Improved Cookstove Programs in East and Central Africa

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Improved Cookstove ProgramsIn East and Central Africaby

Piyansena WickramagamageCountry Studies No. 5

26 December 1991

Risk and Development ProgramEnvironment and Policy InstituteEast-West Center1777 East-West RoadHonolulu, Hawaii 96848 USA


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The East-West Environment and Policy Institute publishes Occasional Papers, WorkingPapers, and Project Papers.Occasional Papers are monograph-length manuscripts, which are subject to internal andexternal peer review, edited, and distributed at a modest cost.Working Papers present results of completed and ongoing research and inform interestedcolleagues about work in progress. They are reviewed internally, edited, and distributed inlimited numbers for comment and discussion.Project Papers present research results with the least possible delay. T hey are approved forpublication by a research associate, are not always reviewed or edited, and are distributed bythe projects.

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Introduction

IMPROVED COOKSTOVE PROGRAMS IN EAST ANDCENTRAL AFRICA: A REVIEW

BY

PIYASENA WICKRAMAGAMAGE

The history of improved cookstove programs in eastern and central Africagoes back to the 1970s, but the rapid proliferation of improved cookstove projectsoccurred in the early 1980s. B y 1983, there were about 100 improved stoveprojects in all developing countries except China, but it was reported that only 10survived over 2 year period (Manibog 1984). The number o f stoves disseminatedby these projects was small but the experience gained has been useful for laterprojects. These failures led to widespread disillusionment in the ICS community,but the success achieved by some projects provided encouragement to those whowere stil l involved in improved cookstove projects. I n recent years, moreevidence of success can be found in the region.

The failure of most projects in the early phase is due to a number ofreasons. Some of the most important causes of failure are that the stoves designedwere neither fuel efficient (Bussmann 1987: 157) nor did they suit the needs andpreferences of the population. A t the same time the projects were targeted towardsrural areas where the incentives for purchasing a fuel-efficient stove did not exist.Realization o f this fact led the ICS projects later to shift focus onto urban areaswhere households spend a substantial amount of their income on domestic fuels.Charcoal, which is an important source of fuel in most urban areas in Africa, isused in a artisan-built stove. Fuel-saving technologies would bring financialbenefits to the urban household.


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Energy efficiency is one o f the main features of the ICS designed by theprojects, but it has become clear that users attach much importance to many otheraspects as well. Wi thout addressing user requirements, it is difficult to win large-scale household acceptance. Th e most successful ICS projects were those that metthese community needs. Fo r example, the Kenyan Ceramic Jiko project, which hasdisseminated the largest number of stoves in the region, incorporated importantfeatures of the widely used traditional charcoal stove while improving it in anumber of ways. The new stove (KCJ) outperforms the traditional stove in termsof energy efficiency, durability, and carbon monoxide emissions (USAM 1988).Energy efficiency is particularly attractive to the user because the cost o f the stoveis recovered within a short time by saving on fuel. Th i s may be the reason forKCJ's popularity among middle- and high-income groups despite its higher price.However, the same stove failed to win acceptance in Rwanda, where householdspreferred a stove with less weight and a more solid pot stand and grill (ESMAP1991). T h i s clearly demonstrates the need of designing stoves for individualcountries taking the community needs into consideration.

In the past many national governments and international donor agencieswere involved in improved cookstove projects in the region with various NG0s,both national and international, acting as implementing agencies. Manyinternational a id agencies provided funds and expertise for ICS projects, the mostprominent among them were NORAD, UNICEF, UNDP, MA, FINNMA, ESMAP,GTZ, EEC, FA O, ILO, IDRC, and USAIR I n addition, several internationalorganizations involved in social welfare work in the region (e.g. CAREInternational, YMCA, YWCA) actively participated in cookstove projects. Thefunds provided by these organizations ranged from a few thousand to hundreds ofthousands of US dollars. Host governments have also provided financial, material,and personnel support (Table 1).


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Table I

Donor Contributions to Some ICS Projects in East and Central AfricaDonor and Project C o n t r i b u t i o nCAREUsika Stove Project (Ceramic -Uganda) $ 63 ,000CARE ICS Project Greater Khartoum $ 144,040DANIDACEINF (Ethiopia) $ 1,053,400ESMAPCEPPE (Ethiopia) $ 100,000FAOSudan $ 4,000,000FINNIDABum Fite'wood Project (Kenya) $ 12,000GTZMandeleo Project (Kenya) $ 3,000,000GTZ-CARMARMC Stove Project $ 900,000Dodoma Stove Project $ 2 , 0 0 0ILOCEPPE (Ethiopia) $ 1 9 ,9 0 0Lutheran World ChurchStove Prog. for Mozambican Ref. (Malawi) $ 500,0 00NetherlandsCEPPE (Ethiopia) 7 5 , 0 0 0NORM)Morogoro Fuelwood Stove Project (Tanzania) $ 7 5 ,0 00Stove Dissemination Program (Zimbabwe) $ 2 7 ,6 9 0Integrated Domestic Energy Project (Zimbabwe) Z $ 187,980Care ICS Project Greater Khartoum (Sudan) $ 409,960Eastern Area Refugee Reforestation Prog. (Sudan) $ 149,0 00

3


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(Table I Cont.)

SIDAImproved Charcoal Stove Evaluation (Zambia) n / aUNHCRMalawi Stove Pro& n / aUnescoStove Project No. 1 (Akak i) - Ethiopia $ 4 , 0 0 0UNDPCEPPE $ 140, 000Stove Prog. for Mozambican Ref. (Malawi) $ 20 0, 00 0Rwanda Imp. Charcoal Stove Proj. n / aUS EmbassyStove Prog. for Mozambican Ref. (Malawi $ 30 0, 00 0USAIDSudan Renewable Energy Project SREP (Sudan) n / aBRET Project (Botswana) $ 3 , 3 0 4KREDP (Kenya) $ 160, 000ATI /KENGO Stove Project (Kenya) $ 248,973Word BankMalawi Stove Prog. (Malawi) n / aWB Urban Stove Study (Botswana) n i aYWCA (World)Imp. Charcoal Stove Project (Uganda) 6 , 0 0 0

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The local organizations involved in cookstove projects fall into two categories:government agencies and non-governmental organizations (NG0). The former hasplayed an active role in research and development o f ICS and has, in some cases,been involved in all stages of ICS projects as in Ethiopia, for example. I n others,NGOs have acted as the implementing agencies with the government playing asupportive role. One such NGO is Kengo which has acquired a national as well as


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a regional reputation in the sphere of ICS programs. N GOs are the most cost-effective medium through which stove programs can be implemented because oftheir close links with the local community (USAID 1988).

LocalMALAWINational Rural Development Program

% Foreign % Total ($)

Charcoal Trials 70,000 54 50,000 46 120,000Energy Studies 395,000 51 385,000 49 780,000MOZAMBIQUE

I. Improved Charcoal andStove ProjectStove Technologist 27,000 38 37,000 62 54,000IL Maputo CoalStove Project 72,990 33 155,000 54 227,990TANZANIA:

I. Dar-Es-Salaam ImprovedCharcoal Project:

73,000 33 150,000 67 223,000IL G TZ/ CARMARTE C Stove Project

300,000 75 100,000 25 (annual)BURUNDI:

Improved Charcoal Project of'Bujumbura Urban DevelopmentAuthority 186,000 44 238,000 56 424,000

RWANDA:160,000 46 185,000 54 345,000

Table 2Local and Foreign Components of Project Expenses

Costs (US$)

Technical expertise required for the project has come mostly from theindustrialized West. Only in a few cases were local experts hired. The Kenyan

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6project which used the services o f a local stove technologist was one of them.Although this would have been ideal for all the projects from a financial as well asa logistical point of view, lack of technical expertise among the local people led tothe use of foreign experts at a considerably higher cost to the project (Table 2).The for eign expenses in some projects account for a substantial portion of theproject expenditure.

Production and Dissemination Strategies

Almost all the projects attempted to establish a sustainable improved stoveindustry through projects activities. Introducing improved designs, training ofartisans to manufacture them, establishing a marketing structure and promotionalcampaigns, and training household members to build their own stoves were themain tasks o f the projects.

Stove production strategies have been adopted by different projects,including production by artisans, small industrial concerns, and the usersthemselves. The project provided the design and technical advise plus somefinancial assistance to the first two categories of producers. Incentives wereoffered to encourage establishing o f a large number of production unitscompetitive in price and quali ty. The bulk of the stoves so far disseminated wereproduced by artisans and small firms. I n Kenya, the most successful producers o fstoves are in the second category; however, the artisans are given subcontracts toproduce various components o f the stove, which would help maintain equalstandards of the product. Those in the third category have had limited success indisseminating stoves. In Kenya, more than 20,000 woodstoves have beendisseminated by the users, but it is doubtful that the dissemination would continueafter the project is over. Furthermore, maintaining the required high standards ofthe stove is di fficul t because the builders are more often than not unskilled or


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semi-skilled in the craft. Therefore, they may not adhere to the critical dimensionsof the stove required to maintain energy efficiency.

Dissemination of ICS has been done through existing commercial channels(Kenya KCJ and Rwanda charcoal stove) or through extension workers. Stoveprojects, which were undertaken by government agencies, have often employedextension workers to distribute stoves (e.g. in Ethiopia). Popularization of userbuilt stoves is also done by extension workers. Although this method has beensuccessful in Asian countries, African projects have not produced comparableresults. Stove dissemination through commercial channels is a more viable option.At least a part of the existing cookstove industry can be converted to produce andsell energy-efficient stoves. Initially, the project has to convince the producers,retailers, and consumers of the benefits o f the ICS to the artisans, small firms, andthe users. The industry thereafter w ill look after itself and this is happening inRwanda and Kenya.

Some stove projects are centralized and the objectives are stated in terms ofstove numbers whereas others are decentralized and their objectives are stated interms of the benefits to the user and the producer (Krugmann 1987). Most earlyprojects were decentralized and run by diverse NG0s, and each project wasconfined to a small region. Th is method is more efficient in rural areas wherepopulation is dispersed in a large geographical area in which communicationfacilities are poor. However, lack of coordination among different projects meantmaking the same mistakes repeatedly. The centralized projects, on the other hand,have the advantage that knowledge gathered through experience is available to allthose involved in the operation of the project, and corrective measures may beimplemented easily. For example, the experience and expertise of Kengo is oftremendous value to future cookstove projects in Kenya. However, implementationof a centralized project in rural areas is not an easy task. A possible solution tothis would be to have small projects in different areas which are coordinated


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through a central organization.

Cookstove projects also vary in the amount of subsidy provided to the user.The Ethiopian cookstove program provided a substantial subsidy to the user,whereas the Kenyan program (KO) provided no direct subsidy. However, the costsof designing the stove, marketing surveys, and advertising campaigns were borneby the project. Th is failure to provide a subsidy in the Kenyan program resulted ina low market penetration among the low-income population, although they werethe main target of the project. B u t subsidy alone would not guarantee the successof a stove project as is clearly demonstrated by the Ethiopian experience.

Implementation of stove projects which involves many distinct tasksessential for their success, is often done in two phases: pilot project phase andlarge-scale dissemination. The typical sequence of events in the pilot project phasemight be identified using the most successful stove projects in the region.

I. Pre-project field surveys to identify household needs, pattern of energyuse, cooking habits, and information on other socioeconomic parametersnecessary for project planning.

2. Research on and development of, an improved stove suitable for localconditions, which would involve testing of traditional stoves in use.

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3. Production and dissemination o f improved stoves for field testing anduser evaluation. Modifications are introduced based on results o f the field survey.

4. Training of artisans in producing the stove.

After successful completion of the pilot phase of the project, the large-scale production and dissemination phase begins. The artisans who have been


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trained would work individually or would be employed by small industrial firms.The stove project runs publicity campaigns to popularize the new stove for aperiod of time. Post-project surveys are carried out to evaluate the performance ofthe stove against set goals.

This sequence o f events is not common to all projects. T h e Kenyan andRwandan projects are unique insofar as implementing these steps. Mo s t projectshave failed at the pilot phase; thus reaching the second phase means that somedegree of success has been attained.

The possibility that a cookstove project would achieve a certain degree o fsuccess depends partly on the way in which fuel and stove are acquired by thehousehold. Smith and Ramalcrishna (1991) have identified the region with thegreatest potential for success as one where both stove and fuel are purchased. Thisincludes most urban areas in Africa. Rural areas, on the other hand, have thelowest potential because neither fuel nor stove is bought by most rural households.The people do not have the capability or incentive to buy either, except wherefuel shortage is severe. Since rural fuel consumption is sti ll not a threat to theforest cover, current efforts in most African countries are directed at urban areasand at rural areas where a severe woodfuel shortage already exists.

The Objectives of Improved Cookstove Programs

The primary objectives o f most cookstove programs have been theconservation of fuelwood a s a solution to the perceived scarcity of domesticfuels in developing countries and to halt deforestation. Deforestation has oftenbeen described as the direct cause o f desertification in sub-saharan Africa. Bu tthere were also other socioeconomic and health considerations that wereintimately connected with woodfuel use (Table 3). I n rural areas, gatheringof fuelwood i s mostly the responsibility o f women and children. Deforestation in


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10some rural areas has diminished the supply from nearby sources and women mustwalk ever-increasing distances from their homes to collect firewood, which meansspending more of their time for this task. In East Africa, many women must walk5-10 km to collect firewood (Manibog 1984). Therefore, by increasing stoveefficiency, it was hoped to reduce the amount of fuelwood required by thehousehold fo r cooking family meals. Domestic health i s not a prominent factorin the African cookstove programs perhaps because most cooking is doneoutdoors and smoke is not perceived to be a serious household health hazard.However, there are situations where concern for air pollution caused by theexcessive burning of woodfuels is expressed. Fo r example, formation of smog

Country 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Botswana XEthiopia X X XKenya X X X X X XMalawi XMozambique X X X X XRwanda X XSudan XTanzania X X X X-Uganda

X XZambia X X XZimbabwe X X

Table 3Main Objectives of the Improved Coolcstove Programs

1. Reducing fuelwood consumption2. Halting deforestation3. Reducing the fuel bil l of the urban poor4. Reducing time spent on gathering fuelwood in rural areas5: Creating income opportunities for the local artisans


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6. Reducing air/domestic pollution7. Poverty alleviation8. Reducing cooking timeduring winter in Maputo (Mozambique) is caused by woodfuel burning, and thelevel of pollution is three times the WHO standards (Ellegard and Lopes 1990).Therefore, reduction of air pollution is one of the objectives o f the MozambicanICS program. B u t the increase in woodfuel burning in winter is for space heatingwhich is not a function of improved stoves. Therefore i t is difficult to understandhow the stove program would reduce air pollution in Maputo without providingalternative fuels (less polluting) for space heating. The Kenya and Tanzaniacookstove programs also hoped to reduce domestic air pollution by improving theefficiency of the stove.

The other objectives listed in Table 3 are not common to all the cookstoveprojects in the region. Different projects, even in a single country, may havedifferent objectives depending on the donor organization. For example, theprojects funded by UNICEF in Kenya were aimed specifically at improvingdomestic health.Success in Meeting the Objectives

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The assumption was tha t the preceding objectives could be achieved bydisseminating improved cookstoves in sufficiently large numbers. Almost all theprojects attempted to achieve thei r goals by helping the local artisans and smallmanufacturers to produce and market the stoves designed by the project, or by traininghousehold members (women i n Kenya) to construct their own stoves. S t o v edesigning and testing accounted for a considerable part of the project's efforts andfinancial resources. Field studies were conducted by some projects to evaluate theperformance of the ICS, to measure the level o f acceptance, and to determine thecooking habits o f the people. Th e cookstove projects were expected to act as a


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12catalyst in creating a demand for the new stove and in setting up of a self-supportingcookstove industry. The achievements to date may be examined with respect to thedefined objectives o f the cookstove projects on the one hand, and with respect to theiroverall impact on the environment and the people, on the other. First, it is importantto examine the success so far achieved in reaching the defined goals.

Woodfuel Saving and Halting Deforestation

The most important single objective o f all the improved cookstove programshas been to reduce the use of woodfuel w ithout curtailing the household cookingactivity. I t was hoped to achieve this objective mainly by improving the efficiencyof the stove, which would require less fuel compared to the traditional stove to cookthe same amount of food.

Two types o f data are available on the field efficiency of the improved stoves,i.e. user responses obtained by questionnaire surveys and field measurements in actualhousehold situations. T h e former has been used to estimate the p e r capita fuelconsumption and the fuel-saving from the ICS. The second type of data is essentiallyquantitative and has a higher degree of reliability. Studies in Kenya and Rwanda haveshown a strong association between measured fuel savings and estimates based onuser perceptions (Joseph 1987; ESMAP 1991). Th i s is an interesting result, butfurther empirical studies may be needed to devise simple methods to monitor fuelconsumption by the improved stoves. Unfortunately, only a few ICS projects haveconducted field surveys to assess the effectiveness of the ICS in achieving the statedgoals. Mo st projects have relied on the laboratory efficiency of the ICS, perhapsbecause of lack of funds for field surveys. Two countries where such surveys havebeen carried out are Kenya and Rwanda, which provide a wealth of information onvarious aspects o f domestic fuel use and the performance of the ICS in the respectivesocioeconomic contexts.

Although most field surveys indicate that the ICS save fuel over the traditional


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13stove, the quantum o f these savings seem to vary tremendously. I n Ethiopia, i t isreported to be only about 8% (Itpower 1990), whereas in Kenya it varies from 10%to 50% depending on the frequency of use (Kapio 1983). Similarly, a figure of 36%is reported from Rwanda (ESMAP 1991). The variations in fuel savings appear tohave been caused by a host o f factors. Some of these identifiable factors

Stove Frequencyof use

Openfire 0.92Traci. CharcoalStove

1.40

CEPPE Stove 1.57Kerosene Stove 3.17Electric Stove 0.26

Table 4Frequency of Stove Use in Ethiopia

(number of times a day)

hpower 1990

are the frequency of use among other biomass stoves, size of the household, whetheror not the stove is replaced when i t is no longer fuel efficient, and household income.Household surveys, after initial dissemination of the improved stoves, have revealedthese stoves are used fo r certain types of cooking functions only (Table 4).

Table 4 also shows that the open fire and the traditional charcoal stove areused more frequently than the improved cookstove. This pattern may vary from


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country to country. I n Kenya, the new improved charcoal stove has replaced thetraditional charcoal stove, as well as non-biomass stoves in many householdsacross all income groups (Kapio 1983:41).

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Not all users o f the improved stove adhered to the guidelines set by thedesigners t o maintain fuel efficiency of the stove. Fore example, some householdswere using fuels other than those that the stove was designed for; some were usingthe stove when i t was deteriorated that i t was no longer fuel efficient. A surveyconducted in Kenya, 6-8 months after distributing the improved stoves, revealed thatmore than 70% o f those given to low-income households used them with brokenliners and/or grates (Kapio 1983). F o r middle- and high-income groups thepercentages were 65 and 35 respectively. The fuel efficiency of the stove declineswith age, but one cannot expect that al l those who own improved stoves wouldreplace them promptly.

The total and per capita woodfuel consumption vary considerably accordingto the income of the household. Hi gher income categories use more non-biomassfuels and therefore the adoption of ICS might not lead to any significant saving ofwoodfuel. The low- and middle-income households are the main woodfuel users.

A concern has been expressed in recent years on the possible increase in theuse of charcoal for cooking purposes because of two reasons. First, the money savedmay be spent on buying more food, which would mean more cooking and use o fmore charcoal. Al though this is a positive achievement as far as social welfare isconcerned, it would, nevertheless, aggravate the woodfuel problem even further. Theamount of money spent on biofuels increases with income (Figure 1) up to a certainlevel and begins to decrease thereafter because of the use of non-biomass fuels suchas electricity and LPG. Improving the income levels may not, therefore, necessarilyincrease woodfuel use. I n Kenya, the majority of those who bought the KC.I belongto middle- and high-income categories, and these groups are less likely than the low-


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income groups to increase their food consumption by using the money saved onTable 5

Rising Charcoal Prices in Lusaka, Zambia

Year P r i c e / 4 0 kg bag (ZK)1978 2 . 5 01983 4 . 0 01986 1 2 . 0 01987 1 6 . 0 0

Source: Chidumayo (1988)

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charcoal. I t must also be remembered that the increasing price of charcoal would alsoincrease the fuel b i l l and may reduce demand (Table 5). A t the same time,increasing fuel prices would lead to even greater financial savings from the ICS.However, it is not possible to arrive at any definite conclusion on this matter withoutfield data to support it. Second, there is a tendency for other fuel users to switchback to charcoal as evidenced in Kenya (see Figure 2), where high-income householdsare switching back to charcoal from other fuels because o f the better security o fsupply and, perhaps, its novelty. Switching from non-biomass fuel to charcoal wouldincrease demand for charcoal, creating a situation where th e cookstove projectsactually contribute to increased woodfuel consumption.

Family size is another factor that affects the overall economy of woodfuel use.The total woodfuel consumption rises with the size of the household (Figure 3a) butthe per capita consumption drops exponentially (Figure 3 b-d). Th i s increasingeconomy of fuel consumption with the increasing household size is better illustratedby the per capita consumption curve. This is particularly important in Africa wherelarge cooking units are common. In Rwanda, for example, the mean family size is


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166.8 (ESMAP 1991), and the maximum savings are achieved at this level (about 36%).The Rwandan graph (Figure 3c) also shows that the per capita fuel consumptionbegins to increase after 6 persons for ICS and the advantage o f the improved stoveover the traditional stove in terms of fuel saving gradually disappears. Th is is aninteresting fact because fuel consumption of traditional stoves continues to decreaseat a slower rate up to about 20 persons in Figure 3b. However, the percentage ofhouseholds wi th more than 10 persons i s less than 15% i n urban areas asdemonstrated by Kenyan figures (Figure 4 ) . I t is premature to take this asconclusive. Nevertheless, most improved stoves appear to be fuel efficient up to acertain size o f the cooking unit and users should be so advised. Although improvedstoves designed for large family units are available, investment on such a stove maynot justify the possible savings over the traditional stove.

Thus, evidence shows that ICS could save fuel at the household level, but itsimpact on the national fuel consumption is negligible for most countries in the regionbecause of the low rate of ICS use. Th e highest level of market penetration of theimproved cookstove was achieved in Kenya (Table 6), particularly in the capital cityof Nairobi where 25% o f the households have bought an improved charcoal stove(KO). A similarly high rate o f market penetration has been reported from Rwanda(ESMAP 1991). A n estimated 20,000 stoves had been disseminated by the end of1990 in Kigali , w h i ch amounts to 20-25% o f the potential market. B u t nocomparable achievements have been reported anywhere else in eastern and southernAfrica; acceptance h as not reached a level to make an appreciable impact on theoverall national fuel consumption.

Woodfuel saving at the national level cannot be determined for countries thathave achieved a high rate of dissemination on the basis of available data. Attemptshave been made to estimate fuel saving by using woodfuel consumption data


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Table 6

Country Urban Rural Sold up toBotswana 1,500 -Ethiopia 900 -Kenya 550,326 52,000 1989Malawi 3,700 -Rwanda 20,000Sudan 16,582 1,382 1987Zimbabwe 10,880 - 1989

Number of Improved Stoves Disseminated

from households selected arbitrarily and from the number of stoves disseminated.

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The total number o f improved stoves disseminated up to now is a direct orindirect result of the stove projects and, therefore, could be used to gauge the impactof the stove programs. Table 6 lists the available statistics from some countries ineastern and southern Africa. The largest number of stoves disseminated is in Kenya,followed by Rwanda, Sudan, and Zimbabwe. But these figures do not say how manystoves are in actual use, or in what frequency at a given time. Studies in Zimbabwehave shown that a high percentage of stoves disseminated are no longer in service(Sithembili 1990), because they are not suitable to the needs of the households. Thisis another example of the failure of stove designers t o appreciate the requirementsand preferences of the community.

In many cases, the number of stoves disseminated is not known; i f known, the


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18frequency o f their use, the number o f ICS in good working condition, relative use ofwoodfuel, and the number of stoves in each household are not known. Field surveysshould be conducted to gather data o n these parameters, wi thout which t h eeffectiveness of the ICS programs cannot be determined. In Kenya, Namuye (1987)reports that some of the households that bought improved stoves continued to usethe other stoves, including the traditional charcoal stove. Therefore, fuel consumptionvaries with various combinations of stoves used.

Very rarely, samples are chosen fo r study o n a scientific basis. T h i sis understandable given the logistic difficulties encountered in such an endeavor.During the early phase of the projects, field testing was done using a sample o fhouseholds who were provided with a stove for the purpose. A t that time it wasadequate because sample data were meant only for the testing of the stove inactual household conditions. But, at least, for the projects which have succeededin disseminating large numbers o f stoves, i t has now become necessary to knowthe impact o f the program on the target population. Th is would require a totallydifferent sampling strategy. Fuel consumption per household, with and without animproved stove, should be measured using a representative sample that wouldprovide information on factors that affect household fuel consumption. I t wouldalso reveal the level of market penetration. Th e sample data can then be used toestimate fuel consumption for various combinations of stoves actually used forcooking in the household.

A number o f countries have attempted to estimate the woodfuel savingachieved by disseminating improved stoves. B y the end o f 1990, charcoal savingsof the improved stoves i n Rwanda was estimated to be 7.5%. Sti l l this is amodest figure at this level, but the rate of dissemination is such that this figure isexpected to increase rapidly in the near future. Similar estimates have been madefor Kenya too.


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19Urban woodfuel use appears to be fa r more environmentally damaging

than rural use because, first, both wood and charcoal are obtained mostly bycutting down trees and, second, woodfuel production takes place in areas with analready depleted forest cover. Another contributory factor to this situation is thetraditional method of charcoal production throughout Africa, which has beendescribed as highly wasteful because i t uses excessive amounts o f wood thannecessary to produce a unit of charcoal. The charcoal recovery rate (defined as theweight of charcoal as the percentage of wet wood input) of the small earth kilns isgenerally reported to be 10-15 % (Fo ley and Van Buren 1980); in Rwanda thisis estimated to be as low as 5-9% (ESMAP 1991). A t first, charcoal production isdone mainly in forests close to the urban centers. When these sources aredepleted, its production moves farther and farther from the centers o f consumption.In Sudan, deforestation in an area up to a distance of 800 km from Khartoum isattributed to charcoal production (USAID 1988). Charcoal production forKhartoum alone is estimated as accounting fo r the clearfelling of 8000-15,000 haof forest per year (USAir) 1988). Th is estimate, however, is arrived at byconverting the volume of wood required to produce the charcoal that is consumedper year in the city of Khartoum, and not by measuring actual deforestation in anylocality and, therefore, may not represent the actual rate of deforestation.Nevertheless i t shows the rate of charcoal use in terms of actual forest.Recognition that charcoal use is more environmentally damaging than firewooduse led a number of African countries (e.g. Tanzania and Rwanda) to imposerestrictions on charcoal production and transportation. The successful attempts bythe Rwandan government to regulate charcoal production and transportation areevident from Table 7, which shows that most of the charcoal production inRwanda is now taking place in designated forest plantations. Information on the


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Table 7Zone of Origin of Charcoal Sold in Kigali in 1987

Prefecture Natural Forest(To)

Plantations(%)

Gikongoro 3.2 96.8Kbuye 11.6 88.4Kibungo 46.3 53.7Kigali 0.0 100.0Gitarama 0.0 100.0Byumba 0.0 100.0

Source: ESMAP (1991)

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effect o f charcoal production on the forest cover is patchy, and it is not possible todetermine i ts impact accurately. Charcoal, however, is the most important fuel inmost African cities. Because of the depleting forest cover around the urbancenters, i t is impossible to maintain the supply at a level sufficient to satisfy thegrowing demand. M o s t African countries are experiencing a rapid rate ofurbanization, which is l ikely to increase the supply-demand gap i f the present levelof consumption continues. B u t the available evidence indicates that urban energyuse is highly dynamic and readily adjustable to prevailing fuel prices and supply(Table 8). Fuel switching, which is common i n urban areas, occurs mostly frombiomass to non-biomass fuels, which are the preferred fuel in urban households.Most urban households use a range o f fuels and possess several different types ofstoves. Th e relative importance of a given fuel in the household energy budgetdepends on its availability, price, and household income. High-income groupstend to use more non-biomass fuels in most urban areas. In fact, there seems to bea negative relationship between urbanization and the percentage of woodfuel use inthe domestic energy budget (Figure 5),


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Table 8Changing Pattern of Domestic Fuel Use in

Addis Ababa (% use)Type of Fuel 1985

% Use1986

% Use1989/90% Use

Fuelwood 94 67 42Charcoal 91 85 55Kerosene 37 73 92Electricity 21 25 37

Source: Itpower (1990)

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Thus, i t seems that the urban domestic fue l market also tends to respondrapidly to factors such as fuel prices, and security of supply. The urban lifestyleis such that, given the opportunity, the household is l ikely to switch to moreconvenient forms of domestic fuel such as kerosene, gas, and electricity. Such ashift is quite unlikely in the rural sector as long as biomass fuel is available at nocost. Although the rural household is switching from high-grade to low-gradebiomass fuel against growing scarcity, their urban counterparts are more likely toshift from the traditional fuels when the circumstances permit them to do so. I nEthiopia, this shift took place when kerosene imports were liberalized, and mosthouseholds preferred non-biomass fuels because of their convenience, speed ofcooking, and cleanliness (Itpower 1990). Th e major constraining factor, whichprevents this shi ft from taking place rapidly than i t does now, is the cost ofappliances for the non-biomass fuels and supply problems. Non-biomass fuels are


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cheaper than the biomass fuels in Zimbabwe and Tanzania; yet, their use isrestricted by the high cost of the appliances (Karekezi 1990). I n Kenya, however,such fuels are too expensive, and the high import bi ll for petroleum products iscausing balance-of-payment difficulties. Therefore, such fuels are not a viableoption to all countries in the region, unless indigenous sources o f energy areharnessed.

22

Although woodfuel use may not be a major contributory factor todeforestation in general, reduction in consumption is all the more important for anumber of reasons. First, deforestation would continue to take place, particularly indensely populated areas, with or without woodfuel use. That means the furtherdepletion of the woodfuel resource base and therefore, i t demands more efficientuse of what is rapidly becoming scarce a resource. Second, burning o fwoodfuels in poorly ventilated kitchens poses a health risk to the women andchildren. I n addition, there are other equally important concerns such as helpingthe poor to reduce their fuel bill and saving time spent on fuel gathering in ruralareas. Arresting deforestation by reducing woodfuel consumption no longerappears to be a realistic objective except in a few cases, and therefore moreattention should be paid to the other benefits of reducing woodfuel use.

Social Welfare

The majority of the low-income groups in urban Africa depend on biomassfuels as a source o f domestic energy supply; they have l ittle capability to switch ton o n-b i om as sf ue lsevenw

domestic fuel use according to income is illustrated by Table 9.


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Table 9Percentage Domestic Fuel Consumption by Different Income Groups

(a) Mal aw iFuel type High-income Mid-income Low-income

Wood 8 25 75Charcoal 11 47 21Electricity 80 26 2Other 2 2 2

Wood 6 82Charcoal 69 65Kerosene 20 18Gas 54 6

(b) Kenya

Source: O'keele and Munslow (1989)

23

Since the urban poor fmds i t increasingly difficul t to pay for the fuels fordomestic use, one o f the main objectives of the improved cookstove programs hasbeen to reduce the fuel bi ll of these people. I n most African counties, particularlyin urban areas, people have to pay for both the fuel and the stove. Poorer classesof the population must spend a greater portion of their household income on fuelthan the higher income categories. Th is is clearly shown by the Ethiopian data(ILO 1987). The percentage o f household income spent on fuel excludingelectricity in relation to average income is shown by Figure 6.


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4.3 Increasing Income of Artisans

Increasing the income of the local artisans is another objective in a majorityof the cookstove programs. I t depends directly on the level of market penetration,which is stil l to be realized in most countries of the region. However, where thedemand is high, the income potential to the artisans and agents seems to be high asillustrated by the figures fo r Kenya (Table 10).

Table 10Profits Made by Selling KCJ and the Traditional Metal Stove (TMS)

(per month)

Pollution Control

No. of Retailers N o. of TMS Sold P r o f i t N o . of KCJa Sold P r o f i tInterviewed ( I t s h )

6 4 6 5 5 , 2 0 0 5 5 0 1 9 6 0

24

But i t would be extremely difficult to maintain an even standard of quality,particularly in the fuel-efficiency aspects o f the stove, when the production ishandled by artisans. So, handing over production to artisans may jeopardize themain objectives of the improved cookstoves, particularly since implementation ofquality control of the products is not an easy task in developing countries.

Smoke is a household health hazard in traditional kitchens, and women andchildren are the most affected by this, particularly when cooking is done indoors.In most African homes, cooking is done outdoors and, therefore, this problem isnot as acute as in other parts o f the world. Reducing domestic pollution has not


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been an objective of cookstove projects, except in a few countries likeMozambique, Kenya, and Tanzania. However, reductions in the emission ofhazardous gases and particulates are a benefit to the household whether it isintended or not.

Institutional Stove

A sizable portion of woodfuel use is attributed to institutional consumptionand industrial uses. I n Kenya, more than 5,000 institutions use firewood forcooking. Th e efficiency of these stoves in use is very low compared to those thathave been improved, as demonstrated in Tanzania. A survey has revealed that tocook the same type of food a traditional institutional stove consumes 528 kg offirewood, whereas the improved stove requires only 92 kg of wood (Mutaboyerwa1990). I f this can be achieved, a substantial amount of woodfuel would be saved.

A few improved cookstove programs have developed and marketedimproved institutional stoves as well. I n Kenya, for example, there are twocharcoal and seven woodburning institutional stoves in the market. I t has beenreported that the production cannot meet the demand for institutional stoves inBurundi. Th is appears to be an area with tremendous potential because theimproved stoves would likely make a perceptible difference even in the short runin terms o f fuel savings.

Reasons for Failure

The majority o f stove projects in the region have failed to take off theground. Th i s failure to disseminate a reasonable number of stoves, or even tocreate an awareness among the population of the benefits of the new stove, i s

25


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because o f a number of reasons. The most important reasons may be listed asfollows:

4. Some projects paid l ittle attention to marketing. For example, the

26

1. Th e improved stove failed to compete wi th the traditional stove withrespect to a number of its functions. I n the rural areas open fire is stil l widely usedfor cooking. The traditional stove is highly versatile in that i t adapts to pot sizes andcooking functions, i t is easy to construct and does not cost anything to the householdand is functional with a range o f biomass fuels. Th e improved stove is not capableof imitating the openfire in many important ways.

2. The cost o f the improved stove is much higher than the traditional stove.In most African countries, commercially produced stoves are already i n use,particularly in urban areas. T h e new improved stove has to compete wi th thetraditional charcoal stove, which is affordable to most low-income households. Th isfact is wel l illustrated in the Sudan. Ou t of 366,200 charcoal stoves sold in 1985,only 6,600 were improved stoves. This is partly due to production difficulties andpartly due to the high price of the stove compared to the traditional stove. Althoughthe improved stove was targeted for the low-income groups, the price o f the stoveis not within their reach.

3. So me stove projects were adversely affected by production relatedproblems. Raw material scarcity is the main constraint to the rapid spread of stovesin Sudan. This factor should have been looked into during the design phase of thestove. Instances have been reported where quality control could not be maintained;as a result, stoves cracked prematurely and this would have had a negative impacton the marketing of the stove (in Somalia, Rennet 1988). Introduction of theJigger-Jolley machine for working clay made i t possible to use poor quality clay.However, this led to the production of inferior liners that cracked quickly.


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27BRET stove project in Botswana failed to disseminate even its initial productionduring project-life, although the households who acquired the improved stoveswere later found to be satisfied with its fuel efficiency (Bennet 1988). Th eproject failed to set up a sustainable production and marketing network. Therefore,production stopped when the project ended. This would have a damaging effecton user-confidence in the stove.

5. Although the stove projects, except perhaps a handful, had a modestbudget, a sizable proportion of that was spent on foreign experts and importedgoods such as motor vehicles. Such expenditures should have been kept to aminimum. Hiring of local or regional experts, where possible, would have saved aconsiderable amount of money for the project_

Despite these failures there seems to be a glimmer of hope as betterformulated new projects show some success. Th is tendency may even be partlyfrom the general dynamics of the diffusion of innovations in a population that ismostly rural and illiterate. Households begin to respond positively to theinnovation when they are convinced that it is beneficial to them.Charcoal Production

Another area that has received some attention from ICS and energyprojects is the charcoal production process. The traditional method of productionhas only 5 to 15% recovery rate. This means the use of charcoal in itsel f is highlyinefficient. Improved kilns have been marketed in a number of countries in theregion, but the cost of the kiln is still too high for small-scale producers. I nKenya, most of the charcoal producers fa l l into this category. T h e wastefulnature of charcoal production and use has been demonstrated by O'Keefe et al.(1984:40).


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Energy in E n e r g y Available E f f e c t i v e EnergyOriginal Wood t o Stove

Woodfuel > 1 0 0 > 1 0 0 = = = > O p e n f t r e = = = > 10.0Woodfuel > 1 0 0 =>Kiln > 24 ====> Jiko ====> 4.8

Energy in joules

Tests conducted in Rwanda have revealed that 50% of the wood may besaved by increasing the efficiency of the charcoal production process. However,much remains to be done in this area.

Conclusions

28

The stove projects that achieved high rates o f dissemination are those thatdesigned stoves to match the needs of the community. Sometimes these needstend to overlap with the goals of the project, but very often they are different andneed to be understood before designing energy-efficient stoves. Th e y also varyfrom country to country, therefore, a stove successfully disseminated in onecountry may not win widespread acceptance in another, as shown by the Rwandanexperience.

Experience suggests that urban areas show the greatest potential for thesuccess of a stove project, particularly where commercially built stoves are in use.This is because the use of ICS brings direct financial benefits to the consumer,producer, and trader. I t has been demonstrated that the cost of the ICS, i f usedproperly, could be recovered within about a month. Where commercially producedstoves are not used at the moment, i t would take a longer time to convince thehousehold of the stove's benefits. The ICS in such situations have to competeWith the user-built openfire, which most improved stove designs cannot imitate.


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29Although commercialization of the ICS industry may not have seriously

hampered the dissemination rate of stoves among middle- and high-incomehouseholds, i t appears to be the cause of the low rate of acceptance among thelow-income households. Most households in this group are unable to make theinitial investment on the stove, although it can reduce their fuel bi ll substantially i fadopted. The situation is similar to that in which most low-income households buysmall quantities o f fuel and pay higher prices because they cannot afford to buylarge quantities even though they are aware of the possible savings. I t may benecessary for the government to intervene here and provide some form of subsidyor a loan to these households. N o t only do the households in this category dependon wood fuels, but they also form the majority of the population. They also spendup to about 25% of their income on energy sources. Projects that provided asubsidy failed to win acceptance from the households because the stoves they weredisseminating did not cater to the needs of the households.

The middle- a n dh i g h-i n c om eh ou se ho l dsarethelargestu

biomass fuels in most of urban Africa. Popularization of ICS among them couldin fact increase woodfuel use as seen in Kenya. Th is would be a drawback o f theproject only i f the absolute number o f households switching back to woodfuel islarge. Ve ry often the size of this group is so small that its impact is negligible.

Both Kenyan and Rwandan programs appear to have benefitted from theexistence o f a traditional cookstove industry. Artisans are already familiar with theproduction process, and existing commercial channels of distribution can easily beconverted to ICS i f the producers and retailers can have a greater profit marginfrom them. Both these projects have demonstrated that the profit margin from theICS is greater than that of the traditional stove.

One of the major reasons for the promotion of improved stoves in theregion is to reduce deforestation and associated desertification. Production of


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30woodfuel for the urban market appears to be more damaging to the forest coverthan would fuel use in rural areas. Rura l households very rarely cut trees to obtainfirewood for their use. Therefore, the current trend of concentrating more onurban areas seems logical from the view point of pmtecting the forest cover. Bu tit is hard to imagine that i t would save the forest cover in any significant waybecause there are other more important causes o f deforestation. However, theurban improved stove projects at least would conserve a diminishing resource andteach people to use i t with more efficiently.

One area that has received much less attention, but which has shownconsiderable potential, is the institutional stoves. The potential for fuel savingfrom these stoves is significantly high and, therefore, would help to cut down thefuel bill. Only in a few countries have institutional stoves been tried Out, but theresults suggest that considerable fuel savings are possible by improving theefficiency of these stoves.


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References3 1

Bennet, K. (1988) Report on the Improved Cookstove Projects in Developing Countries,Danida, Copenhagen, Denmark.Bussmarm, P. J. T. (1987) Woodstoves: Theory and Applications in Developing Countries,Eindhoven, The Netherlands.Chidumayo, E. (1988) Woodfuel forestry issues: The Zambian experience, In: UNDP/ESMAP(ed) Proceedings of the ESMAP Eastern and Southern Africa Household EnergySeminar, Harare, Zimbabwe, 51-59.Ellegard, A. and Lopes, J. (1990) Quick and Dirty: The Maputo Coal Stove Project 1 9 85-89 , Energy, Environment and Development Series N o . 1 , Stockholm EnvironmentInsfitute/SIDA, Stockholm.ESMAP (1 9 9 1 ) R wa nd a : Commercialization o f Improved Charcoal Stoves andCarbonization Techniques - Mid-Term Report, ESMAP Operations Div. Energy andIndustry Dept., The World Bank, Washington, D. C.Foley, G. and Van Buren A. (1980) Coal Substitution and Other Approaches to Easing thePressure on Woodfuel Resources: Case Studies in Senegal and Tanzania, 1114D ,

London.ILO (1987) Cooking Efficiency Planning in Ethiopia (CEPPE) Phase I, Final report to theEthiopian National Energy Committee (ENEC), Ministry of Mines, Geneva.Itpower (1990) Ethiopia n Cooking Efficiency Programme (Energy I ) : Analyses ofLongitudinal and User Acceptability Survey Updates (Dec. 89-Feb. 90), UnpublishedReport.Joseph, S. (1987) A n Appraisal of the Impact of Improved Wood Stove Programmes:Synthesis of Experience, Biomass Energy Systems Technology, Sydney, Australia.Kapio, R. (1983) Development and Field Test of the Kenya Ceramic Stove, Technical

Report No. 1, Kengo, Nairobi, Kenya.Karekezi, S. (1990) Stove Activities in East and Southern Africa. Draft report of amission to Eastern and Southern Africa, FWD.

Krugmann, H. (1987) Review of Issues and Research Relating to Improved Cookstoves,


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International Development Research Centre Manuscript Report, IDRC-MR152e.32

Manibog, F. R. (1984) Improved cooking stoves in developing countries: Problems andOpportunities, Ann. Rev. Energy 9:199-227.

Mutaboyerwa, S. (1990) Monitoring and Evaluating of Stove Projects (A paper presented atEvaluation Workshop held in Arusha, Tanzania on 23-27 July, 1990).Namuye, S. A . (1987) Survey on Dissemination and Impact o f the Kenya Ceramic Jiko inKenya, Kengo, Nairobi, Kenya.O'Keefe, P., Ruskin, P. and Bemow, S. (1984) En e rg y and Development in Kenya:Opportunities and Constraints, Beijer Institute and Scandinavian Institute o f AfricanStudies, Sweden.O'Keefe, P. and Munslow, B. (1989) Urban fuelwood challenges and dilemmas, EnergyPolicy, July/Aug.Sithembile, N. (1990) Monitoring and evaluation of stove programmes in Zimbabwe (A paperpresented at Evaluation Workshop held in Arusha, Tanzania on 23-27 July, 1990).Smith, K.R. and Ramalcrishna, J. (1991) Improved cookstove programs: Where are we now?Background Report # 4, EWC/ESMAP/UNDP Global Review of Improved CookstovePrograms, ESMAP, World Bank, Washington.

USAID (1988) Energy Efficient Stoves in East Africa:An Assessment of the Kenya CeramicJiko (Stove) Program, Report o f the Office of Energy (S&T/EY), Bureau for Scienceand Technology and Regional Economic Development Services Office fo r East andSouthern Africa.


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35

30

10

5

FIG. 1Household Income and Monthly Fuel Bill

--

-

-

0 1 0 0 2 0 3 3 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 6 0 0 W O 8 0 0 9 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0Household Income (birrimonth)


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5 8 0

-E 7 00g

-71a50

"18_o40

04g 3 0bi) 2 045t4 toa4

FIG. 2Switching to Charcoal from Other Fuels After Introduction of KO in Kenya90

Kerosene LPG Electricity firewood TMS


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30

2.0

1.0

0 0

0

(a) Family Size and Fuel Consumption in Nairobi

0

Fig. 3

5 1 0Family Size

(Source: Narnuye 1987)

10Family Size

15 20

(b) Family Size and Per Capita Fuel Consumption (Trad. Stove)

20


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101:4. 9.W 01zztn

g 0 . 7C0 0.64-1 0.5cL4

0.4

0.3

(c) Family Size and Per Capita Fuel Consumption in Kigali

0.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

04,2

E ft

-

0,,

,

0 Traditiona l Stove Improved Stove

o f t .m o b - -0

1 3 5 7Family Size

(Source: ESMAP 1991)

9 11

(d) Family Size and Per Capita Fuel Consumption (Nairobi)A

A

A

AA A A A

A A

A

AA A A

5

Family Size15 20

PerCapaFCmokd


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20

15

5

Fig. 4Household Size Distribution in Nairobi

10 1 5Household Size

20 25


40/44

11010090

72) S O70

e> 6 0ta)4> 5 04.)C14 40

30

20

I I I

FIG. 5Urbanization and Woodfuel Use

10 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0Percentage Urban Population in Some African Countries


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80

70'15=11.t 6 00V& 50cneu5 4 00c))-90 3 0t 05c0u zo1-uaL

10

o

FIG. 6Household Income and Percentage Spent on Fuel

--

-

-

-

I- 0 i Ii1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 6 0 0 7 0 0 S O OHousehold Income (birrimonth)

900 1000 1100


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&


43/44

IMPROVED BIOMASS COOKSTOVE PROGRAMSA GLOBAL REVIEW

A Project of the East-West Center, theEnergy Sector Management Assistance Program (World Bank), and theUnited Nations Development Program

Principal Investigator: Ki rk R. Smith, East-West CenterSummary"An Evaluation of improved Biomass Cookstove Programs: Prospects for Success or Failure."Available from ESMAP, World Bank, 181E3 H Street, KW., Washington, D.C., 20433.

Main Reports1. "Results and Analysis of the Global Survey of Improved Cookstove Programs," J.

Ramakrishna. (Surv ey done in collaboration with the Foundation for WoodstoveDissemination, Nairobi; Association Bois de Feu, Paris; and the Center for MesoamericanStudies on Appropriate Technology, Guatemala.)

3. " The Hearth as System Central," KR. Smith.Country Studies (All final)1. 1 11 0 0-m i l li o nI mp ro ve dCookstovesinChina

& K.R. Smith."The Indian National Improved Stoves Program," J. Ramakrishna.

3. "Impr ov ed Cookstove Programs in Sri Lanka: An Evaluation," J. Bialy."The Status of Improved Cookstove Programs in Nepal," G.S. Shrestha, H G Gorkhati, &KR. Smith."Improved Cookstove Programs in East and Central Africa: A Review,"Wickramagamage

Background Reports1. "The Economics of Improved CoOkstove Programs," F. Hitzhusen.

"Evaluation Criteria for Improved Cookstove Programs: Assessment of Fuel Savings,"Bialy."Social and Organizational Aspects of Improved Cookstove Programs," S. Pandey."Health Effects of Biomass Smoke:. A B r i e fS u r v e yo fC u r r e n t

"Improved Stove Programs: Where are We Now?" K.R. Smith & J. Rarnakrishna.


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THE EAST-WEST CENTER was established in Hawaii in 1960 by th e United States Congress"to promote better relations and understanding between the United States and the nationsof Asia and the Pacific through cooperative study, training, and research!"Some 2,000 research fellows, graduate students, and professionals in business and govern-ment each year work with the Center's inte rnational staff on major Asia-Pacific issues relat-ing to population, economic and trade policies, resources and the environment, culture andcommunication, and international relations. Since 1960, more than 27,000 men and womenfrom the region have participated in the Center's cooperative programs'Off icially known as the Center for Cultural and Technical Interchange Between East and West, Inc., the Center is a public, non-profit institution with an international board of gover-nors. Principal funding comes f rom the United States Congress Su pport also comes frommore than twenty Asian and Pacific governments, as well as private agencies and corperations. -

THE EAST-WEST ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY INSTITUTE (EAPI) was established in October1977. Through in terdiscip linary and multinational programs of research and training, the In-stitute seeks to develop concepts and methods fo r sustainable environmental managementand to address major environmental issues of the Asia Pacific .r e g i o n . P r o g r a m p l a n sa n dprojects are developed and tarried out in collaboration withcolleagues from the region andothers throughout the world. Results of Institute programs are disseminated through books,journal articles, occasional papers, working papers, newsletters, and othe r educational andinformational materials.Reconciling development with the environment by bringing social

- a n d n a t u r a l s y s t e m snto harmony with one another is EAP!'s overall objective Achievement of this objective in-volves both maintaining environmental quality and improving the quality of human lif e Tohelp attain these interlinked goals, EAPI draws on the knowledge base of th e natural andsocial sciencest o develop and disseminate new tools for policyrnaking,.management, edu-cation, and research. Work of the Institute is organized within four programs that interactsubstantially with each other and with other institutes and programs of the East-West Center.

Documents

Improved Cookstove Programs in East and Central Africa