2 to L1 using natural Japanese. *Review There is~, Should~, imperatives, become + noun. *To know about a part of English of culture.

Sept. 12

*Squid. *Let's talk 3.

*To develop students interest in the natural wonders of the world. *When (as a conjunction). *Tag questions. *Why ~? Because~. *Will you ~? *May I ~?

Oct. 12

*Speech - My dream. *Let's write 3.

*To think about your future occupation. *To know about the importance and role of agriculture. *To learn how to make a speech. *Infinitive form. *To make speech manuscript.

Nov. 12

*Ainu. *Let's listen 2.

*To know about the existence and culture of the Ainu. *To know about the history of the lost Ainu race. *To think about the meaning of maintaining culture and language. *S + V + C and S + V + O + O forms *Page 58

Dec. 7

*The United Kingdom. *To know about the 4 kingdoms which make up the UK. *To be aware of the 4 kingdoms through their individual national songs. *Comparative and superlative (~er, ~est).


30

Jan. 10

*Let's talk 4. *Gestures talk.

*Shall we ~? Yes, let's / I can't. *To know about the non-verbal communication. *To know the different meanings gestures have in different countries. *Comparative (more, most, as).

6

*Let's read 2. *Let's talk 5. *Let's listen 3.

*To know about the nature and nomadic life of Mongolians. Mongolia is a part of East Asia. *There are no ~. * have to ~ *To ask somebody's schedule. *Page 76 Feb.

5

*Kenya *To know about the language situation in Kenya. *To think about the roles of native language and common language in multi-language areas. *Passive form.

March 15

*Let's try 2. *Let's listen 4. *Let's talk 6. *Let's read 3. *Let's write 4.

*To know about colours names. *Page 83. *What's wrong? I have ~. / I feel ~. *To think about the importance of a determined spirit. *Page 90.

(Courtesy of the Fukuhama Junior High School English department).


31

Appendix 5

The end-of-term student assessment and associated answer sheet


32


33

(Courtesy of the Fukuhama Junior High School English department).


34

Appendix 6 - Native Americans

(Monbusho, 1996: 57-58).


35

Appendix 7 - George Stephenson (1781-1848): inventor and engineer George Stevenson was born in England. He is very famous in the history of trains because he made the first train in 1825. In 1829 he made another train, called ‘The Rocket’, but it wasn’t very fast. It went at only 39km/hour. Here is a picture of ‘The Rocket’ (right). Modern trains are much faster, but in 1829 29 km/hour was very fast. This design won a contest and Mr. Stevenson got 500 pounds (about 86,000 yen). The engine used steam. Eight ‘Rockets’ were made. The trains went between Liverpool and Manchester.

After many years, engine design changed. In England, we now use diesel and electric engines. Here is a diesel train (left). It’s called the ‘Intercity 125’ because it goes between many cities in England, Scotland and Wales and its top speed is 125 miles/hour (about 200 km/hour).

There are many new electric trains in the UK too. This is the Eurostar train (right). It goes from London in England, through a tunnel under the sea, to Paris in France and Brussels in Belgium.

The Japanese are very good at making trains. Maybe they are the best in the world. The picture on the left shows a local train, which is slow. The picture on the right shows the ‘Bullet train’ (shinkansen) electric train. It’s very fast. How fast can it go? Do you know?

The Nozomi 500 (left) and Nozomi 700 (right) are the fastest trains in the world.

How about the future? What trains will we use in the 21st century? Maybe trains in the future will look look like this. This is a Magnetic Levitation (MagLev) train. It doesn’t have wheels. It uses strong magnets and electricity. It’s very fast, very quiet and doesn’t make so much pollution.


36

Appendix 8 - Halloween

Halloween is a very old festival. It has other names:

All Hallowtide ; All Soul's Day; All Saint's Day

The history of halloween The history of halloween is not clear because it is a very old festival. The

Celts ( ケルツ ) lived in Ireland 2000-3000 years ago. The name

'halloween' comes from a very old Celtic (ケルツの ) festival called

Samhaim (サーウイム). It means 'the festival of the dead'. It is like

Japan's obon. The Celts believed that at this time it was easy to

communicate with the dead.

Halloween celebrations.

Countries have different was to celebrate halloween. It is most popular in America.

Children have scary costumes and go from house to house.

Trick or treat?

Children play this game. They go to a house and knock on the door. When a

person comes to the door, the children say "Trick or treat?" If the person

answers "Trick", the children will do something bad (for example empty a

rubbish bin in his garden or take the air out of his bike tyre). If the person

says "treat", he / she gives the children something nice (money, cakes, cola,

sweets) and the children go to the next house.

A Halloween party

Adults sometimes have a halloween party. Many friends come to

your house in fancy dress and you drink, eat, talk with friends, tell

horror stories or watch a horror movie.

Jack-o-lantern A Jack-o-lantern is a face made from a pumpkin.


37

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University, Tokyo in January, 1992.

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Carter, R. (1998) 'Orders of Reality: CANCODE, Community and Culture'. ELT Journal 52/1: 43-56.

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