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Modern History

Part – 1 (1857 – 1905)

Have you ever wondered how we have defined the different ages in History? As in how do we

call a history, Ancient or medieval or Modern?

Every age is characterized with a significant change, whether it is in the form of a new discovery

or a change in economic state, political structure or philosophy. For example, Neolithic age is

differentiated from Mesolithic age by domestication of plants. i.e. in Neolithic age agriculture

started. Similarly, ancient history and medieval history is differentiated by the political changes

that the world saw. Since these changes came at different times in different parts of the World,

the change of a phase in history is different for different geographical regions.

According to world history, the modern history starts from 15th C AD with the start of

Renaissance period when new thoughts and ideas enlightened the world. With India, the case is

totally different. In India, the modernization did not come as a gradual process, but it came as a

shock. This is one of the reasons why our society is still unique. We are modern yet traditional.

In India, modern history starts roughly from 18th century, with the advent of Europeans. They

brought new modern ideas of freedom, democracy, fraternity etc. which deeply influenced the

modern Indian thinkers. They also brought new economic trend of commercializing almost

everything from manufacturing to agriculture. Scientific ideas and discoveries also reached

India and that made us realize that with the contemporary system of governance we were

centuries back from the world.

The advent of Europeans in India and how with power struggle British became supreme

contender of power in India is nicely covered in NCERT so we are not covering that part in the

Value Add here. Our coverage will start from Revolt of 1857, the last powerful but failed

attempt to restore the old form of governance.



Revolt of 1857

Revolt of 1857 was like the climax of an era which changed everything in India. To understand

this climax let’s have a short recap of the previous episodes.. :P

Previously in Modern India….

In 1498, Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese voyager landed on Indian soil. This was the European

discovery of India. Well in order to understand, we can put it this way that it was our discovery

of white men too. :P That was the day, when we were swayed by the fairness and opened our

doors to Europeans. This finally lead to the discovery of fairness creams.. but this was much

later.

Soon, under the leadership of Portuguese General, Albuquerque, Portuguese captured Goa and

became the center of Portuguese power in India. Soon Europeans realized that India was

indeed ‘Sone ki Chidiya’ (Golden Bird). They were stunned by seeing the Indian prosperity.

The factors of the emergence of nation states, renaissance and reformation, agricultural and

industrial revolution, new economic doctrine of mercantilism, competition between nation

states for breaking the mercantile monopoly of the merchants of Venice and Geneva over sea-

borne trade, and a great advance in navigational technologies like compass gave strong impetus

for geographical discoveries leading to the finding of new worlds and new sea routes. As a

consequence of the above factors, a new route to the east via the Cape of Good Hope was

discovered. This led to the European monopoly over the seas and the advent of Europeans into

India in search of trade and commerce in spices, which were essential requirements of their

food habits. Owing to the rivalry of European powers, India became the actual theatre of

conflicts by the middle of the 18th century.

Vasco De Gama: Died on Christmas eve in 1524 in India, of Malaria.



Routes Taken by Vasco De Gama

Soon English, Dutch and French also started trading with India to have their share of profits.

After the Portuguese, the Dutch also wanted to have their share in the trade with India. In

1602, the Dutch East India Company was established. The rising Dutch power was looked as a

threat by the British and a truce was concluded between them in 1619 but it did not last long.

By 1795, the British expelled the Dutch from India totally.

You need to remember that this trade was highly beneficial for India. India’s balance of trade

was positive. And Indian exports of spices and textiles had captured the world market. Indian

manufacturers and artisans gained huge profits.

India became an arena of European politics and to gain supremacy in India, these forces

frequently fought. This led to the famous Carnatic Wars fought between the Dutch and the

English in India. (You must have read about them from NCERT.) There were three wars. The

third war was conclusively won by the English which lead to almost monopoly of British in India.

Meanwhile the central Mughal power started to decay and many feudal lords and Nawabs

under Mughals declared themselves independent or atleast started behaving like one. To gain

power they started taking European help to settle local quarrels. They used to hire European

troops in local battles.



(Note: A European troop doesn’t mean that only European soldiers were fighting. European

troops had majority of Indian recruits who were trained on European style.)

Soon it was realized that Indian Battalions were no match for a handful of trained and

disciplined European soldiers. Every local ruler wanted European soldiers to fight on his side

and was ready to pay whatever price the company demanded. From this the concept of

‘Subsidiary Alliance’ originated.

Many historical records tell that it was introduced by General Dupleix of France but in its final

form it was shaped by Lord Wellesley. Many books tell that it was introduced by Lord Wellesley.

Whatever be the case, for exam we will follow Lord Wellesley.

Subsidiary Alliance:

Wellesley came to India with a determination to launch a forward policy in order to make ‘the

British Empire in India’ into ‘the British Empire of India’. The system that he adopted to achieve

his object is known as the ‘Subsidiary Alliance’.

Lord Wellesley: Known as the Akbar of East India Company

He also called himself ‘The Bengal Tiger’. But now we know that only DADA (aka Saurav

Ganguly) is Bengal Tiger. So I refuse to mention this fact in my Value Add.



The predecessors of Wellesley concluded alliances with Indian princes like the Nawab of Awadh

and the Nizam of Hyderabad. They received subsidies from the Indian rulers for the

maintenance of British troops, which were used for the protection of respective Indian states.

Wellesley enlarged and consolidated the already existing system.

Main Features of Subsidiary Alliance

1. Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British had to maintain a

contingent of British troops in his territory. It was commanded by a British officer. The Indian

state was called ‘the protected state’ and the British hereinafter were referred to as ‘the

paramount power’. It was the duty of the British to safeguard that state from external

aggression and to help its ruler maintain internal peace. The protected state should give some

money or give part of its territory to the British to support the subsidiary force.

2. The protected state should cut off its connection with European powers other than the

English and with the French in particular. The state was also forbidden to have any political

contact even with other Indian powers without the permission of the British.

3. The ruler of the protected state should keep a British Resident at his court and disband his

own army. He should not employ Europeans in his service without the sanction of the

paramount power.

4. The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the protected state.

(Note: They forgot to mention a colon P i.e. :P after this clause as it was a joke. You all must

have seen the movie Lagan. So there is no need to explain this fact. If you have not, you need to

realize that there are more important things than UPSC. Do watch it first.)

Benefits to the British

Wellesley’s Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the masterstrokes of British imperialism.

It increased the military strength of the Company in India at the expense of the

protected states.

The territories of the Company were free from the ravages of war thereby establishing

the stability of the British power in India.

The position of the British was strengthened against its Indian and non-Indian enemies.

Under the system, expansion of British power became easy.

Thus Wellesley’s diplomacy made the British the paramount power in India.



Negative impact of the Subsidiary System on Indian Princes

The immediate effect of the establishment of subsidiary forces was the introduction of

anarchy because of the unemployment of thousands of soldiers sent away by the Indian

princes.

The freebooting activities of disbanded soldiers were felt much in central India where

the menace of Pindaris affected the people.

Further, the subsidiary system had a demoralizing effect on the princes of the protected

states. Safeguarded against external danger and internal revolt, they neglected their

administrative responsibilities. They preferred to lead easy-going and pleasure seeking

lives. As a result misgovernment followed.

In course of time, the anarchy and misrule in several states had resulted in their

annexation by the British. Thus, the subsidiary system proved to be a preparation for

annexation.

Furthermore, the British collected very heavy subsidies from the protected princes and

this had adversely affected their economy.



Subsidiary Alliance at a Glance!



Doctrine of Lapse:

Under this doctrine the British arrogated to themselves the right to veto the succession of an

adopted heir, and instead, to annex the territory concerned, although the adopted successor

and his heirs were usually allowed to keep their titles and a substantial annual allowance.

States annexed under this doctrine include:

Satara (annexed 1848)

Jaitpur (annexed 1849)

Sambalpur (annexed 1850)

Baghat (annexed 1850)

Udaipur (annexed 1852)

Jhansi (annexed 1853)

Nagpur (annexed 1854)

Karauli (annexed 1855)

You need to remember, that Awadh was not annexed by ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. The Nawab of

Awadh by Ousted by the British by giving a reason of poor administration. Some books have

given that it annexed by ‘DoL’, that is an incorrect fact.

Before 1857, there were two wars that acted as a milestone to establish English as the

supreme power in India:

Battle of Plassey

Battle of Buxar



Battle of Plassey:

British (Robert Clive) Vs Siraj ud Daula( Nawab of Bengal)

Venue: Plassey (Bengal)

Background:

It was a test match with 2 innings. In first inning Siraj ud Daula gave a big lead but in the second

inning British came very strongly and won the match.

In 1956, there was a conflict going on between British and French companies in Bangal. And in

order to protect themselves, both the companies started their fortification.

This fortification annoyed Siraj Ud Daula. Since both of them were his subjects he ordered them

to break the fortification. French obliged but British denied. In order to teach them a lesson,

Siraj ud Daula attacked and gave a crushing defeat to British. During this attack the ‘Black hole’

episode took place.

Note: Read about this ‘Black hole’ tragedy.

The British retreated to the sea. There they waited for Robert Clive to arrive on an island.

Robert Clive made a treacherous plot to defeat Siraj ud Daula. He got into a secret pact with

Mir Jafar (Siraj’s uncle and commander of one of his battalions.). He promised Mir Jafar the

throne of Bengal.

In 1757, the battle of Plassey took place where a very small British army defeated the 40,000

strong Nawab’s Army. It is said that it was hardy a battle as Siraj’s troops under Mir Jafar did

not march forward.

Siraj was chased and later apparently killed by his own people and Mir Jafar was made a puppet

Nawab. British East India company got loads of gift from the Nawab and a farman to carry on

tax free trade.



Painting shows Robert Clive meeting Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey

Outcome:

Battle of Plassey established British as a strong power and it provided them a constant source

of income from the richest state of India, Bengal.



Battle of Buxar:

Despite Mir Jafar’s gifts and rewards, British were not satisfied with him and replaced him by

Mir Qasim. Mir Qasim was an able administrator and tried to free himself from the clutches of

the Englishmen. This behavior was disliked by the British and the conflict led to three battles.

Mir Qasim was defeated and he fled to Awadh to take help of Nawab of Awadh, Shuja ud Daula.

Nawab of Bengal and Nawab of Awadh got into an alliance with the Mughal emperor Shah Alam

II, who despite the deteriorating Mughal empire was perceived as the central authority of India.

These combined forces met with British force at Buxar.

Result: As expected, the combined army of the three was no match for the disciplined English

army which comprehensively won.

Outcome: It was a morale booster for British and it established British as the super power.

British got the Diwani of Bengal from the Mughal emperor. i.e. now they got the right of

administration and taxation. This battle practically started the British rule in India.



There were several other prolonged wars like Anglo – Maratha War, Anglo – Mysore war etc.

which are nicely covered in the NCERT’s and previous VAN.

So with this recap, lets come to the climax episode. The revolt of 1857!



REVOLT OF 1857

Causes

Economic

o Destruction of traditional Indian Economy

o Ruin of agriculture by draconian land reforms

o Annexation of princely states = no patronage for artisans = destruction of Indian

handicrafts

o Loss of status for Zamindars = ashamed to work = anger against British

Political

o Aggressive policies of Subsidiary Alliance , Doctrine of Lapse

o Rampant corruption and exploitation especially at lower levels of administration

(police, local courts etc)



Army

o Restriction on wearing caste specific clothing and items. Eg. turban

o Forced to travel overseas, which was forbidden in Hindu tradition

o Unequal pay for Indian sepoys + racial discrimination and subordination

o Newly introduced Enfield rifles had beef fat coatings (trigger point)

Socio-Religious

o Racial discrimination towards native Indians (Theory of White Man’s Burden)

o Religious propagation by the Christian Missionaries

o Reforms like Abolition of Sati, Widow-Remarriage Act, Women’s Education were

seen as interference in the traditional Indian Society

o Taxation on mosques, temples etc

Outside Influences

o Crimean Wars 1854-56



o Punjab Wars 1845-49

o First Afghan War 1838-42

o The British suffered serious losses in these wars = psychological boost for Indians

Important Leaders Place

Mangal Pandey Barrakpore

Soldiers Meerut Cant.

Bahadur Shah Zafar Delhi

Zeenat Mahal Delhi

Bakhtawar khan Delhi

Nana Sahib Kanpur

Tatya Tope Kanpur

Azimullah Kanpur

Maharaj Kunwar Singh Arrah (Bihar)

Khan Bahadur Khan Bareilly

Begum Hazrat Mahal Lucknow

Maulvi Ahmadullah Faizabad

Failure of Revolt

o Restricted to northern India. Lack of unity as modern nationalism was yet to born in

India

o Certain classes did not join – Big Zamindars, Rulers etc (These zamindars were the new

zamindars who were appointed by the British. Since they derived their power from

British authority, they were loyal to British.)

o Modern educated Indians viewed the revolt as backward and violent + they hoped

British Rule would bring modernization of Indian Society

o Indian soldiers were poorly equipped

o Revolt was poorly organized + no coordination



o No long term perspective and political goals

Impact of the Revolt

o First war of independence (As per V D Savarkar). Symbolically important

o Changed dynamics of British Rule forever. Transfer of administration to British Crown +

Abolition of the Company Rule

o Era of annexation and expansion ended. Princely states were promised partial

autonomy while remaining under British protection

o British policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ would dominate future events (to weaken Hindu-

Muslim unity showcased in the Revolt of 1857)

Note: For every event the outcome is most important for the examination point of view.

Especially for mains.

The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and made its re-

organization inevitable. The Government of India’s structure and policies underwent significant

changes in the decades following the Revolt.

Changes in Administration: By the Act of Parliament of 1858, the power to govern India was

transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown. The authority over India, wielded

by the Directors of the Company and the Board of Control, was now to be exercised by a

Secretary of State for India aided by a Council.

Provincial Administration: The British had divided India for administrative convenience into

provinces, three of which- Bengal. Bombay and Madras- were known as Presidencies. The

Presidencies were administered by a Governor and his Executive Council of three, who were

appointed by the Crown. The other provinces were administered by Lieutenant Governor and

Chief Commissioners appointed by the Governor-General.

Local Bodies: Financial difficulties led the Government to further decentralize administration by

promoting local government through municipalities and district boards. Local bodies like

education, health, sanitation and water supply were transferred to local bodies that would

finance them through local taxes.

Changes in the army: The Indian army was carefully re-organised after 1858, most of all to

prevent the recurrence of another revolt. Firstly, the domination of the army by its European

branch was carefully guaranteed. The proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was



raised. The European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The crucial

branches of artillery, tanks and armored corps were put exclusively in European hands. The

Indians were strictly excluded from the higher posts. Till 1814, no Indian could rise higher than

the rank of a subedar. Secondly, the organization of the Indian section of the army was based

on the policy of ‘divide and rule’ so as to prevent its chance of uniting again in an anti-British

uprising. A new section of army like Punjabis, Gurkhas and Pathans were recruited in large

numbers.

Relations with princely state / native states or British attitudes towards the Indian princes

after the Revolt of 1857: After the Revolt of 1857 the British reversed their policy towards the

Indian states. Most of the Indian princes had not only remained loyal to the British but had

actively aided the latter in suppressing the Revolt. Their loyalty was now rewarded with the

announcement that their right to adopt heirs would be respected and the integrity of their

territories guaranteed against future annexation. The experience of the Revolt had made them

decided to use the princely states as firm props of British rule in India.

Change in administrative policies: The British attitudes towards India and consequently, their

policies in India changed for the worse after the Revolt of 1857. While before 1857 they had

tried, however halfheartedly and hesitatingly, to modernize India, they now consciously began

to follow reactionary policies which were reflected in many fields.

(a) Divide and Rule; After the Revolt of 1857 the British increasingly continued to follow their

policy of divide and rule by turning the princes against the people, province against, caste

against caste, group against groups and above all, Hindus against Muslims. Immediately after

the revolt their suppressed Muslims, confiscated their lands and property on a large scale, and

declared Hindus to be their favorite. After 1870, this policy was reversed and an attempt was

made to turn Muslims against the nationalist movement. The Government cleverly used the

attraction government service to create a split between the educated Hindus and Muslims. The

Government promised official favor on a communal basis in return for loyalty and so played the

educated Muslims against the educated Hindus.

(b) Government attitudes towards educated Indians: The official used to favor the educated

Indians before 1857 but their attitudes changed after the Revolt because some of them have

began to use their recently acquired modern knowledge to analyse the imperialistic character

of British rule and to put forward demands for Indian participation in administration. The

officials became hostile to the educated Indians when the latter began to organise a nationalist

movement among the people and founded the Indian National Congress.



(c) Government attitudes towards the zamindars: After the revolt, the British changed their

attitudes towards the zamindars and landlords to use them as a dam against the rise of popular

and nationalist movement. The lands of most of the talukdars of Awadh were restored to them.

The zamindars and landlords were now hailed as the traditional and ‘natural’ leaders of the

Indian people. Their interest and privilege were protected and they, in turn, became the firm

supporters of British rule in India.



The revolt can be summed up with the following mindmap:



PRE-1857 REVOLT UPRISINGS



Civil Rebellion

Led by deposed ‘rajas’ and ‘nawabs’ and impoverished Zamindars, landlords etc.

Major cause = Rapid changed introduced by British Economy, administration and land

revenue system (in less than 30 years land revenue doubled)

No part of the enhanced revenue was spent on the development of agriculture

Zamindars were replaced by new “men of money”

Prevalence of corruption at lower levels of judiciary, administration and police

Ruin of Indian artisan and handicraft industry due to free imports and heavy tariffs on

exports of Indian finished goods

Patronage to priestly class came to an end + British policies seen as an attack on Hindu

religion.

Tribal Uprising

Tribal uprisings were the most violent and bloody amongst all. They were charged by emotions

and superstitious beliefs like foreign bullets cannot kill them. They were usually targeted

against the outsider Landlords and money lenders who were directly perceived as the enemy,

rather than the British.

Loss of land, influx of Christian missionaries in tribal areas

Placed restriction on access to forest produce

Santhal Revolt 1854:



o Lived in areas between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal (known as Daman-i-Koh)

o Main grudge was against the outsiders

o Called the outsiders as ‘dikus’ - Zamindars, police, courts

o British declared Martial Law and crushed them ruthlessly

Kols of Chotanagpur

o From 1820-37

Munda Rebellion

o Munda Tribe, Jharkhand

o 1899-1900

o Birsa Munda was the leader



Peasant Movements

In order to increase their profits, the British government changed the agricultural revenue

system. The policies followed by them can be represented as follows:



The exorbitant rate of revenue made the peasants impoverished. The negative thing was that

the money received as the revenue was siphoned out to England and very less amount was

invested in agriculture to improve the crop and land condition. This triggered a vicious circle of

poverty where peasants were dependent on money lenders, who again charged a very high

rate of interest. This distress of peasants resulted in many revolts.

Indigo Revolt – Bengal 1859-60

o Planters forced peasants to get into shoddy contracts causing great loss to

peasants

o Forced to use the best lands and got paid a price below Market Price.

o Famous slogan ‘je rakhak te bhakak’

o Got support from Bengali middle class and lawyers

o Finally, Ryots won and Indigo plantation was wiped out when government issued

a notification in 1860 that peasants cannot be compelled



o Features of the movement – cooperation, organization and discipline of the

peasants complete unity among Hindu and Muslims, role of Intelligentsia

o Neel Darpan – Deen Bandhu Gupta’s play which portrayed the movement

Fig: Cover page of Neel Darpan

o Reasons for success – awareness of law on part of the peasants

o Shortcoming – aim was limited to personal grievances

Bengal Tenacy Act

o Passed in 1885 as a direct outcome of the peasant movements

o Aim = to protect tenants from worst practices of Zamindari

o Defined rights of Zamindars and the peasants

Effect of American Civil War - 1864

o Cotton exports dried , prices crashed

o Also government increased the prices by 50%

Weakness of Peasant Movements

o Lack of adequate understanding of colonialism

o Their protest still occurred in the old society order – lacking the concept of an alternate

society

o But in 20th century, peasant discontent was merged with the larger National Movement



Post 1857 Revolts:



SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMS

Problems in Indian Society

Indian society in the 19th century was caught in the vicious web of religious superstitions

and religious abundance.

Priests exercised overwhelming control over the minds of the people. Their monopoly

over scriptural knowledge and ritual interpretation gave them a deceptive character

Eg. Women even went to the extent to offering themselves to priests for their carnal

pleasures

Depressing conditions of women

o Birth of girl child looked down upon

o Practice of sati

o Child marriage

o No education for girls

Another was the factor of Caste:

o It created a system of segregation, hierarchy on the basis of birth

o The rules of caste hampered social mobility

o Fostered social division

o Sapped individual initiative

o Humiliation of untouchability

Conclusion – Rejecting such practices as against human dignity, the reform movement

sought to create a social climate for mobilization, referring to golden past, traditional,

yet devoid of such malaise.

Features of Socio-religious reforms:

The persistent theme of the reforms was developing rational scientific temper among

the Indian masses. Whether it was interpretation of Vedas by Brahmo Samaj (Raja Ram

Mohan Roy) or medical reasoning against child marriage given by Akshay Kumar Dutt,

the reforms were aimed at cleansing the Indian society of the mal-practices that had

gradually crept in the society. The influence/impact of socio-religious reforms can be

understood in two spheres:



Religion –

o The reforms sought to remove idolatry, polytheism and priestly monopoly

o Translation of religious knowledge into vernacular languages to set free the

masses from the bondage of priests

o Simplification of ritual practices

Social –

o Caste –

Ranade, Dayanand, Vivekananda denounced the caste system

Dayanand said – he deserved to be a Brahmin who acquires the best

knowledge and character and an ignorant person to be classed as a

shudra

Jyotiba Phulbe (Maharashtra) and Narayan guru were two relentless

critics of the caste system

Narayan Guru said – ‘one religion, one caste, and one God for mankind’

o Women –

Child marriage, sati, abandonment of widows was prevalent

Ishwarchand Vidyasagar gave special emphasis on widow remarriage

Raja Ram Mohan Roy also championed women’s cause

Conclusion – The reforms were not blind imitation of western cultural norms. The

reforms were aiming at modernization rather than westernization

Impact of Reforms –

The cultural-ideological struggle represented by the socio-religious movements was an

integral part of the evolving national consciousness. It was instrumental in bringing

about the initial intellectual and cultural break which made a new vision of the future

possible.

Second, it was part of the resistance against colonial cultural and ideological hegemony.

Out of this dual struggle evolved modern cultural situation – new men, new homes and

new society



A Quick glance of the Socio – Religious Reforms:



FOUNDATION OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

Foundation of INC was not a sudden event or a historical accident. It was the

culmination of a process of political awakening that had beginnings in 1860s and 1870s

and took a defining step in 1880s. Following were the reasons:

1. The new political thrust between 1875 and 85 was emergence of young

intellectual nationalists. They formed broad based associations like the Indian

Association in 1876 by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose.

2. Rise of Nationalist Press which was to play a dominant role in connecting and

igniting masses in coming times. Eg. The Hindu, Tribune, Kesari. (find who started

them)

3. Indians had gained experience from a large no of agitations organized in the

preceding decade

1877-78 – massive agitation for Indianization of civil services

Opposition of Afghan War (II – 1878-1880) by Lord Lytton

Agitation against the Vernacular Press Act 1878 (trying to curb the

freedom of press)

1883 – agitation in favor of Ilbert Bill which allowed Indian judges to try

Europeans

The earlier efforts failed because they were not coordinated on an all India basis. On the

other hand Europeans had always acted in unity.

Thus, it is clear that foundation of Congress was the natural culmination of the political

work in previous years. By 1885, a stage had reached by which certain basic tasks or

objectives had to be laid down and struggled for.

Also, these objectives could only be fulfilled by coming together by coming together of

political workers in a single organization



Indian National Congress: 1885

Demands of the Nationalists:

No reduction of import duties on textiles

No expansion in Afghan and Burma

Right to bear arms

Freedom of press

Reduction of military expenditure

Reduction of taxation on land

Higher expenditure on famine relief

Indianization of Civil Services

Right of Indians to judge Europeans (Ilbert Bill)

Objectives of Congress:

1. First objective was to weld Indians into a nation, to create a new identity ‘Indian’. Only

then a National Movement can be initiated

2. Secondly, to create a common political platform around which political workers in

different parts of the country could gather and work

Note: Initially Congress strictly confined itself to political issues of ‘National importance’.

As Dadabhai Noaroji said “we are met together as a political body to represent our

political aspirations”

3. Internalization of the nuances of political democracy and educating people towards the

same. That’s why from beginning Congress was organized as a Parliament

4. To develop and prolong an anti-colonial ideology

Mistakes of Congress:

Early Nationalist failed to understand the true nature of Colonial State.

They did not organize mass movements

Were accused to be cut-off from the masses

Achievements of Congress:

In congress’s defense, they did carry out an ideological struggle against the British

Did the preparatory work of initiating a struggle



Gave Indian people a common platform to put forward their grievances

Gave a direction to the Indian agitation against the British rule

In G.K’s words – “our achievements are bound to be small and disappointments

frequent. But our work will be given to future generations who will serve India by their

successes.



ECONOMIC CRITIQUE OF COLONIALISM

The economic critique was the most important contribution to the development of National

Movement in India by the Moderates.

Intellectuals in the first half of 19th century had adopted a positive attitude, thinking

British rule would help modernize India

Post 1860, social development failed to live upto hopes

Dadabhai Noaroji, MG Ranade and RC Dutt amongst prominent critiques of the colonial

rule

Understood the essence of British Imperialism lay in subordination of the Indian

Economy to the British Economy

Explained the three aspects of British rule – through trade, industry and finance

Colonialism moved from naked plunder to more sophisticated draining through free

trade and foreign capital investment meant to further the interest of the British at the

expense of Indian resources

Dadabhai Noaroji made poverty his special subject and emphasized that Indian poverty

was a manifestation of British colonial policies.

He published – “Poverty and un-British rule in India”

For Dadabhai, foreign capital was “exploitation” of Indian Resources and a means for

political subjugation of the country. They cited examples of other colonies and the

impact of British policies

They highlighted the progressive decline of Indian Handicrafts. From being the largest

exporters of handicrafts, India became a net exporter of Manchester cloth in a matter of

decades

India became a land of raw material and import of manufactured goods ably supported

by liberal import polices and stringent export policies

They also pointed out how physical infrastructure and especially Railways which were

not laid to suit the Indian Needs. Hence, it led to a “Commercial Revolution” and not

Industrial one in India

The policy of free trade, on one hand completely decimated Indian handicrafts, it also

put the infant and under-developed Indian industries in a disastrous and unfair

competition with British Manufactures

They criticized the exorbitant taxes which were regressive and instead pitched forward

the idea of progressive taxation and import duties on products consumed by rich people



Drain of Wealth Theory

Dadabhai Naoroji

The focal point of Nationalist critique put forward by Dadabhai Naoroji.

Large part of India’s capital and wealth was being transferred or “drained” to Britain in

the form of salaries and pensions of British civil and military officials working in India,

interest on loans taken by Indian government, profits of the capitalists in India and

expenses of Indian government in Britain

The ‘drain’ was the basic cause of India’s poverty

RC Dutt made the ‘drain’ a major theme in his Economic History of India. He compared

the drain to rain in Britain using Indian waters

The drain theory incorporated all threads of nationalist critique of colonialism

The drain theory made the exploitative character of British policies visible and could be

easily grasped by the peasants and the masses

Hence, drain theory helped in arousing people and later became the main staple of

Nationalist political agitation



Impact:

The critique helped in undermining the hegemony of foreign rulers over Indian minds, a

feeling that British were the ‘Mai-baap’ of the common people in India

It corroded popular confidence in the “benevolent” character of the British

Tilak in Kesari, Sachidanand Sinha in Indian People and Dadabhai hammered home the

point through repeated articles until the masses fully understood the exploitative

character of the British

The theory refuted the ‘White Man’s Burden’ theory given by British Economists

Conclusion: The nationalist of 20th century were to rely heavily on the main theme of

economic critique of India and stage powerful mass movements.



INDIAN PRESS

Hickey's Bengal Gazette was an English newspaper published from Kolkata (then Calcutta),

India. It was the first major newspaper in India, started in 1780. It was published for two years.

Founded by James Augustus Hicky, a highly eccentric Irishman who had previously spent two

years in Jail for debt.

Newspapers of the time –

Kesari and Maharatta by Tilak

Bengalee by Surendranath Banerjee

Amrita Bazar Patrika by SK Ghosh (If you were wondering what ABP news is, it’s Amrita

Bazar Patrika.)

Voice of India under Dadabhai Noaroji

Sudharak under GK Gokhale

Later – Young India and Harijan by Gandhi

Influence of Press:

During the initial phase of freedom struggle (1870-1920) the press was the chief

instrument for carrying out politicization, education and formation of national ideology

when the national movement had not yet resorted to mass agitation.

The Congress accomplished its work through press only. Its resolutions and proceedings

had to propagate through press only. Interestingly, nearly one third of Congress

members were journalists.

All political leaders (pick names from above) channeled their agitation through

newspaper writings.



Influence of press extended far beyond its literary subscribers. A newspaper in remote

villages would read out by a reader to tens and hundreds of people.

Conclusion – Nearly all political controversies of the day were conducted through the

press, every act of the government subjected to sharp criticism. Fittingly – the motto of

Indian Press was ‘Oppose, Oppose, Oppose’ as recounted by Lord Rippon in his time.

Vernacular Press Act 1878

Indian Press had become highly critical of Lord Lytton’ administration during 1870s.

The Act which applied only to Indian language newspapers, provided for confiscation of

printing press, paper and other material if the government believed it was printing

seditious material.

The conditions imposed were:

No government employee can edit any newspaper without prior permission of the

government.

The editor as well as the publishers and the other associated persons will be arrested if

any newspaper published in native language, reports anything against the British. The

equipment and machineries will also be seized.

Many people called it ‘Gagging Act’ as it tried to strangulate the voices of the press. Large scale

protests started against this act.

It was repealed by Lord Rippon in 1881



SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1903-1908)

Introduction

With the start of Swadeshi Movement at the turn of the century, the Indian National

Movement took a major leap forward. Women, students and a large section of the urban and

rural population of Bengal and other parts of India became actively involved in politics for the

first time.

Reason

It was started to oppose the Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

Real motive of partition of Bengal was political. Bengal was the nerve centre of Indian

Nationalist Movement and the partition was aimed at dividing the population on

communal lines and destabilizes the movement.

According to the British, the partition was being done for administrative convenience as

the province is too big.

Features of the Movement:

Unprecedented participation of the masses

Large no of protest meetings, active role of press.

Nationalist leaders protested through newspapers and journals such as the Bengalee by

Surendranath Banerjee

Big Zamindars who were British loyalists till now joined the movement



1903-1905 - moderate techniques of petitions, speeches, public meetings and press

campaigns were held.

Moderate methods failed as partition was announced in 1905.

Extremist Mode –

o Seen first time in Indian Freedom Struggle

o Boycott Resolution – boycott of foreign goods (Manchester cloth and Liverpool

Salt). The value of British cloth fell by 10 times in Bengal

o In Calcutta strike was declared, people took to streets, singing Bande Mataram.

o Picketing of shops selling foreign goods by students and women

o People tied Rakhi to each other as a mark of unity

BG Tilak took the movement to different parts of the country especially Poona and

Bombay. Lala Lajpat Rai took it to Punjab

Importance on Self-Reliance

o Meant re-asserting national dignity and confidence

o Economic Regeneration of villages and reaching out to masses

o Social reforms and campaign against social evils such as caste system, dowry,

child marriage etc.

o Promotion of Swadeshi Education. Bengal National College was founded with

Aurobindo Ghosh as president. In the same time National Council of Education

was also established

o Setting up indigenous mills in textiles, soap and match factories etc.

Swaraj became the aim (also adopted by Congress in 1906)

Conclusion – The movement was able to draw for the first time a large section of society

into active participation especially women.

Emergence of Extreme Nationalists

The movement brought forward the differences between extreme Nationalists like Lal, Bal, Pal,

Aurobindo Ghosh and the moderates. The extremists wanted to take the movement to the rest

of India while moderates were not willing to do so yet. It would later lead to Surat Split in 1907.

Acquired a dominant role in the movement

New forms of mobilization and techniques of struggle

Unlike moderates, Swaraj was to be achieved by converting the movement into a mass

protest with full scale non-cooperation and passive resistance

Boycott was extended to government schools and colleges, courts, titles and

government services



Why the movement failed?

The revolutionary character of the movement drew harsh measures from the

government such as bans on public meetings, processions and press. Students were

expelled, fined and beaten up

The Congress split weakened the movement. Also the large part of the country was still

averse to the idea of extremist measures as means of protest and hence didn’t

participate actively

The Extremists couldn’t sustain the momentum. Tilak was given a 6 year sentence.

Ashwini Kumar Dutt and Lala Lajpat Rai were deported. Bipin Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh

retired from active politics

Therefore, the entire movement was rendered leaderless and eventually died

Although the movement exhibited all Gandhian techniques of mass movement but it

lacked an effective organization and party structure. It failed to convert these

techniques into actual, practical political practice.

1906 Congress Session – Calcutta

Aim of Congress = Swaraj for India

Swaraj mentioned for the first time. Meaning not defined yet



CONGRESS SPLIT

By 1907 the Moderate Nationalists had exhausted their historic role. The emergence of

Swadeshi and Boycott Movement brought a wave of mass movement that demanded a change

in ideology of the Nationalist Movement.

Reasons for ‘failure’ of Moderates:

Were considered elitist even by Indians

Did not have faith in the common people

Restricted themselves to political issues and did not entertain specific social issues

Their methodology of legal pleading and articulation was beyond the average

uneducated Indian of the time

Did not participate in the Swadeshi and Boycott Movements

Conclusion: Hence they were not able to keep pace with the events. They failed to meet

the demands of the new age movement

Policy of Carrot and Stick

British policy makers felt that the moderate led Congress could be easily finished because it’s

weak but the British became critical of the Nationalist Movement after Swadeshi and Boycott

movement. Their aim was now to isolate the extremists.

Lured moderates by presenting the idea of Morley-Minto Reforms (Lord Minto)

Moderates agreed to cooperate and got disconnected from S and B movement

The Extremists wanted to extend S and B.

This led to Congress split at Surat session in 1907

Impact of the Split

Both sides got it wrong.

Moderates led by Pherozshah Mehta hoped their dream of sharing political and admin

power would come true. They couldn’t see that British negotiated because of the fear of

the Extremists

Extremists did not see that Moderates were their natural defense line and as a result

were brutally suppressed.



Tilak was jailed for 6 years. Aurobindo Ghosh gave up active politics and took up

religion. BC Pal temporarily retired from politics and Lala Lajpat Rai went to the US for

an extended stay

The spirit was gone from the movement and it entered a dull phase which was to last till

the WWI came around

Best Wishes

IASbaba

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