How People Learn and How How People Learn and How People Teach: Combining the People Teach: Combining the

Two in an Integrated Pre-service Two in an Integrated Pre-service

Science Content CourseScience Content Course

Dr. Brad Hoge and Dr. Scott Dr. Brad Hoge and Dr. Scott SloughSlough

University of Houston – Downtown University of Houston – Downtown

Constructivism informs our view of how Constructivism informs our view of how people learn, which in turn informs our people learn, which in turn informs our view of how we teach science to pre-view of how we teach science to pre-service teachers. This paper discusses service teachers. This paper discusses the conflict, and hopefully some the conflict, and hopefully some resolutions, between implementing resolutions, between implementing constructivitic teaching methodologies constructivitic teaching methodologies while attempting to integrate physical while attempting to integrate physical science and earth science content into science and earth science content into a single course for pre-service a single course for pre-service elementary teachers within the Natural elementary teachers within the Natural Science Department at UH-Downtown.Science Department at UH-Downtown.

Science education has been moving Science education has been moving towards an inquiry based towards an inquiry based constructivism since the early 90’s, constructivism since the early 90’s, due to the goals and guidelines of The due to the goals and guidelines of The National Science Teachers Association National Science Teachers Association (1992), The American Association for (1992), The American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993), the Advancement of Science (1993), and the National Research Council and the National Research Council (1996). (1996).

The National Science Education The National Science Education Standards call for a shift in emphasis Standards call for a shift in emphasis from “focusing on student acquisition from “focusing on student acquisition of information to focusing on student of information to focusing on student understanding and use of scientific understanding and use of scientific knowledge, ideas, and inquiry knowledge, ideas, and inquiry processes” (NRC, 1996) processes” (NRC, 1996)

NSF Standards for InquiryNSF Standards for Inquiry

Students should understand that in science:Students should understand that in science:► Investigations involve asking a question and Investigations involve asking a question and

comparing the answer to what is knowncomparing the answer to what is known► Explanations emphasize evidenceExplanations emphasize evidence► Explanations have logically consistent Explanations have logically consistent

argumentsarguments► Investigations are repeatable by othersInvestigations are repeatable by others► Scientists make their results public, review Scientists make their results public, review

and ask each other questionsand ask each other questions

Constructivist views of learning provide Constructivist views of learning provide a theoretical framework to teachers in a theoretical framework to teachers in helping students reconstruct their own helping students reconstruct their own understanding through a process of understanding through a process of interacting with objects in the interacting with objects in the environment and engaging in higher-environment and engaging in higher-level thinking and problem solving level thinking and problem solving (Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, & (Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, & Scott, 1994). Scott, 1994).

Constructivism provides the theoretical Constructivism provides the theoretical framework for all forms of project-based framework for all forms of project-based learning (Grant, 2002). learning (Grant, 2002).

PBS pedagogy (Schneider, Krajcik, Marx, & PBS pedagogy (Schneider, Krajcik, Marx, & Soloway, 2002) assumes that students Soloway, 2002) assumes that students constantly ask and refine questions; design constantly ask and refine questions; design and conduct multiple investigations; gather, and conduct multiple investigations; gather, analyze, interpret, and draw conclusions analyze, interpret, and draw conclusions from data; and report findings. from data; and report findings.

. . . by extension, learning scientific process . . . by extension, learning scientific process (literacy) extends beyond the classroom (literacy) extends beyond the classroom (Bransfield etal, 1999). (Bransfield etal, 1999).

Scientists explore the physical world for Scientists explore the physical world for reproducible patterns which they reproducible patterns which they represent by models and organize into represent by models and organize into theories according to laws (Hestenes, theories according to laws (Hestenes, 2004). 2004).

Constructivism posits that individuals Constructivism posits that individuals build their own knowledge and build their own knowledge and understanding by assimilating their understanding by assimilating their prior knowledge with the new prior knowledge with the new experience with which they are experience with which they are confronted (Richardson, 1997). confronted (Richardson, 1997).

Individuals do not obtain knowledge by Individuals do not obtain knowledge by internalizing it from the outside but by internalizing it from the outside but by constructing it from within, in constructing it from within, in interaction with the environment interaction with the environment (Kamii, Manning, & Manning, 1991; (Kamii, Manning, & Manning, 1991; Perkins, 1992; Piaget, 1969; Vygotsky, Perkins, 1992; Piaget, 1969; Vygotsky, 1978) 1978)

Thus, constructivism is based on the Thus, constructivism is based on the premise that, by reflecting on our premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in.understanding of the world we live in.

Learning is a process of modifying our Learning is a process of modifying our mental models to accommodate new mental models to accommodate new experiences. experiences.

Research shows that students learn Research shows that students learn science best by engaging in hands-on science best by engaging in hands-on minds-on lessons through a inquiry minds-on lessons through a inquiry based curriculum (Abell and Bryan, based curriculum (Abell and Bryan, 1997; Stepans, et. al., 1995: Metz, 1997; Stepans, et. al., 1995: Metz, 1995; Glasson, 1989). 1995; Glasson, 1989).

What is often overlooked, is how What is often overlooked, is how important it is to incorporate this important it is to incorporate this constructivist strategy into pre-service constructivist strategy into pre-service teacher education (Bodzin and Cates, teacher education (Bodzin and Cates, 2003; Kelly, 2000). 2003; Kelly, 2000).

Inquiry is a fundamental component of Inquiry is a fundamental component of effective science teaching and learning effective science teaching and learning (Lunetta, 1997; Roth, 1995). (Lunetta, 1997; Roth, 1995).

Inquiry-based instruction allows Inquiry-based instruction allows students to make connections students to make connections between the classroom experience between the classroom experience and their personal lives. and their personal lives.

Learning becomes relevant to students. Learning becomes relevant to students.

Without preparing teachers with this Without preparing teachers with this learning strategy, the benefits of learning strategy, the benefits of inquiry-based science does not trickle inquiry-based science does not trickle down to students (Slater, et. al., 1996; down to students (Slater, et. al., 1996; Stepans, et. al., 1995; Michelsohn and Stepans, et. al., 1995; Michelsohn and Hawkins, 1994; Fullan and Stiege, Hawkins, 1994; Fullan and Stiege, 1991; Doyle and Ponder, 1977). 1991; Doyle and Ponder, 1977).

Restructuring science content courses Restructuring science content courses for teachers is the logical place for for teachers is the logical place for these skills to be taught, since this is these skills to be taught, since this is where teachers learn to connect where teachers learn to connect science content to their own “special science content to their own “special knowledge” (Marek et.al., 2003: Kelly, knowledge” (Marek et.al., 2003: Kelly, 2000; Shulman, 1986). 2000; Shulman, 1986).

The ever-expanding knowledge base in The ever-expanding knowledge base in science, new technologies for teaching science, new technologies for teaching and learning, high-stakes testing and and learning, high-stakes testing and increased accountability have increased accountability have produced an overburdened local produced an overburdened local curriculum in science and curriculum in science and mathematics (NRC, 1996). mathematics (NRC, 1996).

This has led, in many instances, to an This has led, in many instances, to an increase in the number of courses pre-increase in the number of courses pre-service teachers must complete, or, an service teachers must complete, or, an integration of content across integration of content across disciplines. disciplines.

In particular, high stakes testing has In particular, high stakes testing has been widely blamed for curricula that been widely blamed for curricula that are “a mile wide and an inch deep” are “a mile wide and an inch deep” (NRC, 1997). (NRC, 1997).

Therefore, science education of pre-Therefore, science education of pre-service teachers should utilize more service teachers should utilize more appropriate metacognitive psychology. appropriate metacognitive psychology.

We teach our content courses for pre-We teach our content courses for pre-service teachers through hands-on service teachers through hands-on research-based projects within a research-based projects within a constructivist ideology, as a model of constructivist ideology, as a model of how we would like them to teach in how we would like them to teach in their own classrooms. their own classrooms.

This teaching method already puts a lot This teaching method already puts a lot of pressure on content coverage, how of pressure on content coverage, how then can we double the load and then can we double the load and increase learning? increase learning?

We have developed a new paradigm for We have developed a new paradigm for teaching science, a more metacognitive teaching science, a more metacognitive constructivism. constructivism.

Our paradigm draws on the research into how Our paradigm draws on the research into how learning takes place as well as how it can best learning takes place as well as how it can best be taught.be taught.

It calls for a hierarchical metacognition which It calls for a hierarchical metacognition which cascades through ranks and generations, cascades through ranks and generations, rather than just being passed on.rather than just being passed on.

A more whole brain, whole body approach will A more whole brain, whole body approach will also lead to greater retention of content also lead to greater retention of content knowledge.knowledge.

Our metacognitive approach to teaching Our metacognitive approach to teaching science requires knowledge of the science requires knowledge of the history of the science, current science history of the science, current science knowledge and practice, and theories knowledge and practice, and theories of explanation. of explanation.

E.O. Wilson stated, the benefits of E.O. Wilson stated, the benefits of metaphor over analogy in teaching metaphor over analogy in teaching science is rooted in our evolutionary past. science is rooted in our evolutionary past. We use metaphor to make sense of our We use metaphor to make sense of our world. world.

Integrated science provides metaphors by Integrated science provides metaphors by relating knowledge from one field as relating knowledge from one field as examples for lessons in another, such as examples for lessons in another, such as the application of physics to earth the application of physics to earth science.science.

Three categories of metacognition:Three categories of metacognition:► person variables – knowledge person variables – knowledge

about how human beings learn and about how human beings learn and process information (also self-process information (also self-knowledge of personal strengths and knowledge of personal strengths and weaknesses)weaknesses)

► task variables – knowledge about task variables – knowledge about nature of task and type of thinking nature of task and type of thinking skills needed to meet itskills needed to meet it

► strategy variables – knowledge of strategy variables – knowledge of cognitive and metacognitive cognitive and metacognitive strategies. strategies.

Cognitive strategies are used to help an Cognitive strategies are used to help an individual achieve a particular goal. individual achieve a particular goal.

Metacognitive strategies are used to Metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been ensure that the goal has been reached. reached.

Metacognitive experiences precede and Metacognitive experiences precede and follow (or both) a cognitive activity.follow (or both) a cognitive activity.

Simply providing knowledge without Simply providing knowledge without experience or vice versa does not experience or vice versa does not seem to be sufficient for the seem to be sufficient for the development of metacognitive control development of metacognitive control (Livingston, 1996). (Livingston, 1996).

The scientific process (historically and in The scientific process (historically and in a philosophical perspective) is the a philosophical perspective) is the ultimate metacognitive strategy for ultimate metacognitive strategy for problem solving. problem solving.

Scientific MethodScientific MethodIs a Metacognitive ProcessIs a Metacognitive Process

Constructivism Constructivism Is a MetacognitiveIs a Metacognitive

ProcessProcess

Pedagogy Is a Pedagogy Is a Metacognitive Metacognitive

ProcessProcess

Teach the ContentTeach the ContentPhilosophicallyPhilosophically(for literacy)(for literacy)

Give the Give the StudentStudent

MetacognitiveMetacognitiveControlControl

Teach the lessonTeach the lessonConstructivelyConstructively

Normal and ReverseNormal and ReverseFaultsFaults

The onlyThe onlyDifferenceDifference

Is TimeIs Time

Conservation ofConservation ofMomentumMomentum

Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics

The onlyThe onlyDifferenceDifference

Is ScaleIs Scale

BuoyancyBuoyancy

ConvectionConvectionIn theIn the

Earth’s MantleEarth’s Mantle

Heat TransferHeat TransferExperimentsExperiments

In the LaboratoryIn the Laboratory

Heat TransferHeat TransferIn the In the

AtmosphereAtmosphere

Bowen’s ReactionBowen’s ReactionSeriesSeries

The RockThe RockCycleCycle

DistillationDistillation

Careful observation means Careful observation means being prepared (making being prepared (making

predictions)predictions)

DiscussionDiscussion

►How can we best integrate metacognitive How can we best integrate metacognitive strategies into integrated science lessons strategies into integrated science lessons (teaching for literacy)?(teaching for literacy)?

►How can we best structure our curricula How can we best structure our curricula to integrate the earth and physical to integrate the earth and physical sciences?sciences?

►What PBS curricula is there to meet these What PBS curricula is there to meet these needs?needs?

►What PBS curricula needs are there to be What PBS curricula needs are there to be developed?developed?