Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
Improving the bulk standard Japanese junior
high school English syllabus: a case study.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
Contents 1 Introduction 1
2 A description of the syllabus under discussion 2
3 Evaluation of the syllabus with practical suggestions for improvement 2
3.1 General goals and specific objectives 3
3.2 Methodology 6
3.3 Materials 7
3.3.1 Joint justifications for the improvements to methodology and materials 8
3.4 The Program of Study document 12
3.5 Student assessment 12
3.6 Syllabus evaluation and accountability 14
3.7 Cultural education 15
4 Conclusion 16
Appendices 16
References 37
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
List of appendices 1 A sample of the textbook's isolated pedagogic grammars and contrived texts 18
2 A Present-Practice-Production (PPP) lesson plan for prepositions 19
3 A C-R / TBL lesson plan to replace the PPP lesson plan for prepositions 21
4 The Program of Study document 28
5 The end-of-term student assessment and associated answer sheet 31
6 Native Americans 34
7 George Stephenson (1781-1848): inventor and engineer 35
8 Halloween 36
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
1
1 Introduction
Since 1996 the author has taught at various state junior high schools in Okayama city,
Japan as an Assistant English Teacher (AET), team-teaching English as a Foreign Language
(EFL), with Japanese Teachers of English (JTEs). The syllabus that he describes evaluates and
suggests some improvements for here comes from such a setting.
As an AET the author is not responsible for any aspect of syllabus design or
implementation other than making occasional supplementary materials and recording listening
comprehension tests for students' assessments. However, from his experiences, he believes that
for several reasons, many of which are beyond the JTE's control, materials and methods for
instruction, practice and assessment lag behind and are incompatible with updated goals and
objectives statements, a situation also described by McDonough and Shaw (1993: 6).
There is then a very real concern that genuine attempts by the Ministry of Education
(M.o.E. or Monbusho) to improve state EFL education will falter very early on, because of
shortcomings in the syllabus. This paper therefore serves a dual purpose. The first is academic:
to demonstrate the writer's understanding of issues relating to syllabus design and his ability to
evaluate and improve upon a syllabus. The second is practical: to show the JTE and perhaps
others, how those areas over which she possesses some control may be improved to enhance her
students' Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and personal and academic development.
Initially, a brief, general description of the syllabus is given to put what comes after in to
context. Then, to make the paper as comprehensive, yet as readable as possible, it is divided into
sections, each relating to a particular component of syllabus design (goals and objectives,
methodology, materials, the program of study document, student assessment and course
evaluation). Most sections take the same format: a more detailed description followed by an
evaluation, suggested improvements and their justifications. Since improvements in
methodology and materials share common justifications these are given together in section
3.3.1. A final section on cultural education helps the reader to understand how this aspect of
EFL education fits into the syllabus.
The justifications are given with respect to learners and context. This is important
because ultimately change should directly or indirectly benefit the learner and because while an
'improvement' may be appropriate and desirable in one setting, it may not be so in another.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
2
2 A general description of the syllabus under discussion. The syllabus under discussion is for 2nd grade junior high school students of EFL, aged
12-13, who have completed one year of formal EFL education. In general terms it is a type A
syllabus (White, 1988) with a linguistic focus on mainly grammatical, lexical and phonological
content (Willis, 2000: 24).
The recently updated goals and objectives set by Monbusho are technically non-
negotiable and relate to language use for meaningful communication with foreigners. To achieve
a degree of standardisation nationwide these aims are to be realised only through the use of
Monbusho-authorised course materials and teacher-produced supplementary materials. The
current authorised materials at this school consist of a coursebook (Morimizu, 1996a), the
associated student workbook (Morimizu, 1996b) and teacher's manual (Morimizu, 1996c), plus
local government approved materials for reviewing the coursebook material (OCJHSESG).
The JTE's preferred methodologies for instruction and practice are the grammar-
translation and Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) approaches. This is the norm in Japanese
state schools and strongly reflects the type of training JTEs receive.
The Program of Study document is designed by the JTE, although the model provided
by Monbusho is usually used as a framework. Student assessment, also designed by the JTE,
generally tests for structural knowledge about the target language (TL) via multiple choice
questions, rather than students' proficiency in use. There is however usually a multiple choice
listening comprehension component.
There is no evaluation of the syllabus itself, though each JTE’s performance is assessed
annually by a member of the Board of Education (B.o.E).
Cultural education is done either via issues raised by the course materials or on an ad
hoc basis with the AET. In line with Willis' (2000: 15) experience, there is no systematic
approach taken to cultural education.
3 Evaluating the syllabus and practical suggestions for improvement
In the following subsections the author describes in more detail and evaluates aspects of
the syllabus and makes practical suggestions for improvement. By 'practical', I will accept
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
3
Collins Cobuild's definition:
1 ATTRIB ADJ involving real situations, rather than ideas or theories………… 3 ADJ able to be carried out successfully.
(Collins Cobuild's, 1990: 432)
Conceptual definition is important because only improvements which are practical in
this sense and which consider learners and context are productive.
Before beginning, it is perhaps worthwhile acknowledging those things that it is
impractical to change in the short- to mid-term.
a). Monbusho's general goals for foreign language programs and specific objectives for
EFL education.
b). Monbusho's authorised materials.
c). Monbusho's policies regarding teacher training and development.
d). Timetabling and contact time.
e). The teacher's workload.
While a), b) and c) are issues of government policy, d) and e) are institutional issues.
They are however all equally unchangeable from the viewpoint of the teacher who designed
parts of this syllabus, either due to lack of power or for historical, cultural or sociological
reasons.
3.1 General goals and specific objectives
The syllabus goals are:
1). To attempt a general understanding and appreciation of language and culture through the study of foreign languages.
2). To develop positive attitudes in students towards active communication in foreign languages.
3). To develop the basic ability for practical communication through listening and speaking.
(Monbusho, 1999a: 6)
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
4
These are transfer objectives (Stern, 1992: 93) because the intended outcomes are skills
or attitudes that are potentially transferable to novel languages or cultural experiences later in
life.
Though they may seem fairly conventional by Western standards, they signal a major
shift in educational philosophy for the Japanese M.o.E. Previously, the focus was on structural
knowledge about language rather than how language may be used. The new emphasis on
culture, communication and foreigners (as opposed to native speakers) is long-awaited
recognition at government level of the changing social context here in Japan and the need for
Japan to adapt to those changes. The above goals are entirely appropriate given Monbusho's
wider curriculum goals for compulsory education (Monbusho, 1999b), and are consistent with
them.
The specific objectives for English language study are:
1). To be used to and to derive enjoyment from listening to English and to be
able to understand the speaker's meaning when using elementary English.
2). To be used to and to derive enjoyment from speaking English and to be
able to express your ideas verbally through elementary English.
3) To be used to and to derive enjoyment from reading English and to be
able to understand the writer's meaning when using elementary English.
4). To be used to and to derive enjoyment from writing English and to be
able to express your ideas in writing through elementary English.
(Monbusho, 1999a: 9)
These objectives are affective-behavioural hybrids. The first clause of each is affective
because they call for ‘a feeling of familiarity and liking for [the foreign language].’ (Stern, 1992:
86-87). The second clause of each is loosely behavioural (Brindley, 1989: 5) since it specifies
performance, e.g. ‘be able to understand the speaker's meaning’ and the expected standard, i.e.
‘elementary’. However, the condition statement appears to be absent.
While Mager (1962, cited in Clark, 1987: 17) favours behavioural objectives because
they facilitate measurement of changes in students' second language (L2) behaviour over time,
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
5
Clark (1987: 35) takes the more humanistic view that affective objectives or ‘higher order
outcomes’ (ibid.) should not be rejected simply because they are difficult to state explicitly or,
this author believes because their assessment is more problematic. The above objectives
therefore strike a good balance between these two objective types, while covering all four
language skills.
However, these are not necessarily the goals and objectives towards which teachers
actually work. As Stern predicted:
[The program's aims] were determined more by tradition than by deliberate policy.
(Stern, 1992: 61)
In other words, JTEs disregard the formal objectives in favour of historically accepted
ones that relate to linguistic competence, not communicative competence.
One improvement is possible: that students be informed of the existence, nature,
meaning, purpose and relevance of these goals and objectives. This is currently not the case.
Nunan points out a clear advantage of doing so:
…if [course objectives] are conveyed to the learners, [they can] play an important part in the process of sensitising learners to what it is to be a language learner.
(Nunan, 1988: 60-61)
Students will of course also have a clearer idea of what it is they are expected to achieve.
Currently they have only an intuitive assumption to go on that the objective is, in some vague
way, to improve their English. If these objectives and their relevance to students as individuals
growing up in a changing society are not explicitly stated and explained, it is difficult to expect
students to be enthusiastic, highly motivated or focused in their EFL studies.
Also, even within the context of the Japanese state education system where job security
is high, the issue of accountability should still be pertinent. Non-disclosure of the EFL course's
intended outcomes clearly has implications for accountability to students, their parents and other
internal and external parties. How can the extent of the course's success be gauged if it is unclear
to all but the teacher what the course was intended to achieve in the first place?
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
6
3.2 Methodology
Though some view methodology as separate from syllabus specification (Sinclair and
Renouf, 1988: 145-6), others disagree (Nunan, 1988: 175; Lewis, 1996: 11; Willis 2000: 22).
The methodology is so central to this syllabus that it could not justifiably be excluded.
The JTE predominantly uses the PPP methodology. The presentation phase is done
through traditional grammar-translation, followed by individual or pair, controlled practice and
freer (though still controlled) group or class production.
Several reasons have been proposed attempting to explain PPP's longevity. It is
singularly trainable (Lewis, 1996: 13, Skehan, 1998: 94-95, reported by Willis, 2000: 14-15),
usable (Stern, 1983: 453; Richards and Rodgers 1986: 4) and offers accountability and a sense
of professionalism (Skehan, ibid.). It conforms to teachers' and learners' expectations of their
respective roles and power relationships (Richards and Lockhart, 1994: 101; Richards and
Rodgers, 1986: 23-4) and may therefore have some positive motivating effect. It facilitates
division of lessons with surgical precision into discrete blocks of time and behaviour (Lewis,
1996: 13). All the above are not disputed here. However, as justifications for the continued use
of a generally discredited method, these are all inadequate.
Hopkins and Nettle's (1994) advocate PPP, but their claims appear superficial. They
claim that PPP makes ‘communicative demands on students’ (ibid: 158). However, using
Brazil's (1992) distinction between 'speaking English' and 'conversation', it follows that PPP is
not communicative but, at best, only interactive. Further, Ellis (1988: 37) would point out that
the production which they claim PPP encourages (ibid: 157) only develops ‘reproductive
competence’. As Willis notes:
The danger with focusing mechanically on form too early in the methodological cycle is that students see what follows not as an opportunity to use language for communication, but rather as an opportunity to produce the prescribed form as often as possible. The focus on form gets in the way of fluency practice and all we have are a series of activities designed to elicit a particular language form.
(Willis, 1990: 73)
This grammar-translation - PPP combination then only develops reproductive skills, but
this is only to be expected since it is based upon invalid or discredited theory (Richards and
Rodgers, 1986: 4-5; Rutherford, 1987: 3-6; Ellis, 1988: 24; Ellis and Hedge, 1993: 5 Skehan,
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
7
1996: 18-19; Lewis, 1993: 151-2, 1996: 11). It also focuses on teaching, not on learning
processes (Yalden 1987: 52; White, 1988: 44-5) and emphasises linguistic competence, not
ability to use the TL (Stern, 1983: 454; Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 3; White, 1988: 46; Willis,
1990: 72; Lewis, 1993: 151; McDonough and Shaw, 1993: 58; Brown, 1994: 17; Skehan, 1996:
18; Willis, 2000: 9). As Clark notes of grammar-translation in particular:
[it has] little concern for the development of everyday conversational or correspondence skills.
(Clark, 1987: 11)
This helps to explain Ellis' and Brazil's observations that even students who are
proficient in reading and writing often cannot speak the TL or understand it when they hear it
(1984, cited by White, 1988: 46 and 1992: 2 respectively). This is a problem the Japanese in
particular are renowned for.
The author suggests that the JTE shifts from the grammar-translation plus PPP
combination to consciousness-raising (C-R) plus Task Based Learning (TBL). At first glance
this appears to be an overly ambitious suggestion. However, it is not only pedagogically
justifiable (see section 3.3.1) but also practical in that neither C-R nor TBL are entirely alien to
the JTE's present methods. Grammar-translation ‘embodied’ C-R (Willis and Willis, 1996: 63)
and PPP and TBL share many features, though the sequencing and rationale are very different
(Willis, 1996: 62). The author accepts that while the change may be justifiable and practical, it
would require a major re-evaluation by the JTE of how she views L2 learning and teaching, but
he believes this is healthy, desirable and necessary for her continued professional development.
3.3 Materials
The coursebook (Morimizu, 1996a) is based on a type A grammatical syllabus and
presents itemised pedagogic grammars and lexis within contrived texts to 'exemplify' their use
(appendix 1). It has frequent speaking, listening and writing exercises, while the texts also serve
as reading practice. The associated materials provide additional practice for individual study,
either in class or at home. These are supplemented ad hoc with JTE- or AET-produced PPP type
practice materials (appendix 2).
There is only sufficient scope here to evaluate the materials with respect to their effect
on SLA and learner development. Since the materials' design is largely based upon the same
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
8
erroneous assumptions regarding SLA processes as the methodology, they are susceptible to the
same criticisms. Their ease of application and compatibility with, and reinforcement of the
methodology are insufficient justifications for their use, either for instruction or practice of the
TL, given that they are based upon discredited theory and dubious pedagogic rationale.
As with the methodology, these materials reinforce the culturally accepted roles of
learner as passive and submissive and teacher as dominating and all-knowing, even though these
roles run counter to Monbusho's wider curriculum goals:
To encourage the development of young people with an increased awareness of themselves as members of an international community...to enhance children's ability to think and learn for themselves...to develop a comfortable educational environment which successfully equips students with essential knowledge and skills as well as develops students' individual personalities.
(Monbusho, 1999b)
The implication for learner development of the continued use of methods and materials
which are both pedagogically dubious and at odds with the M.o.E's formal goals and objectives,
is that Japanese students will in the future, as they are now, be ill-equipped to use English for
communicative purposes in the changing social and international contexts in which Japan
increasingly finds itself.
In this syllabus then, methodology and materials are closely linked, as has been
recognised is often the case (Nunan, 1988: 175, 1995: 213; McDonough and Shaw, 1993: 5;
Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 25; Lewis, 1996 cited in Willis, 2000; Sinclair and Renouf, 1988:
145-6). Therefore the change suggested to improve the methodology requires parallel change in
the materials used. Appendices 2 and 3 illustrate how the same linguistic forms may be
presented and practiced using the PPP and C-R / TBL approaches respectively.
3.3.1 Joint justifications for the improvements to methodology and materials
Direct support for the shift from grammar-translation and PPP methodologies and
materials to those of C-R and TBL comes from Ellis and Hedge (1993: 5); Skehan (1996);
Willis, (1990: 73, 1996); Lewis (1996) and Willis and Willis (Forthcoming: 8) who have
advocated identical or very similar proposals. The justifications here relate to SLA, learners'
development and teaching context and are presented in table 1 as contrasts between the present
and suggested methodological combinations.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
9
The author concedes that it is not possible to dispense with the mandatory materials'
syntactical or lexical items. However, Skehan (1996: 28-29) points out that though neither PPP
or C-R / TBL approaches guarantee SLA, the latter may provide the conditions by which
acquisition of particular language items will probably occur, whilst simultaneously satisfying
the need for both focus on TL form and complexity.
Yalden (1987: 97) rightly advises caution when changing a course design. Replacing
one methodology with another, more pedagogically desirable one is still unjustifiable if it fails
to recognise and allow for the reality of the teaching context as it currently stands. However, the
justifications given here strongly suggest that the changeovers in methodology and materials are
not only entirely practical, even within the present setting, but that they are strongly desirable
and clearly necessary if Monbusho's educational goals and objectives are to be met in the
foreseeable future.
Paul
Mor
itosh
i, Th
e U
nive
rsity
of B
irmin
gham
, 200
0.
10
Tabl
e 1 - C
ontra
sts b
etwe
en th
e pre
sent
and
sugg
este
d m
etho
dolo
gica
l com
bina
tions
Seco
nd L
angu
age
Acq
uisi
tion
The
com
bine
d gr
amm
ar-t
rans
latio
n/PP
P ap
proa
ch
The
com
bine
d C
-R/T
BL
app
roac
h
Indi
vidu
al d
iffer
ence
s in
cogn
itive
or l
earn
ing
styl
es
or d
evel
opm
enta
l seq
uenc
e. V
iew
s lea
rner
s as a
hom
ogen
ous g
roup
that
hav
e no
in
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces r
elev
ant t
o SL
A.
Allo
ws f
or in
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces i
n L2
lear
ning
by
atte
mpt
ing
to "
harn
ess n
atur
al [l
angu
age
acqu
isiti
on]
proc
esse
s" (W
illis
and
Will
is, f
orth
com
ing:
8).
Ded
uctiv
ism
ver
sus.
indu
ctiv
ism
. Is
ded
uctiv
e or
teac
her-
cent
red.
I
s ind
uctiv
e or
stud
ent-c
entre
d (J
ohns
, 199
1: 4
-5,
1994
: 297
), w
hich
Bro
wn
(199
4b: 9
2) p
oint
s out
ass
ists
SL
A.
Expo
sure
of l
earn
ers t
o au
then
tic m
ater
ial o
r dat
a.
Sev
erel
y re
stric
ted
(Cla
rk 1
987:
11;
Will
is &
Will
is,
1996
: 63)
. E
xten
sive
ly u
sed
(Joh
ns, 1
991:
4-5
, 199
4: 2
94; N
unan
, 19
91: 1
50).
Focu
s and
orie
ntat
ion.
Focu
s on
form
, whi
ch d
oes l
ittle
to e
nhan
ce S
LA
(Ske
han,
199
6: 2
0; C
lark
198
7: 1
0-11
). I
s orie
nted
tow
ards
ling
uist
ic c
ompe
tenc
e (Y
alde
n,
1987
: 30-
31; W
hite
, 198
8: 4
6; S
tern
, 199
2: 8
1).
Foc
us o
n fo
rm-f
unct
ion
rela
tions
hips
(Will
is 2
000:
20)
Allo
ws f
or n
egot
iate
d m
eani
ng (S
keha
n, 1
996:
20-
21;
Ellis
, 198
8: 2
6).
Is o
rient
ed to
war
ds b
oth
lingu
istic
and
com
mun
icat
ive
com
pete
nce
(Yal
den,
198
7: 3
1).
Lear
ner p
rodu
ctio
n.
Dem
ands
imm
edia
te a
nd a
ccur
ate
prod
uctio
n of
ne
wly
pre
sent
ed T
L ite
ms,
whi
ch is
unr
ealis
tic (W
illis
an
d W
illis
, 199
6: 7
6).
Acc
epts
that
stud
ents
nee
d tim
e to
inte
rnal
ise
new
ly
pres
ente
d TL
item
s (W
hite
, 198
8: 5
9; L
ewis
, 199
3: 1
52;
Ellis
and
Hed
ge, 1
993:
6; S
keha
n, 1
996:
29)
.
TL h
ypot
hesi
s and
ge
nera
lisat
ion
form
atio
n.
Lea
rner
s are
pro
vide
d w
ith a
'com
plet
e' pe
dago
gic
gram
mar
, whi
ch is
unr
ealis
tic (R
uthe
rfor
d, 1
987:
17;
Jo
hns,
1991
: 3) a
nd e
xpec
ted
to le
arn
its ru
les.
The
lock
step
nat
ure
of th
is m
etho
dolo
gy ra
rely
pro
mot
es
gene
ratio
n, te
stin
g, e
valu
atio
n or
mod
ifica
tion
of
hypo
thes
es o
r gen
eral
isat
ions
abo
ut th
e TL
.
Act
ivel
y pr
omot
es a
nd e
ncou
rage
s lea
rner
s to
gene
rate
, tes
t, ev
alua
te a
nd (i
f nec
essa
ry) m
odify
thei
r hy
poth
eses
and
gen
eral
isat
ions
abo
ut h
ow th
e TL
op
erat
es (J
ohns
, 199
1: 2
; Rut
herf
ord,
198
7: 1
8; W
illis
J.
1993
: 90)
. T
he T
BL
fram
ewor
k al
so sp
ecifi
cally
allo
cate
s pl
anni
ng ti
me
that
may
giv
e st
uden
ts o
ppor
tuni
ties t
o re
stru
ctur
e th
eir I
L sy
stem
s (W
hite
, 198
8: 1
03-4
; Fo
ster
, 199
6: 1
35).
Plac
ing
TL in
con
text
. C
onte
xt is
usu
ally
pro
vide
d th
roug
h ar
tific
ial o
r co
ntriv
ed te
xtua
l, si
tuat
iona
l or v
erba
l exa
mpl
es.
By
its v
ery
natu
re T
BL
puts
lang
uage
item
s in
cont
ext
(Will
is, J
. 199
6: 5
2).
Paul
Mor
itosh
i, Th
e U
nive
rsity
of B
irmin
gham
, 200
0.
11
Lea
rner
dev
elop
men
t T
he c
ombi
ned
gram
mar
-tra
nsla
tion/
PPP
appr
oach
T
he c
ombi
ned
C-R
/TB
L a
ppro
ach
Ach
ievi
ng M
onbu
sho'
s (1
999b
) cur
ricul
um g
oals
an
d M
onbu
sho'
s (19
99a)
fo
reig
n la
ngua
ge le
arni
ng
goal
s for
stud
ents
' per
sona
l an
d ac
adem
ic d
evel
opm
ent.
Thi
s com
bine
d ap
proa
ch g
ener
ally
fails
to a
chie
ve
any
of th
ese
goal
s as i
t rei
nfor
ces d
epen
denc
e up
on th
e te
ache
r for
info
rmat
ion
(Joh
ns, 1
994:
295
; Will
is, D
. 19
97: 1
04),
the
tradi
tiona
lly a
ccep
ted
teac
her a
nd
lear
ner r
oles
and
off
ers f
ew o
ppor
tuni
ties f
or fr
ee o
r cr
eativ
e th
ough
t or e
xpre
ssio
n.
Thi
s com
bine
d ap
proa
ch w
orks
tow
ards
thes
e go
als b
y en
cour
agin
g st
uden
ts to
dev
elop
aut
onom
ous l
earn
ing
stra
tegi
es a
nd st
rate
gies
to c
onve
y m
eani
ng (J
ohns
, 19
94: 2
95; W
illis
, D, 1
997:
104
). I
t off
ers t
rans
fera
bilit
y of
kno
wle
dge
and
skill
s fro
m
one
situ
atio
n to
ano
ther
.
The
prof
icie
ncy
obje
ctiv
e.
It i
s "gr
amm
ar te
achi
ng a
s a m
eans
to a
chie
ving
the
prof
icie
ncy
obje
ctiv
e [r
athe
r tha
n] a
s a d
esira
ble
end
in
its o
wn
right
" (S
tern
, 199
2: 8
1).
Vie
ws p
rofic
ienc
y in
the
TL a
s a w
orth
whi
le e
nd in
its
elf (
Ster
n, 1
992:
71)
.
T
he te
achi
ng c
onte
xt
Prep
arat
ion
for
stru
ctur
al e
xam
s.
Tra
ins s
tude
nts f
or th
e hi
ghly
stru
ctur
al in
tern
al
exam
s and
seni
or h
igh
scho
ol a
nd u
nive
rsity
ent
ranc
e ex
amin
atio
ns.
Prov
ides
suffi
cien
t foc
us o
n fo
rm to
ena
ble
stud
ents
to
do w
ell i
n in
tern
al a
nd se
nior
hig
h sc
hool
ent
ranc
e ex
amin
atio
ns, w
hile
als
o en
ablin
g st
uden
ts to
use
la
ngua
ge fo
r com
mun
icat
ive
purp
oses
.
Tim
e ef
ficie
ncy.
H
as b
een
criti
cise
d fo
r bei
ng v
ery
time-
inef
ficie
nt
(Elli
s, 19
88: 3
8; S
tern
, 199
2: 2
96).
May
be
a m
ore
effe
ctiv
e us
e of
wha
t lim
ited
cont
act
time
is a
vaila
ble.
Flex
ibili
ty in
use
. T
he v
ario
us te
chni
ques
that
can
be
used
for p
ract
ice
with
in P
PP o
ffer
flex
ibili
ty in
size
of g
roup
s, fr
om
indi
vidu
al to
who
le c
lass
.
TB
L of
fers
flex
ibili
ty in
the
sam
e w
ays t
hat t
he
curr
ent m
etho
ds d
o. It
can
als
o:
a. e
mpl
oy "
two
or th
ree
min
i-tas
k cy
cles
",
b. o
mit
certa
in st
ages
in th
e TB
L fr
amew
ork
if th
ey a
re
u
nnec
essa
ry o
r if t
ime
is sh
ort,
c. b
e w
eigh
ted
"dep
endi
ng o
n th
e ne
eds a
nd
b
ackg
roun
ds o
f the
stud
ents
". (W
illis
J, 1
996:
58-
59)
C
haud
ron
(198
8:29
) agr
ees t
hat T
BL
is v
ery
flexi
ble.
JTE
deve
lopm
ent
Doe
s not
dev
elop
the
JTE'
s tea
chin
g pr
actic
es in
ligh
t of
cur
rent
SLA
rese
arch
, but
is m
erel
y a
cont
inua
tion
of p
ract
ices
whi
ch h
ave
cons
iste
ntly
dis
rega
rded
the
findi
ngs o
f SLA
rese
arch
.
Upd
ates
the
JTE'
s tea
chin
g pr
actic
es in
ligh
t of S
LA
rese
arch
. Will
is, J
. (19
96: 6
1-62
) sho
ws t
hat e
ven
thos
e te
ache
rs u
sed
to u
sing
PPP
can
be
retra
ined
to u
se T
BL,
th
ough
Ske
han
(199
6: 3
0) su
gges
ts th
at it
mak
es m
any
dem
ands
upo
n th
e te
ache
r's c
ompe
tenc
e.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
12
3.4 The Program of Study document
The JTE-designed Program of Study (P.o.S) document (appendix 4) takes its framework
from the B.o.E.-issued model and is based on the textbook's table of contents. It specifies month,
time allocation, unit titles and general descriptions of each unit's activities and generally
conforms to Brumfit's (1984) "administrative document" (reported by Willis, 2000: 1-2): it is a
teaching schedule.
There are several weaknesses here. Modelling a syllabus on that of others does not
promote critical thought or judgement regarding its pedagogical validity (Willis, 2000: 31). It
also reinforces the JTE's view that the position-oriented syllabus is the most suitable, retarding
development of a perhaps more appropriate design or approach. It also contains the defects
noted by Sinclair and Renouf (1988: 145-6), regarding the design rationale and its reliance on
the methodology inherent within the coursebook.
The authorised materials are predetermined and compulsory, the JTE has no training or
experience in creating alternative designs and, counter to Nunan's (1987a: 17) proposal, no
support systems exist to help her do so. However, rather than using the P.o.S. document merely
as a scheduled table of contents, she might consider how it can be used to incorporate the C-R
and TBL materials and methodologies suggested above.
It is the P.o.S. document, not the formal goals or objectives which is explained to
students at the beginning of the course. Ideally both would be provided, but outlining the P.o.S.
document with respect to the principles underlying materials and methodologies selection would
give early clarification to students of the course's rationale, how it will proceed, learners' and the
teacher's expected roles in it and how the EFL learning context might differ from that of other
curriculum subjects.
3.5 Student assessment
The most recent end-of-term test (appendix 5) consisted of pronunciation, punctuation,
transformation, word order, gap-fill, written question-answer and listening comprehension
exercises, marked by a discrete point scoring system. There was no oral component.
There should be a clear connection between the goals or objectives and assessment
(Widdowson, 1983: 6-7, cited by White, 1988: 26; Brindley, 1989: 4; Stern, 1992: 98).
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
13
However, the above assessment, largely fails to make this link, a situation that is not uncommon
(Willis, 2000: 9-10), particularly in Japanese schools. The official objectives emphasise use of
the TL for meaningful communication and so should be assessed using tests of proficiency
(Nunan, 1988: 135). Instead, students are assessed using questions that test knowledge about the
TL and which relate to the topics used in the coursebook and are therefore achievement tests
(Brown, 1994: 259).
The distinction is important because it illustrates the general tendency of JTEs to
overlook the formal goals and objectives in favour of unofficial, unspoken ones which they
perceive as more useful and relevant to learners in the short-term: ones which will help learners
pass up-coming, highly structural senior high school (and later university) entrance
examinations. Therefore, assessment design here isn't just influenced by the course content: it is
also determined by the perceived need to train students for upcoming entrance examinations.
Also, as Clark points out:
The norm-referenced form of assessment associated with classical humanism normally provides little information to teachers, pupils or parents as to what students can or cannot do. It indicates how a student has performed in relation to others in the group...[It is] designed to respond to society's requirement for a quick and easy way to judge a pupil's competence vis-à-vis others in the group...[and is] often out of touch with the realities of what is required in the classroom.
(Clark, 1987: 12-13)
Once again, the implication for Monbusho's revised EFL goals and objectives and
learning outcomes is that their long-term success may already be in serious jeopardy unless
steps are taken to retrain JTEs in the design, implementation and grading of appropriate tests
which actually assess the intended outcomes with respect to proficiency, not achievement.
Two suggestions can be made here. Firstly, that the JTE should attempt to incorporate
some type of oral component into her tests. Monbusho's educational reforms specifically require
students to be able to communicate orally, albeit at an elementary level, but this skill is not
tested. Until relatively recently, communication with foreigners was largely written, not oral, but
in the changing social context the oral faculty is becoming increasingly more relevant.
Secondly, she needs to replace achievement tests with proficiency tests. Though the
novelty may confuse both learners and teacher and possibly add to the latter's workload initially,
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
14
the confusion may be overcome if the JTE explains the changes to students both in non-
technical, pedagogical terms (Willis, 1996: 60) and in terms of Monbusho's new intended
learning outcomes (section 3.1). This should help all concerned to understand not only what
they are expected to achieve but also that both focus on form and meaning are important. It is
essential that the former is not overlooked because while striving for updated, more
communicative outcomes, context demands that teachers also prepare their students for the
highly structural senior high school entrance examinations.
3.6 Syllabus evaluation and accountability.
The syllabus is not evaluated as a coherent program. Only the JTE's teaching practices
are evaluated, by a former teacher from the B.o.E., through annual observation of a JTE-led
demonstration lesson. That evaluation focuses on the methodology and materials used and
feedback is provided in a post-lesson meeting. Other JTE-designed components, i.e. the
Program of Study document and student assessments are not evaluated. Though the former is
submitted to the B.o.E. for archiving, the JTE receives no feedback on it.
There are no serious, negative consequences associated with failing to adhere to
Monbusho goals, objectives, guidelines for materials, consistently poor teaching practices (even
those noted by the B.o.E. evaluation), designing assessments incompatible with the goals or
objectives or consistently poor student grades. The author's experience suggests that this is the
norm for state education. It is also highly undesirable.
Whether evaluation serves to enforce accountability or enhance program development
and whether accountability is contractual or professional, evaluation serves two purposes: to
improve the syllabus and assess its efficacy (Weir and Roberts, 1994: 4). What little evaluation
exists here fails to achieve the former because no penalties are imposed for not improving
teaching practices and fails to achieve the latter because it is partial and piecemeal. If teachers
are not, in actuality, accountable to anyone, the evaluation fails to provide JTEs with sufficient
intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to make their teaching practices more compatible with the new
goals and objectives. Chaudron asks:
how do we know that what is actually happening in the program matches it's official description?
(Chaudron, 1988: 29)
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
15
and the answer here must be that it is not possible to know.
Currently, teachers are permitted to continue practices which, though perhaps
appropriate 50 years ago, are now outdated and at odds with the new goals and objectives. Why
this is the case in a system that claims to be democratic, transparent and which has the authority
to enforce M.o.E. policy is unclear, though warrants further investigation.
The only practical improvement to suggest here is that the JTE occasionally reflects on
those parts of the syllabus over which she has some control, i.e. supplementary materials,
methodology, the Program of Study document and student assessment, with a view to bringing
them more in line with those necessary to achieve the intended outcomes. She is perhaps the
best placed to do this because of her experience and knowledge of the learners, context and what
can realistically be achieved within the prevailing constraints of both.
3.7 Cultural education
The coursebook covers Japanese and foreign cultural topics, which are JTE-fronted
during non-team-teaching lessons, using supplementary materials from Morimizu (1996c)
(exemplified in appendix 6). Additionally, AET-fronted presentations introduce aspects of
British culture (C2), (e.g. housing) through a comparative approach, along with British historical
figures (e.g. George Stephenson, appendix 7), national symbols (e.g. cricket) and festivals (e.g.
Halloween, appendix 8) as advocated by Stern (1992: 216-7). These illustrate British life and
values and occasional links are made as to how C2 influences native speech.
The important role of C2 knowledge in L2 learning is generally recognised (Clark, 1987:
219; Brown, 1994: 183-7; Byram, 1994, 5-14 and Carter, 1998). Stern agrees:
It is not possible to achieve any of the proficiency goals without including certain aspects of sociocultural information.
(Stern, 1992: 83)
However, Monbusho's goals do not require this C2-L2 connection to be stated explicitly
and as a non-native speaker the JTE lacks the in-depth knowledge of either C2 or L2 to do so
accurately or consistently. She is required only to introduce the coursebook's cultural topics and
to promote discussion and an exchange of students' ideas through the support materials, which
she does conscientiously. It is unclear however to what degree these activities assist learners'
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
16
understanding of either C2 or its relationship to the TL, or to which they enhance SLA.
The AET's cultural presentations serve not only to dispel the inaccurate cultural
stereotypes of which Willis (2000: 79) writes, but also attempt to promote learners' acceptance
of C2, which Schumann (1978, cited by Byram, 1994: 7 and reviewed and critiqued by Larsen-
Freeman and Long, 1991: 251-266) says is necessary for continued advances in L2 proficiency.
The occasional demonstration of how C2 influences TL is useful because it serves to inform
both the learners and the JTE.
An AET is transient, present at a school for only a term, with relatively very little
contact time with any one class. Longer-term improvements must therefore focus on the JTE.
Though Stern (1992: 222-3) noted the lack of cultural education resources available to
teachers, the internet now gives access to a wealth of information which the JTE can use to
collect background information for supplementary cultural materials, thus providing year-round
C2 instruction in a very wide range of topics. However, this would probably still not explicitly
demonstrate how C2 and L2 are linked.
To achieve this, she can task each new AET with highlighting ways in which C2 and L2
are related, (the author believes that most AETs would welcome such a specific brief). This joint
use of supplementary materials AET-tasking would be far more mutually complementary than
the present system and give greater year-round continuity to the cultural education that learners
receive, while overcoming many of the logistical and scheduling difficulties inherent within the
AET and team-teaching systems.
4 Conclusion This paper has described and evaluated a 2nd grade Japanese junior high school EFL
syllabus. It examined various aspects of the syllabus’ design and suggested how these might be
improved to meet the formal goals and objectives, with justifications offered with respect to
learners' SLA and development and context (classroom, teaching, institutional, social, national
or international).
It is clear that Monbusho's reformed goals and objectives are not being implemented at
the most influential level: the classroom. Since JTEs are employed specifically to implement
Monbusho's educational policies, there seems little justification for not putting the above
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
17
suggestions into action, yet social and cultural beliefs, tradition and historically accepted
practices are very powerful forces, especially in Japan.
It must be recognised that the JTE is not entirely responsible for this syllabus'
shortcomings. As Nunan (1987b: 62-63) and Lewis (1996: 16) have pointed out, the system
within which teachers operate often conspires to constrain them and that is certainly so here.
Peer practices, Monbusho's own authorised materials, the lack of appropriate training,
development, support and evaluation procedures and senior high school entrance examinations
give JTEs little room for manoeuvre or opportunities for change. Perhaps Monbusho would do
well to take Clark's advice:
Drawing on the most positive aspects of [classical humanism, reconstructionism and progressivism]... it seems altogether reasonable to seek through an educational system to maintain and develop the wisdom and cultural traditions of the past, to attempt to work together in a deliberate way towards a fairer and better future for all.
(Clark, 1987: 100)
In other words, by taking the best of those three standpoints, it should be possible to preserve
Japan's cultural values whilst simultaneously advancing teaching practices that are more
appropriate to the changing social context, as has happened in many western nations since
World War II (Yalden, 1987: 52-3; White, 1988: 21 and Brown, 1994: 14-15). Tradition and
progress need not be mutually opposed: one may indeed enhance the other.
The conflicts shown here between previous versus current educational philosophies and
'traditional' versus 'modern' methodologies and materials need to be resolved, preferably by
adaptation to what is and will be needed in the future rather than by a reversion to what was
used in the past. These changes will undoubtedly challenge many JTEs, particularly those who
have been using grammar-translation and PPP for many years, but it is a challenge that, sooner
or later, needs to be faced and met if Monbusho's reforms are to be realised. Until that time these
reforms face serious setbacks. Further investigation into the factors that delay or prevent
implementation of these reforms at classroom level is highly recommended.
Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance generously given by Yumi Onogi and
the English department of Fukuhama Junior High School, Okayama City during the preparation
of this article. Thanks are also due to his wife, Nobuko Moritoshi, for her efforts in translation.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
18
Appendix 1
A sample of the textbook's isolated pedagogic
grammars and contrived texts
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
19
Appendix 2
A Present-Practice-Production (PPP) lesson plan for prepositions
Greetings • Greet the class. Check today's day, date and weather in English. Presentation • Use a doll to introduce the prepositions: on, under, in, next to, near, by, in front of and
behind, in relation to various other things in the classroom (e.g. a box, the teacher's desk, a student).
• Students repeat each word. Check students' pronunciation. • Write an example sentence for each preposition on the blackboard. • Students make notes in their notebooks.
15 minutes Practice • Explain practice activity 1 on page 31 of the coursebook. • Students do the practice activity. They write as many sentences in their notebook as
possible. • Check students' answers while they are writing. • Show the common mistakes on the blackboard. • Students repeat model sentences again.
10 minutes Practice 2 • In pairs, students take 5 things from their schoolbag (e.g. a book, a notebook, a pencil, an
eraser and a ruler). • Student A uses the new words to tell their partner where one thing is in relation with
another. Student B listens, watches and checks student A's English. 10 minutes
Production • Explain practice activity 2. • All the students stand up, walk around the class and do the practice activity with various
friends. They write their partner's answer in the memo box. 15 minutes
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
20
(Morimizu, 1996a: 31).
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
21
Appendix 3
A CR / TBL lesson plan to replace the PPP lesson plan for prepositions
Target Language items: Prepositions / things in a student's room.
Materials: A bedroom plan with a bed, a desk and a bookshelf on it. A recording of a native English speaker describing his room. Pictures and the gap-fill worksheet for the practice activity.
Procedure
1. Introducing the topic and task. Brainstorming (prepositions and things in a room).
2. Students are given a room plan card A or B and draw things on the plan. They can draw things that they do or don't really have in their own bedroom. The have to draw more than seven things on the plan.
3. When they have finished drawing, in pairs, they describe their room plan to their partner.
Planning The teacher circulates and advises students on language. She corrects and suggests phrases. Emphasis is on grammatical accuracy.
Report Students report their plans to the class, showing their room plans on the overhead projector. Teacher comments and rephrases but does not correct overtly. Teacher and class give applause after each report to encourage the students.
Input Students listen to the recording of the native English speaker describing his bedroom:
"This is my room. I have a rug in the centre of the room and it has a robot on it. There's a plant in the northwest corner and the bed's along the western wall. My comic collection is by the door and there's a clock next to the PC on the desk. I keep my floppy disks in the desk. The baseball and bat are in a box by the east window. The chair's under the desk and I keep my guitar in the southeast corner. My cat usually sleeps under my bed. The banana behind the desk is for when I get hungry at night. On my bed, the pillow is nearest the northwest corner. Finally, there're many SF books on the left side of the bookshelf".
Then the teacher gives the above transcript to the students. They underline the prepositions used and compare their use of prepositions with native speech.
Language Analysis - Review and Practice
Exercise 1 Each student receives a picture (number 1, 2 or 3) which they use to complete the gap-fill worksheet.
Exercise 2 Each picture is different. Students describe their picture without showing it to their partner and try to find 8 differences.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
22
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
23
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
24
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
25
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
26
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
27
Exercise 1 Use your picture to write a suitable preposition in these sentences. Picture 1. There are shoes ( ) the rug. There is a clock ( ) the wall. A candle is ( ) the candle stand ( ) the dresser. A dress is ( ) the chair. A witch's hat is ( ) the rug and the chair. A bed is ( ) the window. Picture 2. There is a mouse ( ) the table. There is a banana ( ) front ( ) the cup and the bowl. An orange flower is ( ) the glass ( ) the table. There are dishes, plates and cups ( ) the cupboard. The bowl is ( ) the spoon and the cup. The peanut butter is ( ) the Krispy Kreeps. Picture 3. There is a lamp ( ) the table ( ) the corner ( ) the room. An apple is rolling ( ) the table. The witch is looking at two ants ( ) the carpet. A couch is ( ) the small table and ( ) the big table. There are two pictures ( ) the wall. ( ) the big picture, the house is ( ) two trees.
(Courtesy of Yumi Onogi).
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
28
Appendix 4
The Program of Study document
Units containing cultural components are highlighted in red. Those containing isolated linguistic items are highlighted in bold.
Month No. of hours Unit and sub-unit title. Activities and content.
April 10
*Classroom English. *Life in Australia. *Let's talk 1 - When you ask the way
*Introduce yourself *To know about different cultures through the experience of living in foreign countries *To know about Australian life, society, aborigines etc. *Review regular past form (positive and negative), question form and answer forms. *Where is ~? *Walk along~. *Go straight~. *Turn~.
May 23
*English Diary. *Let's write 1. *Who 'discovered' America? *Let's listen 1.
*To know about how to write an English diary and the diary's importance. *To develop an understanding of poetry. *Co-operating with the older generation. *To think about AIDS at school and in the home. *Teach irregular past form (positive and negative), question form and answer forms. *To study how to write an English diary. *Write about yourself in your diary. *To think about the period of the great Western voyages. *To know about Columbus and Vespucci. *Past forms 'was' and 'were' (positive and negative), question form. *Past continuous form (was [were] ~ing). *To listen to Peter's daily schedule.
June 6
*Computers in schools of the future. *Let's talk 2.
*To think about the computer age and human communication. *will ~ and must~ *To be able to inquire or answer about the weather.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
29
June (cont.)
*Rain forests *Let's try 1.
*To think about the destruction of the rain forests and wildlife and conservation. *There is [are] ~ formative and negative *Are there ~ *be going to ~ *Learning the names of the body parts.
July 4
*Let's write 2. *Let's read 1.
*To write about your summer vacation plan in English. *To express your opinion in English using a dictionary. *To make a composition without worrying about making mistakes. *To translate a story from L2 to L1 using natural Japanese. *Review There is~, Should~, imperatives, become + noun. *To know about a part of English of culture.
Sept. 12
*Squid. *Let's talk 3.
*To develop students interest in the natural wonders of the world. *When (as a conjunction). *Tag questions. *Why ~? Because~. *Will you ~? *May I ~?
Oct. 12
*Speech - My dream. *Let's write 3.
*To think about your future occupation. *To know about the importance and role of agriculture. *To learn how to make a speech. *Infinitive form. *To make speech manuscript.
Nov. 12
*Ainu. *Let's listen 2.
*To know about the existence and culture of the Ainu. *To know about the history of the lost Ainu race. *To think about the meaning of maintaining culture and language. *S + V + C and S + V + O + O forms *Page 58
Dec. 7
*The United Kingdom. *To know about the 4 kingdoms which make up the UK. *To be aware of the 4 kingdoms through their individual national songs. *Comparative and superlative (~er, ~est).
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
30
Jan. 10
*Let's talk 4. *Gestures talk.
*Shall we ~? Yes, let's / I can't. *To know about the non-verbal communication. *To know the different meanings gestures have in different countries. *Comparative (more, most, as).
6
*Let's read 2. *Let's talk 5. *Let's listen 3.
*To know about the nature and nomadic life of Mongolians. Mongolia is a part of East Asia. *There are no ~. * have to ~ *To ask somebody's schedule. *Page 76 Feb.
5
*Kenya *To know about the language situation in Kenya. *To think about the roles of native language and common language in multi-language areas. *Passive form.
March 15
*Let's try 2. *Let's listen 4. *Let's talk 6. *Let's read 3. *Let's write 4.
*To know about colours names. *Page 83. *What's wrong? I have ~. / I feel ~. *To think about the importance of a determined spirit. *Page 90.
(Courtesy of the Fukuhama Junior High School English department).
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
31
Appendix 5
The end-of-term student assessment and associated answer sheet
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
32
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
33
(Courtesy of the Fukuhama Junior High School English department).
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
34
Appendix 6 - Native Americans
(Monbusho, 1996: 57-58).
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
35
Appendix 7 - George Stephenson (1781-1848): inventor and engineer George Stevenson was born in England. He is very famous in the history of trains because he made the first train in 1825. In 1829 he made another train, called ‘The Rocket’, but it wasn’t very fast. It went at only 39km/hour. Here is a picture of ‘The Rocket’ (right). Modern trains are much faster, but in 1829 29 km/hour was very fast. This design won a contest and Mr. Stevenson got 500 pounds (about 86,000 yen). The engine used steam. Eight ‘Rockets’ were made. The trains went between Liverpool and Manchester.
After many years, engine design changed. In England, we now use diesel and electric engines. Here is a diesel train (left). It’s called the ‘Intercity 125’ because it goes between many cities in England, Scotland and Wales and its top speed is 125 miles/hour (about 200 km/hour).
There are many new electric trains in the UK too. This is the Eurostar train (right). It goes from London in England, through a tunnel under the sea, to Paris in France and Brussels in Belgium.
The Japanese are very good at making trains. Maybe they are the best in the world. The picture on the left shows a local train, which is slow. The picture on the right shows the ‘Bullet train’ (shinkansen) electric train. It’s very fast. How fast can it go? Do you know?
The Nozomi 500 (left) and Nozomi 700 (right) are the fastest trains in the world.
How about the future? What trains will we use in the 21st century? Maybe trains in the future will look look like this. This is a Magnetic Levitation (MagLev) train. It doesn’t have wheels. It uses strong magnets and electricity. It’s very fast, very quiet and doesn’t make so much pollution.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
36
Appendix 8 - Halloween
Halloween is a very old festival. It has other names:
All Hallowtide ; All Soul's Day; All Saint's Day
The history of halloween The history of halloween is not clear because it is a very old festival. The
Celts ( ケルツ ) lived in Ireland 2000-3000 years ago. The name
'halloween' comes from a very old Celtic (ケルツの ) festival called
Samhaim (サーウイム). It means 'the festival of the dead'. It is like
Japan's obon. The Celts believed that at this time it was easy to
communicate with the dead.
Halloween celebrations.
Countries have different was to celebrate halloween. It is most popular in America.
Children have scary costumes and go from house to house.
Trick or treat?
Children play this game. They go to a house and knock on the door. When a
person comes to the door, the children say "Trick or treat?" If the person
answers "Trick", the children will do something bad (for example empty a
rubbish bin in his garden or take the air out of his bike tyre). If the person
says "treat", he / she gives the children something nice (money, cakes, cola,
sweets) and the children go to the next house.
A Halloween party
Adults sometimes have a halloween party. Many friends come to
your house in fancy dress and you drink, eat, talk with friends, tell
horror stories or watch a horror movie.
Jack-o-lantern A Jack-o-lantern is a face made from a pumpkin.
Paul Moritoshi, The University of Birmingham, 2000.
37
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