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Learning Outcome:
By the end of this topic you will:
Understand how Homeostatic Mechanisms Operate in the Maintenance of an Internal Environment.
Topic 3
There is a glossary at
the back of your
booklet for keywords
and their meanings, fill
it in as we go along,
adding any more that
are new to you.
This includes:1. Homeostasis2. Homeostatic Mechanisms for Regulation of Heart Rate3. Homeostatic Mechanisms for Regulation of Breathing
Rate4. Homeostatic Mechanism for Regulation of Body
Temperature5. Homeostatic Mechanisms for Regulation of Blood Glucose
Levels
Assessment Objectives:
By the end of this topic you will be able to:
Explain the concept of homeostasis. (P5)
Discuss the probable homeostatic responses to
changes in the internal environment during
exercise. (M1)
Evaluate the importance of homeostasis in
maintaining the healthy functioning of the body.
(D1)
TASK 3
What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the mechanism inside our bodies that regulates and
maintains a stable and constant internal environment.
In other words it keeps our body working within a delicate balance.
What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis ensures that cells of the body are in
the environment that meets their needs and
allows them to function normally despite
external changes.
This does not mean that there are no changes.
On the contrary, there are continuous
fluctuations brought about by variations in
internal and external conditions, such as
changes in temperature, pH and water
potential.
What is homeostasis?
These changes, however, occur
around a set point.
Homeostasis is the ability to return to
that set point and so maintain
organisms in a balanced
equilibrium.
Activity
What body functions do you think homeostasis is responsible for?
Make a list using the spider diagram
There are 6, so try and think of as many as you can.
Homeostasis is responsible for…
Body temperature
Heart rate
Blood pressure
Breathing rate
Water levels
Glucose levels
Waste products must be removed from the body in order to
main a stable body environment
If they are not removed they can interfere with chemical
reactions and damage the body.
Waste products include Urea and Carbon dioxide
Waste Products
Homeostasis clip
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa/homeo/h
omeosts.shtml
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Homeostasis is described as a negative feedback system
This means that corrective action is taken to maintain the
constant environment
So when an important variable like the pH of blood and tissue
fluid, deviates from the accepted range of limits, it triggers
responses that return the variable to within normal range.
Like a Thermostat
Your body works in a similar way to how your central heating system
works to control the temperature in your house.
The system is controlled by a thermostat, which regulates the
temperature and is similar to the Hypothalamus in the brain.
The Hypothalamus monitors and controls our internal environment.
How do control mechanisms work?
The control of any self-regulating system involves a series of stages that feature:
1. The set point, which is the desired level, or norm, at which the system operates. This monitored by a …
2. Receptor, which detects any deviation from the set point and informs the …
3. Controller, which coordinates information from various receptors and sends
instructions to an appropriate …
4. Effector, which brings about the changes needed to return the system to the set point. This return to normality creates a …
5. Feedback loop, which informs the receptor of the changes to the system brought about by the effector.
How are control mechanisms
coordinated?
Systems normally have many
receptors and effectors.
It is important to ensure that the
information provided by receptors is
analysed by the control centre
before action is taken.
Receiving information from a
number of sources allows a better
degree of control.
How are control mechanisms
coordinated?
For example, temperature receptors in the skin may signal that the skin itself is
cold and that the body temperature should be raised.
However, information from the temperature centre in the brain may indicate
that blood temperature is already above normal. This situation could arise
during strenuous exercise when blood temperature rises but sweating cools the
skin.
By analysing the information from all the detectors, the brain can decide the
best course of action – in this case not to raise the body temperature further.
In the same way, the control centre must coordinate the action of the effectors
so that they operate harmoniously. For example, sweating would be less
effective in cooling the body if it were not accompanied by vasodilation.
What is the autonomic nervous system?
The autonomic nervous system controls the
involuntary (subconscious) activities of
internal muscles and glands.
It has two divisions:
1. The sympathetic nervous system
2. The parasympathetic nervous system
Which of part of the nervous system (somatic
or autonomic) would be responsible for each
response in the following examples:
A tiger walks into class- Your heart rate increases
You decide to move your arm and fingers to pick up your pen- You pick up the pen
Whilst walking barefoot you stand on a pin- You quickly move your foot away (withdrawal reflex)
How does the autonomic nervous system control heart rate?
Changes to the heart rate are controlled by a region
of the brain called the medulla oblongata.
How does the autonomic nervous
system control heart rate?
The medulla oblongata has two centres:
1. A centre that increases heart rate, which is linked to the sinoatrial node by the
sympathetic nervous system.
2. A centre that decreases heart rate, which is linked to the sinoatrial node by the
parasympathetic nervous system.
How does the autonomic nervous
system control heart rate?
Which of the two centres is stimulated
depends upon the information they receive
from two types of receptor:
1. Chemical (pH) changes in the blood
2. Pressure changes in the blood.
What role do chemical receptors play
in the process?
Chemoreceptors are found in the wall
of the carotid arteries (the arteries that
serve the brain) and aortic bodies.
They are sensitive to changes in the pH
of the blood that result from changes in carbon dioxide concentration.
What role do chemical receptors play
in the process?
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0072943696/student_view0/chapter13/animation__chemoreceptor_reflex_control_of_
blood_pressure.html
What role do pressure receptors play in the process?
Pressure receptors occur within the walls of the carotid arteries and the aorta.
When blood pressure is higher than normal they transmit a nervous impulse to the centre in the medulla oblongata that decreases heart rate. This centre sends impulses via the parasympathetic nervous system to the sinoatrial node of the heart, which decreases the rate at which the heart beats.
When blood pressure is lower than normal they transmit a nervous impulse to the centre in the medulla oblongata that increases heart rate. This centre sends impulses via the sympathetic nervous system to the sinoatrial node, which increases the rate at which the heart beats.
What role do pressure receptors play in the process?
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0072943696/student_view0/chapter13/animation__baroreceptor_reflex_control_of_blood_pr
essure.html
How is ventilation controlled in
humans?
Ventilation of the respiratory system in humans is primarily controlled by the breathing centre in a
region of the hindbrain called the medulla oblongata.
The ventral portion of this centre controls inspiratory movements and is called the inspiratory
centre; the remainder controls breathing out and is called the expiratory centre.
How is ventilation controlled in
humans?
As the lungs expand during inspiration, stretch receptors in their walls are stimulated
and impulses pass along the vagus nerve to the expiratory centre in the medulla.
This automatically ‘switches off’ the inspiratory centre, the muscles relax and
expiration takes place.
The stretch receptors are no longer stimulated, the expiratory centre is ‘switched off’ and the inspiratory centre ‘switched on’. Inspiration takes place again.
How is ventilation controlled in humans?
Control also relies on
chemoreceptors in the
carotid and aortic bodies
of the blood system.
These are sensitive to the
minute changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.
How is ventilation rate increased in humans?
When the carbon dioxide level rises, increased ventilation of the respiratory
surfaces is required.
Nerve impulses from the chemoreceptors stimulate the inspiratory centre in the
medulla.
Nerve impulses pass along the phrenic and thoracic nerves to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
Their increased rate of contraction causes faster inspiration.
How is body temperature
regulated in humans?
Within the hypothalamus there is a thermoregulatory centre
consisting of two parts:
A heat gain centre, which is activated by a fall in blood
temperature. This controls the mechanisms that increase body
temperature.
A heat loss centre, which is activated by a rise in blood
temperature. This controls the mechanisms that decrease body
temperature.
How is body temperature
regulated in humans?
The hypothalamus monitors the temperature of the blood passing
through it.
In addition, the thermoreceptors in the skin measure skin temperature.
These thermoreceptors send impulses along the autonomic nervous
system to the hypothalamus. They provide information on the
environmental temperature and so give advanced warning of
potential changes in core body temperature. The animal can therefore
take measures to conserve or lose heat as appropriate, before the core
temperature is affected.
How is body temperature
regulated in humans?
The two sets of thermoreceptors (in the
hypothalamus and the skin) interact to
control temperature.
Of the two, it is the core temperature,
measured in the blood passing through
the hypothalamus, which is most
important.
Why do organisms regulate their body
temperature?
If an organism’s body temperature is too low, the rate at which enzyme-controlled reactions take place may be too slow for the organism to function properly.
Equally, if the body temperature is too high, enzymes may be denatured and the organism may cease to function altogether.
Therefore, in order to survive, many animals need to regulate their body temperature – a process called thermoregulation.
How do humans lose heat in
response to a warm environment?
Rapid responses that enable heat to be lost when the
environmental temperature is high include:
Vasodilation
Increased sweating
Lowering of body hair
How do humans lose heat in
response to a warm environment?
Vasodilation. The diameter
of the arterioles near the
surface of the skin become
larger. This allows warm
blood to pass close to the
skin surface through the
capillaries. The heat from this
blood is then radiated away
from the body.
How do humans lose heat in
response to a warm environment?
Increased sweating. To evaporate water from the skin surface requires energy in
the form of heat. In relatively hairless mammals, such as humans, sweating is a
highly effective means of losing heat.
Lowering of body hair. The hair erector muscles in the skin relax and the elasticity
of the skin causes them to flatten against the body. This reduces the thickness of the insulating layer and allows more heat to be lost to the environment when the
internal temperature is higher than the external temperature.
body temperature normal
hair lies flat on the skin
the muscle is relaxed
body temperature falls
hair stands up and a
goose bump appears
the muscle contracts
How is body temperature
regulated in humans?
Regulation of core body temperature in humans is an example of
homeostasis.
In this case, the stimulus (a change in body temperature) is detected
by receptors (thermoreceptors), which pass the information to a
coordinator (the hypothalamus) in the brain, which then causes an
effector (the skin) to produce the appropriate response (an increase or
decrease in core temperature).
Why do we need to regulate
blood glucose levels?
It is essential that the blood of mammals contains a relatively constant level of glucose for respiration.
If the level falls to low, cells will be deprived of energy and die – brain cells are especially sensitive in this respect because they can only respire glucose.
If the level rises too high, it lowers the water potential of the blood and creates osmotic problems that can cause dehydration and be equally as dangerous.
What is the role of the pancreas in
regulating blood glucose?
The pancreas is a large, pale-coloured gland that is situated in the upper abdomen, behind the stomach.
It produces enzymes (protease, amylase and lipase) for digestion and hormones (insulin and glucagon) for regulating blood glucose.
What is the role of the pancreas in
regulating blood glucose?
When examined microscopically, the pancreas is made up of largely of the cells that produce its digestive enzymes.
Scattered throughout these cells are groups of hormone producing cells known as islets of Langerhans.
The cells of the islets of Langerhans are of two types: α cells, which are the larger and produce the
hormone glucagon
β cells, which are smaller and producer the hormone insulin.
What are the role of glucagon in
regulating blood glucose?
The α cells of the islets of Lanagerhans detect a fall in blood glucose and respond by secreting the hormone glucagon directly into the blood plasma.
Only the cells of the liver have receptors that bind to glucagon so only liver cells respond.
They do this by:
Activating an enzyme that converts glycogen to glucose
Increasing the conversion of amino acids and glycerol into glucose (=gluconeogenesis).
The overall effect is therefore to increase the amount of glucose in the blood and return it to normal level. This raising of the blood glucose level causes the α cells to reduce the secretion of glucagon (= negative feedback).
What is the role of adrenaline in
regulating blood glucose?
At times of excitement or stress, adrenaline is produced by
the adrenal glands that lie above the kidneys.
Adrenaline raises the blood glucose level by:
Activating an enzyme that causes the breakdown of glycogen to
glucose in the liver
Inactivating an enzyme that synthesises glycogen from glucose.
Titanic – 1,502 died – WHY?
It was 2:20 am on Monday 15th April 1912. The Titanic had collided with an iceberg at 11:40 pm on 14th April and had floundered 3.5 hours later. About 650 passengers were lowered in lifeboats capable of holding 1178; the remaining passengers entered the sea as the Titanic sank. Hundreds of people thrashed about in water that was less than -2 degrees, well below freezing point. It was 4:10am before another ship arrived to collect the survivors. Only 705 of the 2207 survived - 1502 died.
Many of the passengers had life jackets and there was a lot of debris to hang onto. It was a calm and still night. Why did they die?
An elderly couple died in bed after forgetting to switch their gas
hob off in the kitchen. No fire broke out, there was no evidence
of fire damage. Just two dead bodies ........ WHY?
Four asylum-seekers die in a tragedy. Police have discovered the bodies of four suspected asylum-seekers in a container. The four, all young men are believed to be have been Romanian. The bodies were found in a container load of tiles bound for the UK. The grim discovery was made when police noticed seals had been broken on the container and investigated. WHY did they die?
What is the importance of
homeostasis?
Homeostasis is essential for the proper functioning of organisms for the following reasons:
1. The enzymes that control the biochemical reactions within cells, and other proteins, such as channel proteins, are sensitive to changes in pH and temperature. Any change to these factors reduces the efficiency of enzymes or may even prevent them working altogether, for example, by denaturing them. Maintaining a constant internal environment means that reactions take place at a constant and predictable rate.
What is the importance of
homeostasis?
Homeostasis is essential for the proper functioning of organisms for the following reasons:
2. Changes to the water potential of the blood and tissue fluids may cause cells to shrink and expand (even to bursting point) as a result of water leaving or entering by osmosis. In both instances the cells cannot operate normally. The maintenance of a constant blood glucose concentration is essential in ensuring a constant water potential. A constant blood glucose concentration also ensures a reliable source of glucose for respiration by cells.
What is the importance of
homeostasis?
Homeostasis is essential for the proper functioning of organisms for the following reasons:3. Organisms with the ability to maintain a constant internal
environment are more independent of the external environment. They have a wider geographical range and therefore have a greater chance of finding food, shelter, etc. Mammals for example, with their ability to maintain a constant temperature, are found in most habitats, ranging from hot arid deserts to cold, frozen polar regions.
Factor Controlled by Homeostasis
Consequence if factor falls too low
Consequence if factor increases too
high
Temperature Hypothermia Hyperthermia
Blood Glucose Concentration
Hypoglycaemia Hyperglycemia
Respiratory GasesHypoventilation Hyperventilation
Blood Pressure Hypotension Hypertension
ASSESSMENT:
You should complete this assessment by yourself and are not allowed to ask for help. You can use your workbook and any other research you can find. Please remember to reference any books or websites that you have used.
Explain the concept of homeostasis. (P5)
Discuss the probable homeostatic responses to changes in the internal environment during exercise. (M1)
Evaluate the importance of homeostasis in maintaining the healthy functioning of the body. (D1)
You should present your work in the form of a essay, include pictures and diagrams to illustrate the points you are making.
TASK 2