The Limit of Artificial IntelligenceJunmin Luo

Collage of Computer Scienceand Engineering

Xi'an Institute of technology710032, P.R. China

E-mail:robertjm l26.com

Abstract-The characteristics of human mind aresummarized up after the structure, functions and the workingprocedure of the eight consciousnesses and the humanknowledge structure in consciousness-only psychology havebeen introduced; The concept of super-languages is putforward after the elements of human intelligence simulatedwith computers and the development tendency ofprogramming languages have been analyzed; It is theconclusion of this paper that processing the formalized partialinformation is the limit of artificial intelligence.

I. INTRODUCTION

It is generally known that the prime purpose of inventingelectronic computers is for science computing. Humanintelligence is needed in science computing. From then onhuman has presumed upon that the computers would domore things that are done by human with his intelligence.Impelled by the hypothesis the generations of computers arehaving been updated. Enlarging memory capacity,improving computing speed and cqntrolling the more andmore I/O device types are the development tendency ofhardware; The focus to basic elements of software is fromfunction modules through objects to agents [5]; Theevolution of computer architectures is from singlecomputers through networks and distributed systems toMAS [2]. It is a great achievement for human to simulate hisself intelligence with computers that computers have beenused in many aspect of our life. It is the introduction of theconcepts of agents and MAS, the research for the mindstatus and the sociability of agents that have enhanced thedegree of similarity between computer in-telligence andhuman intelligence [3,4]. Then what is the structure ofhuman mind? How does it work? Is it possible to simulatehuman intelligence as a whole with computers? Which partsand which functions ofhuman mind have been simulated uptill now? Which works will be done to simulate humanintelligence with computers more similarly? These issueswill be discussed in this paper.

H. THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN MIND BASED ONCONSCIOUSNESS-ONLY PSYCHOLOGY

A. The Structure ofthe Eight Consciousnesses

Shouqi ZhengInstitute ofNeocomputerXi'an Jiaotong University

710049, P.R. ChinaE-mail: zhengsq@mail.xjtu.edu.cn

In consciousness-only psychology everything in thecosmos including physical and spiritual, existent andun-existent, reality and empty, etc. is called as Dharma, theform and implication of Dharma are called as Character,Dharma and Character as a whole are called as Faxiang[1,9].Human mind is divided into eight consciousnesses for

describing the structure of human mind more accurately inconsciousness-only psychology. They are the eighthconsciousness(The Alaya Consciousness), the seventhconsciousness(The Manas Consciousness), the sixthconsciousness(The Thought Consciousness), the fifthconsciousness(The Tactile Consciousness), the fourthconsciousness(The Gustatory Consciousness), the thirdconsciousness(The Olfactory Consciousness), the secondconsciousness(The Auditory Consciousness) and the firstconsciousness(The Visual Consciousness). The structure ofthe eight consciousnesses is shown in Fig. 1. Faxiang isregarded as the only showing of the eight consciousnesses'functions in consciousness-only psychology, which is calledas Faxiang-Consciousness-only for short.

Fig. 1 The structure ofthe eight consciousnesses

In the structure the eighth consciousness is also called asThe Repository Consciousness. There are three meaningincluded in it: (1) Subject-store. The eighth consciousnesscan store everything in it. (2) Object-store. The eighthconsciousness is a storehouse where everything is stored. (3)Attachment-store. The eighth consciousness keepseverything in it not to vanish and not to mistake.

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The seventh consciousness is also called as The SelfConsciousness. One of its primary functions is to perceivethe subjective position of the eighth consciousness anderroneously regard it as one's own ego, thereby creating egoattachment. "An ego" means that a person possesses apermanently unchanged subject and some capability so thatthe person has made a distinction between himself and the-environment all around.The sixth consciousness is also called as The

Discriminatory Consciousness. It bases on the seventhconsciousness. It is able to gather the sense data derivedfrom the prior five sense consciousnesses, to discriminate allthe aspects of the environment, to generalize the entire ideaof the environment, to analyze it with the past experiences,to form judgment, and to control the five organs to react tothe environment. The procedure is called as thesimultaneous-six-consciousness, because the sixthconsciousness and one or all of the prior fiveconsciousnesses take part in it. Consciousness-onlypsychologists regard the environment and the organsparticipated in the simultaneous-six-consciousness as ashowing of the past experiences that have been stored in theeighth consciousness while conditions are ready. Except thesimultaneous-six-consciousness there is anotherconsciousness phenomena called as theonly-sixth-consciousness. The prior five consciousnesses donot participate in only-sixth-consciousness, such as thinking,dreaming, etc. In only-sixth-consciousness the objects ofsense are the absolute images that have been stored in theeighth consciousness.The prior five consciousnesses, the visual consciousness,

auditory consciousness, olfactory consciousness, gustatoryconsciousness and tactile consciousness, refer torespectively the five sense functions of the five senseorgans, eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin.

B. The Functions ofthe Eight ConsciousnessesIn consciousness-only psychology the functions of the

eight consciousnesses are divided into the five categories,among which there are fifty-one. They are:

1st, the five pervasive functions, that go and operate in allplaces and times. They are always present.

l.Contact, The mental function that bringsconsciousnesses to contact with external situation. It is apremise of sensation, perception and volition.

2.Attention, The mental function that alarmsconsciousnesses to be care for external objects. Contactmeans that the mental functions are produced from theexternal objects. Attention means that the external objectsare produced from the mental functions. The relationbetween Attention and Contact is like the relation betweenan acting force and an anti-acting force.

3.Sensation, the feeling from Attention and Contact, suchas happiness, agony ,etc.

4.Perception, The mental function that analyses the

environment and formats concepts.5. Volition, the reaction to the environment.The five pervasive functions act in succession. One is

stirring while another follows.2nd, the five special functions, mental states which arise

according to the various objects or conditions. A specialmental function judges special objects. The five specialfunctions are the complement of the five pervasivefunctions.

1. Desire, the mental function that hopes to receive theobjects that the mind likes.

2. Deciding, the mental function of making clear exactlywhat the object is.

3. Recollection, the operation of the mind of notforgetting an object.

4. Concentration, the operation of the mind ofconcentrating an object.

5. Judgment, the mental function of discriminating therelative and the absolute, cutting off doubt.

3rd, the eleven good functions, the mental function ofdoing goodness (be omitted) .

4th, the twenty six affliction functions, the mentalfunction of doing evil (be omitted)

5th, the four indeterminate functions , the mentalfunctions that arise irregularly, and do not have apredilection for good or evil.

1. Remorse , Reflecting on one's own prior actions.2.Torpor.3. Investigation, the function of the mind that gives a

general view of a thing.4.Analysis , the mental function of examining the

principle of a thing in detail. It is the complement ofInvestigation.The five pervasive functions are common functions of the

eight consciousnesses. The eighth consciousness possessesthis group of functions only. The sixth consciousnesspossesses all fifty-one functions. The seventh consciousnesspossesses Judgment and twelve affliction functions besidesthe pervasive functions. The prior five consciousnessespossess thirteen affliction functions besides the pervasivefunctions, the special functions and the good functions.

C. The Working Procedure ofHuman MindAccording to the consciousness-only psychology, the

reality world that we sense including our body, our mentalaction and the environment all around us(called as Actualitybriefly) is a manifesting of the past experience impressionthat has stored in the eighth consciousness and possessessome potential(called as Seeds briefly) when theconditions are all prepared. Therefore it is a fact that theprior seven consciousnesses are the effect caused by theseeds in the eighth consciousness, at the same time theactively prior seven consciousnesses that possesses somepotential as Seeds are stored by the eighth consciousness.Thus the eighth consciousness as Seeds and the prior seven

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consciousnesses as Actuality are cause-effect each other.This simultaneous cause-effect relation is summed up asfollows:

1. Seeds cause Actuality.2. Actuality causes Seeds.3. Seeds cause Seeds.4. Actuality causes Actuality.The seventh consciousness which grasps the storing and

manifesting functions of the eighth consciousness as 'ainternal self' is a continuous connector between the eighthconsciousness and the prior six consciousnesses. It as basisof the prior six consciousnesses' functions runs through themental activity of the prior six consciousnesses.The prior five consciousnesses receive the objects of form,

sound, smell, taste and touch respectively and formalizeintuition. Having discriminated the objects, formalizedsensation and generated concepts the sixth consciousnessanalyzes the environment, reasons, judges and reacts to theenvironment. In fact the intuition formalized by the fivesenses has changed when the sixth consciousness formalizesthe sensation, that is, an updated situation showscontinuously and analogically. Thereby there is a deviationbetween the objects of our sixth consciousness and thereality world. The mental activity of our sixth consciousnessis a shadow of the reality world.

D. The Relationship among Ones' self Consciousnessand Others'The issue we have discussed above is ones' self

consciousness. In fact other individuals are part of ones' selfenvironment in his consciousness while a person is part ofothers' environment in their consciousnesses. Therefore itopens up a magnificent cosmic prospect, in which 'I' as apart is in 'You' and 'You' as a part is in 'I'. One is all and allis one. There is neither any object and nor any subject.Everything is totally equal in nature. As a matter of fact theeight consciousnesses are hypothesis for talkingconveniently because every consciousness consists of manyfactors. If there were not these factors there would be notany consciousness. Let's look at the subject, including ourbody and mind, which is possessed by an individual anddifferent for each other. The body is the common part thatcan be perceived by others. The neural system is the specialpart that can't be perceived by others. The object, theenvironment around us, is possessed by the all membersliving in it. The land or houses are the special parts in thecommon parts for the relations between every body andthem is close or loose, but the sun, the moon and the starsare the common parts in the common parts for they arepossessed by everybody.

E. The Knowledge StructureHuman knowledge is divided into 'subject' and 'object' in

the consciousness-only psychology. The subject refers to thecognition capability of human mind. The object is what has

been known. Everything is included in the object and thesubject is a part of the object. Otherwise if the subject wasnot the object the subject would not know that the subjectitself has the cognition functions. The relation between'subject' and 'object' shows in Fig.2.

Object

Fig.2 'subject' v. 'object'

In detail human knowledge can be divided into fiveclasses in the consciousness-only psychology.

1st, Mind, there are eight kinds which are discussed insection A.

2nd, Mental Properties, there are fifty-one kinds which arediscussed in section B.

3rd, Material Existence, there are eleven kinds:1. Sight Organ. 2. Sound Organ. 3. Smell Organ. 4. Taste

Organ. 5. Touch Organ. 6. Sight Object. 7. Sound Object. 8.Smell Object. 9. Taste Object. 10. Touch Object. 11. MindObject all material elements that are included as objects ofthe six senses that are not covered under the categories ofthe five organs and the five objects. That is, there are someobjects of the mind which are included as material elements.

4", Elements Not Concomitant With Mind, there aretwenty-four elements that are not included in 1st, 2nd, 3tdand 5th groups.

1. Acquisition.- 2. Life Potential. 3. Uniformity. 4.Individuality. 5. Mental Training Leading To Un-consciousness. 6. Mental Training Leading To TheCessation Of All Existence. 7. Unconsciousness. 8. Words,to indicate the nature of things. 9. Sentences, to indicate thedifferences or relations of things. 10. Letters, which arebasis of words and sentences. The words and the sentencesin spoken languages are depended on sounds. The wordsand the sentences in written languages are depended onforms. The words and the sentences in thought are dependedon Mind Objects. 11. Birth, one thing is manifested whenconditions are ready. 12. Decay. 13. Abiding. 14. Death, onething is disappeared when conditions are broken off. 15.Continuity, to continue in the action of cause and effectwithout stopping. 16. Distinction, the principle that thecauses of good do not cause the effects of evil and thecauses of evil do not cause the effects of good. 17.Correlation, the principle that the causes of good cause theeffects of good and the causes of evil cause the effects ofevil. 18. Instantaneousness, an element provisionally

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established on the rapid energy of conditioned elements toarise and cease without an instant of pause. 19. Order, theprovisionally established capacity of conditioned elementsin their arising and ceasing, to follow the order ofbefore andafter in regard to cause and effect. 20. Space. 21. Time. 22.Number. 23. Harmonization. 24. Disharmony.

5t, Unconditioned Existence, there are six(be omitted).1't and 2nd parts in our knowledge are the subject. The

knowledge as we call normally is a part of the prior fourclasses, that is, the part we have recognized. Others are theparts we haven't recognized. Although there are parts ofknowledge we haven't recognized, they are on duty for ourlife too.

Is the knowledge we have acquired true or not?According to the consciousness-only psychology, theknowledge we have acquired is divided into threecatalogues:

1.The knowledge we perceive directly withoutinterference from conceptualization or predispositions(Perception).

2.The knowledge we have acquired with inference fromconceptualization or predispositions(Ratiocination). Forinstance, seeing smoke, we know there is fire.

3.The knowledge we have acquired is false(Misconception). For instance, seeing a rope, we take it for asnake.The knowledge we sensate with the eighth consciousness

and the prior five consciousness is Perception. Theknowledge we have acquired with the seventhconsciousness is complete Misconception. The knowledgewe have acquired with the sixth consciousness is Perception,Ratiocination or Misconception. Therefore the knowledgestructure of human discussed in the consciousness-onlypsychology is a stereoscopic, dynamic, holographic andentire structure of the universe.

F. The Characteristics ofHuman MindThrough discussing above the characteristics of human

mind can be summed up as follows:1. The unity of a whole and its elements, all phenomena

are given rise to due to the mutual relationships of countlesscauses and conditions and are not independently existent. Ifall causes and conditions did not exist, no results couldcome into existence. This is the key characteristic and otherscan be deduced from it.

2. The unity of oneself and others, the unity of individualsand the society, 'I' as a part is in 'You' and 'You' as a part isin 'I'.

3. The unity of parallel and serial, the concurrence of theeight consciousnesses, the sixth consciousness sensation tothe reality world lags behind manifesting for the realityworld ofthe eighth and the prior five consciousnesses.

4. The unity of truth and falseness, Perception of theeighth consciousness and the prior five consciousnesses,Misconception of the seventh consciousness, Perception,

Ratiocination or Misconception of the sixth consciousness.5. The unity of continuity and discontinuity, the action of

the seventh and the eighth is continuing, while the action ofthe prior five is interval.

6. The unity of restriction and activation, the restriction ofthe past seeds for Actuality, the activation of Actuality asseeds for the future Actuality.

III. SIMULATING THE FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN MIND WITHCOMPUTERS

Human mind is a unity of the subject and the object so itis equal to the complete universe. Everything in the cosmosdepends on the existence of others. If there did not existothers, none any individual could come into existence. Thefacts, the sensation to the reality world of the sixthconsciousness lags behind manifesting for the reality worldof the eighth and the prior five consciousnesses, and theseventh consciousness perceives erroneously the functionsof the eighth, let us cognizing the partial falseness of theknowledge we have acquired and the unsuitableness of themethods which we acquire the knowledge with. What arethe right methods we can use to get the knowledge? Whatknowledge is true? These problems are worth studyingdeeply [1]. i

According the discussing above we can say that it isimpossible to simulate human mind completely for it isequal to simulate the whole world. If we say that thecomputers haven't any intelligence neither the experts ofcomputers nor the users of computers agree with it. Howdoes the conflict come into being? The reasons are asfollows:

1. We haven't understood the structure and functions ofhuman mind entirely.

2. We enlarge the capability of computers which can dosomething which human does with intelligence so we hopethat computers could do everything which human does withintelligence.

It is our answer that the computers can't simulate theactions of human mind completely forever, but they can dosome works that human does with intelligence, specially, insome aspects they can do better than human. Then whatintelligence of human do the computers simulate?Essentially, they simulate tow functions: the memoryfunction and the automatic processing function.

A. Simulating the Memory Function with Storing DataThe method human stores information with is holographic,

that is, the information is stored in the eighth consciousnesswith entire and indifferent form. Although everyconsciousness possesses this function, the eighth is thestrongest. Computers can only store the strictly formalizedpartial data that the users interest in. The strictly formalizeddata is the data expressed with the strings that consist of 0and 1 only. The development tendency of the storage

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technology is to enlarge the capacity of memories, such asthe photon-storage, the quantum-storage and theatom-storage etc.

B. Simulating the Automatic Processing Function withExecuting Programs

The automation ofprocessing information ofhuman mindis born of the simultaneous cause-effect relationshipbetween the seeds in the eighth consciousness and theactuality of the prior seven consciousnesses. It isholographic, that is, if conditions are ready the seeds causethe actuality and meanwhile the actuality causes the seeds.The automatic execution of programs is decided on theaddressing machinery of the instruction systems ofcomputers. The development tendency of the automaticexecution technology of programs is to improve thecomputing speed of computers, such as the parallel-computing, the photon-computing, the quantum-computingand the atom- computing etc.

IV. ABSTRACTING THE INTELLIGENCE OF COMPUTERS WITHPROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The computers have helped human to do someintelligence works through simulating the memory functionwith storing data and simulating the automatic processingfunction with executing programs. Human must plan eachstep work (an instruction) which a computer will do ifhuman wants a computer helps him to do some works,which is called as programming. The whole instructions acomputer can execute are the entire basic functions acomputer possesses, therefore the instruction set of acomputer is abstraction of the inteffigence of thecomputer.

A. The Machine LanguagesIndicating the high and low electrical levels which are the

basic states of a fundamental unit of a computer with 0 and1 and encoding the instructions and the addresses of acomputer with the strings which consist of 0 and 1 only, thusthe lowest level programming language (a machinelanguage) has been formed. The machine language is thefirst level abstraction of intelligence of a computer. Thephysical meaning of the instructions has been fixed inadvance when the computer was designed. The meaning ofthe instruction sequences and the memory contents aredefined by the programmers when programming with themachine language.

B. The Assembler LanguagesIn the assembler languages the instructions and

addresses in the machine languages is encoded with specialwords or character strings. With the help of the assemblersthe programmers are liberated from the affliction of

remembering the strings which consist of 0 and 1 only.Therefore the assembler languages are abstraction of themachine languages and are the second abstraction ofintelligence of computers. The physical meaning of thewords or strings used in the assembler languages has beenfixed with the logic meaning of the instructions in themachine languages and the functions of the assemblers. Thefunctions of the programs programmed with the assemblerlanguages are defined by the programmers.

C. The High-level LanguagesIn the high-level languages the logic structures of data

and the operation sequences commonly used in theprograms programmed with the machine languages or theassembler languages are induced and abstracted as datatypes and statements which are encoded with some specialwords or symbols called as reserved words which meaningsare close as far as possible to the meanings in English. Thephysical meaning of the elements in the high-levellanguages has been fixed with the logic meaning of theinstructions in the machine languages and the functions ofthe compilers. The functions of the programs programmedwith the high-level languages are defined by theprogrammers. Therefore the high-level languages are themasterly generalization of intelligence of computers and aresymbol systems for writing which combine the codes withthe meanings.

There have been more than one thousand high-levellanguages designed, more than five hundred realized andmore than twenty in common use. There are so manyhigh-level languages because of the widespread applicationof computers and the different views which human solvesproblems with. These views are the procedure model, thefunction model, the logic model and the object model. Thecorresponding languages are the procedure model language,the function model language, the logic model language andthe object model language.

In the procedure model languages to solve a problem withcomputers is regarded as to solve the problems that are thepartial elements of the whole problem. The actions andmembers participating in the solving of the problem areabstracted as procedures and data. The earlier high-levellanguages almost belong to this model.

In the function model languages to solve a problem withcomputers is regarded as to map a domain to another one,the problem to be solved is divided into sets of membersparticipating in the solving of the problem and therelationships of the sets. LISP is a typical example.

In the logic model languages to solve a problem withcomputers is regarded as to obtain certain conclusion byinference from some facts and rules, the problem to besolved is described as sets of facts and rules. PROLOG is atypical example.

In the object model languages to solve a problem withcomputers is regarded as to get the result from the

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interaction of all individuals participating in the problem,the problem to be solved is described as sets of objects andthe interactions among them. SMALLTALK is a typicalexample.

Although there are numerous kinds of thehigh-level languages, there are two restrictions on theemergence and the development of them, one is the equalityof the physical machine that the languages has been realizedwith, another is the identity of the reality world that isabstracted and described with the languages. There are somany kinds of the high-level languages because there aredifferent manifestation forms of the reality world indifferent domains and there are lopsided and subjectiveviews in our thought when we recognize the world.

D. The Super LanguagesWith the popularizing of computer networks and the

deeply studying of DAI the programming languages thatpossess stronger functions to describe the intelligence ofcomputers is more required so that people may develop andapply the computer resources easily. A whole programwhich is designed to solve a special problem with ahigh-level language is abstracted as an agent. A systemwhich consists of some agents which interact mutually isabstracted as a MAS (Multi-Agent System).A set of rulesdescribing the integrants that an agent consists of and theinteractions between agents in a MAS is called as a superlanguage [6,7,8]. The agents which have the function ofexperience-replaying only are called as reactive agentswhile the agents which not only have the function ofexperience-replaying and also have the function ofexperience-recollecting are called as intelligent agents.Experience-replaying is defined as that when some woks areassigned to an agent the agent can do the woks directly withsome methods which the agent has possessed. There are twomeanings in experience-recollecting, one is that when somewoks are assigned to an agent the agent can not do the woksdirectly with some methods which the agent has notpossessed but the agent can obtain the methods fromlearning or reasoning and recollect the methods in hisknowledge base so that the agent can do the same workswith the methods sometime later, another is to recollect theproficient degree of the methods the agent uses. ThereforeBDI-Agents are special examples of intelligent agents.

According discussing above the development tendency ofprogramming languages is to improve the degree of dataabstraction and programming automation.

V. PROCESSING THE FORMALIZED PARTIAL INFORM_ATION ISTHE LIMIT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

environment reactivity, the sociability and the mobility, etc.It seems some day agents would change into human being orthe society composed of agents, that is, MAS would controland replace the world. This is impossible because theabstract functions of programming languages and thepopularization of computer application are never beyond thebasic intelligence of computers, the strictly formalized datastorage and the restricted capability of the instruction sets,that is, processing the formalized partial information isthe limit of artificial intelligence. The methods whichhuman stores and processes information with is holographic,which means:

1. storing and processing the entire information whichexist in every time and every place,

2. storing meanwhile processing information, which islike to ANN, but the information in ANN is partial yet.As a result besides digitalizing the external world,

improving the intelligence of computers and serving humanbeing, it is more important that we must train our minds tounify the subject and the object, let the original wisdom inour minds shine.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This paper is supported by the tenth five national defensefoundation, No.404050101010.

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With the deep research on agents and MAS people hassummed up and is working hard to finish someanthropomorphic characteristics of agents, such as theautonomy, the adaptability, the aim guidance, the

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