RBGz Take on Black on Black Violence 1

Great Sphinx of Giza

“…Sphinx, is a limestone statue of a reclining or couchant sphinx (a mythical creature with a lion's body and a human head) that stands on the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile in Giza, Egypt…”

Great Sphinx of Giza 1

Great Sphinx of Giza

The Great Sphinx of Giza

The Great Sphinx of Giza (Arabic: أبو الهول

Abū al Hūl, English: The Terrifying One),commonly referred to as the Sphinx, is alimestone statue of a reclining or couchantsphinx (a mythical creature with a lion'sbody and a human head) that stands on theGiza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile inGiza, Egypt.

It is the largest monolith statue in the world,standing 73.5 metres ( ft) long, 19.3 metres( ft) wide, and 20.22 m ( ft) high.[1] It is theoldest known monumental sculpture, and iscommonly believed to have been built byancient Egyptians of the Old Kingdomduring the reign of the Pharaoh Khafra (c. 2558–2532 BC).[1][2]

Origin and identity

The Brazilian Imperial Family in front of sphinx,1871.

The Great Sphinx is one of the world's largest and oldest statues butbasic facts about it, such as when it was built, and by whom, are stilldebated. These questions have resulted in the popular idea of the"Riddle of the Sphinx,"[3] alluding to the original Greek legend of theRiddle of the Sphinx.

The Great Sphinx in about 1880, partly under thesand

Pliny The Elder mentioned the Great Sphinx in his book, NaturalHistory, commenting that the Egyptians looked upon the statue as a"divinity" that has been passed over in silence and "that King Harmaiswas buried in it".[4][5]

Names of the Sphinx

It is not known by what name the creators called their statue, as theGreat Sphinx does not appear in any known inscription of the OldKingdom, and there are no inscriptions anywhere describing itsconstruction or its original purpose. In the New Kingdom, the Sphinxwas called Hor-em-akhet (English: Horus of the Horizon; Hellenized:Harmachis), and the pharaoh Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC)[6] specifically referred to it as such in hisDream Stele.

Great Sphinx of Giza 2

The Great Sphinx partially excavated

The Sphinx against the Pyramid of Khafre

The commonly used name Sphinx was given to it in classical antiquity,about 2000 years after the accepted date of its construction, byreference to a Greek mythological beast with a lion's body, a woman'shead and the wings of an eagle (although, like most Egyptian sphinxes,the Great Sphinx has a man's head and no wings). The English wordsphinx comes from the ancient Greek Σφίγξ (transliterated: sphinx),apparently from the verb σφίγγω (transliterated: sphingo / English: tosqueeze), after the Greek sphinx who strangled anyone who failed toanswer her riddle. The English word sphincter comes from the sameroot.

The name may alternatively be a corruption of the ancient EgyptianSsp-anx (in MdC), a name given to royal statues of Dynasty IV(2575–2467 BC and later) in the New Kingdom (c. 1570–1070 BC) tothe Great Sphinx more specifically, although phonetically the twonames are far from identical.

Medieval Arab writers, including al-Maqrīzī, call the Sphinx balhiband bilhaw, which suggest a Coptic influence. The modern EgyptianArabic name is أبو الهول (Abū al Hūl, English: The Terrifying One).

Builder and timeframe

Despite conflicting evidence and viewpoints over the years, the traditional view held by modern Egyptology at largeremains that the Great Sphinx was built in approximately 2500 BC by the pharaoh Khafra, the builder of the SecondPyramid at Giza.[7]

Selim Hassan, writing in 1949 on recent excavations of the Sphinx enclosure, summed up the problem:"Taking all things into consideration, it seems that we must give the credit of erecting this, the world'smost wonderful statue, to Khafre, but always with this reservation: that there is not one singlecontemporary inscription which connects the Sphinx with Khafre; so, sound as it may appear, we musttreat the evidence as circumstantial, until such time as a lucky turn of the spade of the excavator willreveal to the world a definite reference to the erection of the Sphinx."[8]

The "circumstantial" evidence mentioned by Hassan includes the Sphinx's location in the context of the funerarycomplex surrounding the Second Pyramid, which is traditionally connected with Khafra.[9] Apart from theCauseway, the Pyramid and the Sphinx, the complex also includes the Sphinx Temple and the Valley Temple, bothof which display the same architectural style, with 200-tonne stone blocks quarried out of the Sphinx enclosure.A diorite statue of Khafre, which was discovered buried upside down along with other debris in the Valley Temple,is claimed as support for the Khafra theory.The Dream Stele, erected much later by the pharaoh Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC), associates theSphinx with Khafra. When the stele was discovered, its lines of text were already damaged and incomplete, and onlyreferred to Khaf, not Khafra. An extract was translated:

"... which we bring for him: oxen ... and all the young vegetables; and we shall give praise to Wenofer ...Khaf ... the statue made for Atum-Hor-em-Akhet."[10]

The Egyptologist Thomas Young, finding the Khaf hieroglyphs in a damaged cartouche used to surround a royalname, inserted the glyph ra to complete Khafra's name. When the Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of textreferring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed.

Great Sphinx of Giza 3

Dissenting hypothesesTheories held by mainstream Egyptologists about the date of the construction of the Great Sphinx of Giza have beenchallenged and various alternative theories have been proposed – about the builder or the dating – to explain itsconstruction.

Early Egyptologists

Some of the early Egyptologists and excavators of the Giza pyramid complex believed the Great Sphinx and otherstructures in the Sphinx enclosure predated the traditional date of construction (the reign of Khafre or Khephren,2520–2492 BC).In 1857, Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, unearthed the much later Inventory Stela(estimated Dynasty XXVI, c. 678–525 BC), which tells how Khufu came upon the Sphinx, already buried in sand.Although certain tracts on the Stela are considered good evidence,[11] this passage is widely dismissed as Late Periodhistorical revisionism.[12]

Gaston Maspero, the French Egyptologist and second director of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, conducted a surveyof the Sphinx in 1886 and concluded:

"The Sphinx stela shows, in line thirteen, the cartouche of Khephren.[13] I believe that to indicate anexcavation carried out by that prince, following which, the almost certain proof that the Sphinx wasalready buried in sand by the time of Khafre[13] and his predecessors [i.e. Dynasty IV, c.2575–2467 BC]."[14]

In 1904, English Egyptologist E. A. Wallis Budge wrote in The Gods of the Egyptians:"This marvelous object [the Great Sphinx] was in existence in the days of Khafre, or Khephren,[13] andit is probable that it is a very great deal older than his reign and that it dates from the end of the archaicperiod [c. 2686 BC]."[15]

Modern dissenting hypotheses

Rainer Stadelmann, former director of the German Archaeological Institute in Cairo, examined the distincticonography of the nemes (headdress) and the now-detached beard of the Sphinx and concluded that the style is moreindicative of the Pharaoh Khufu (2589–2566 BC), builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza and Khafra's father.[16] Hesupports this by suggesting that Khafra's Causeway was built to conform to a pre-existing structure, which, heconcludes, given its location, could only have been the Sphinx.[12]

Colin Reader, an English geologist who independently conducted a more recent survey of the enclosure, points outthat the various quarries on the site have been excavated around the Causeway. Because these quarries are known tohave been used by Khufu, Reader concludes that the Causeway (and the temples on either end thereof) must predateKhufu, thereby casting doubt on the conventional Egyptian chronology.[12]

In 2004, Vassil Dobrev of the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale in Cairo announced that he had uncoverednew evidence that the Great Sphinx may have been the work of the little-known Pharaoh Djedefre (2528–2520 BC),Khafra's half brother and a son of Khufu.[17] Dobrev suggests that Djedefre built the Sphinx in the image of hisfather Khufu, identifying him with the sun god Ra in order to restore respect for their dynasty. Dobrev also notes,like Stadelmann and others, that the causeway connecting Khafre's pyramid to the temples was built around theSphinx suggesting it was already in existence at the time.[16]

Frank Domingo, a forensic scientist in the New York City Police Department and an expert forensicanthropologist,[18] used detailed measurements of the Sphinx, forensic drawings and computer imaging to concludethat Khafra, as depicted on extant statuary, was not the model for the Sphinx's face.[19]

Great Sphinx of Giza 4

Water erosion hypothesis

The Sphinx water erosion hypothesis contends that the main type of weathering evident on the enclosure walls of theGreat Sphinx could only have been caused by prolonged and extensive rainfall,[20] and that it must therefore predatethe time of the pharaoh Khafra. The hypothesis is championed primarily by Robert M. Schoch, a geologist andassociate professor of natural science at the College of General Studies at Boston University, and John AnthonyWest, an author and alternative Egyptologist.

Orion correlation theory

The Orion correlation theory, as expounded by popular authors Graham Hancock and Robert Bauval,[21] is based onthe proposed exact correlation of the three pyramids at Giza with the three stars ζ Ori, ε Ori and δ Ori, the starsforming Orion's Belt, in the relative positions occupied by these stars in 10500 BC. The authors argue that thegeographic relationship of the Sphinx, the Giza pyramids and the Nile directly corresponds with Leo, Orion and theMilky Way respectively. Sometimes cited as an example of pseudoarchaeology, the theory is at variance withmainstream scholarship.[22][23][24]

The Great Sphinx as Anubis

Author Robert K. G. Temple proposes that the Sphinx was originally a statue of the Jackal-Dog Anubis, the God ofthe Necropolis, and that its face was recarved in the likeness of a Middle Kingdom pharaoh, Amenemhet II. Templebases his identification on the style of the eye make-up and the style of the pleats on the head-dress.[25]

Racial characteristics

Over the years several authors have commented on what they perceive as "Negroid" characteristics in the face of theSphinx.[26] This issue has become part of the Ancient Egyptian race controversy, with respect to the ancientpopulation as a whole.[27] The face of the Sphinx has been damaged over the millennia.

Medical AnalysisSurgeon Hutan Ashrafian from Imperial College London has analysed the Sphinx to identify that it may haverepresented an individual suffering from prognathism which may have been a reflection of a disease suffered by thesculpture’s human inspiration. Furthermore as the Sphinx represented a lion, the same individual may have sufferedfrom an associated condition where “lion-like” features were apparent (Leontiasis ossea).[28]

RestorationAfter the Giza Necropolis was abandoned, the Sphinx became buried up to its shoulders in sand. The firstdocumented attempt at an excavation dates to c. 1400 BC, when the young Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or1397–1388 BC) gathered a team and, after much effort, managed to dig out the front paws, between which he placeda granite slab, known as the Dream Stele, inscribed with the following (an extract):

... the royal son, Thothmos, being arrived, while walking at midday and seating himself under theshadow of this mighty god, was overcome by slumber and slept at the very moment when Ra is at thesummit [of heaven]. He found that the Majesty of this august god spoke to him with his own mouth, as afather speaks to his son, saying: Look upon me, contemplate me, O my son Thothmos; I am thy father,Harmakhis-Khopri-Ra-Tum; I bestow upon thee the sovereignty over my domain, the supremacy overthe living ... Behold my actual condition that thou mayest protect all my perfect limbs. The sand of thedesert whereon I am laid has covered me. Save me, causing all that is in my heart to be executed.[29]

Later, Ramesses II the Great (1279–1213 BC) may have undertaken a second excavation.

Great Sphinx of Giza 5

Mark Lehner, an Egyptologist, originally asserted that there had been a far earlier renovation during the OldKingdom (c. 2686–2184 BC),[30] although he has subsequently recanted this "heretical" viewpoint.[31]

In AD 1817, the first modern archaeological dig, supervised by the Italian Captain Giovanni Battista Caviglia,uncovered the Sphinx's chest completely. The entire Sphinx was finally excavated in 1925 to 1936, in digs led byÉmile Baraize.In 1931 engineers of the Egyptian government repaired the head of the Sphinx when part of its headdress fell off in1926 due to erosion that had also cut deeply into its neck.[32]

Panoramic view of the Sphinx and the Great Pyramid of Giza

Missing nose and beard

The Sphinx profile in 2010

Limestone fragments of the Sphinx'sbeard

The one-metre-wide nose on the face is missing. Examination of theSphinx's face shows that long rods or chisels were hammered into thenose, one down from the bridge and one beneath the nostril, then usedto pry the nose off towards the south.[33]

The Arab historian al-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributesthe loss of the nose to iconoclasm by Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a SufiMuslim from the khanqah of Sa'id al-Su'ada. In AD 1378, upon findingthe local peasants making offerings to the Sphinx in the hope ofincreasing their harvest, Sa'im al-Dahr was so outraged that hedestroyed the nose, and was hanged for vandalism.[34] Al-Maqrīzīdescribes the Sphinx as the "talisman of the Nile" on which the localsbelieved the flood cycle depended.

There is also a story that the nose was broken off by a cannonball firedby Napoleon's soldiers, that still lives on today. Other variants indictBritish troops, the Mamluks, and others. Sketches of the Sphinx by theDane Frederic Louis Norden, "View of the Sphinx, near Cairo" madein 1737 and published in 1755, illustrate the Sphinx missing its nose(see pictures below).

In addition to the lost nose, a ceremonial pharaonic beard is thought tohave been attached, although this may have been added in later periodsafter the original construction. Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev hassuggested that had the beard been an original part of the Sphinx, itwould have damaged the chin of the statue upon falling.[16] The lack ofvisible damage supports his theory that the beard was a later addition.

Great Sphinx of Giza 6

MythologyColin Reader has proposed that the Sphinx was probably the focus of solar worship in the Early Dynastic Period,before the Giza Plateau became a necropolis in the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2134 BC).[35] He ties this in with hisconclusions that the Sphinx, the Sphinx temple, the Causeway and the Khafra mortuary temple are all part of acomplex which predates Dynasty IV (c. 2613–2494 BC). The lion has long been a symbol associated with the sun inancient Near Eastern civilizations. Images depicting the Egyptian king in the form of a lion smiting his enemies dateas far back as the Early Dynastic Period.In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx became more specifically associated with the god Hor-em-akhet (Hellenized:Harmachis) or Horus at the Horizon, which represented the pharaoh in his role as the Shesep-ankh (English: LivingImage) of the god Atum. Pharaoh Amenhotep II (1427–1401 or 1397 BC) built a temple to the north east of theSphinx nearly 1000 years after its construction, and dedicated it to the cult of Hor-em-akhet.

Images over the centuriesIn the last 700 years there have been a proliferation of travellers and reports from Lower Egypt, unlike Upper Egypt,which was seldom reported from prior to the mid-18th century. Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Cairo and the GizaPyramids are described repeatedly, but not necessarily comprehensively. Many accounts, by no means all by peoplewho had actually seen it, were published and widely read. These include those of George Sandys, André Thévet,Athanasius Kircher, Balthasar de Monconys, Jean de Thévenot, John Greaves, Johann Michael Vansleb, Benoît deMaillet, Cornelis de Bruijn, Paul Lucas, Richard Pococke, Frederic Louis Norden and others. But there is an evenlarger crowd of more anonymous people who wrote obscure and little-read works, sometimes only unpublishedmanuscripts in libraries or private collections, including Henry Castela, Hans Ludwig von Lichtenstein, MichaelHeberer von Bretten, Wilhelm von Boldensele, Pierre Belon du Mans, Vincent Stochove, Christophe Harant, GillesFermanel, Robert Fauvel, Jean Palerne Foresien, Willian Lithgow, Joos van Ghistele, etc.Over the centuries, writers and scholars have recorded their impressions and reactions upon seeing the Sphinx. Thevast majority were concerned with a general description, often including a mixture of science, romance andmystique. A typical description of the Sphinx by tourists and leisure travelers throughout the 19th and 20th centurywas made by John Lawson Stoddard;

It is the antiquity of the Sphinx which thrills us as we look upon it, for in itself it has no charms. The desert'swaves have risen to its breast, as if to wrap the monster in a winding-sheet of gold. The face and head havebeen mutilated by Moslem fanatics. The mouth, the beauty of whose lips was once admired, is nowexpressionless. Yet grand in its loneliness, – veiled in the mystery of unnamed ages, – the relic of Egyptianantiquity stands solemn and silent in the presence of the awful desert – symbol of eternity. Here it disputeswith Time the empire of the past; forever gazing on and on into a future which will still be distant when we,like all who have preceded us and looked upon its face, have lived our little lives and disappeared. John L.Stoddard's Lectures (1898) 2, 111.

From the 16th century far into the 19th century, observers repeatedly noted that the Sphinx has the face, neck andbreast of a woman. Examples included Johannes Helferich (1579), George Sandys (1615), Johann Michael Vansleb(1677), Benoît de Maillet (1735) and Elliot Warburton (1844).Most early Western images were book illustrations in print form, elaborated by a professional engraver from either previous images available or some original drawing or sketch supplied by an author, and usually now lost. Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet (Cosmographie de Levant, 1556) described the Sphinx as "the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter". He, or his artist and engraver, pictured it as a curly-haired monster with a grassy dog collar. Athanasius Kircher (who never visited Egypt) depicted the Sphinx as a Roman statue, reflecting his ability to conceptualize (Turris Babel, 1679). Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with a straight haired wig; the only edge over Thevet is that

Great Sphinx of Giza 7

the hair suggests the flaring lappets of the headdress. George Sandys stated that the Sphinx was a harlot; Balthasar deMonconys interpreted the headdress as a kind of hairnet, while François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz's Sphinx had arounded hairdo with bulky collar.Richard Pococke's Sphinx was an adoption of Cornelis de Bruijn's drawing of 1698, featuring only minor changes,but is closer to the actual appearance of the Sphinx than anything previous. The print versions of Norden's carefuldrawings for his Voyage d'Egypte et de Nubie, 1755 are the first to clearly show that the nose was missing. Howeverfrom the time of the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt onwards, a number of accurate images were widely available inEurope, and copied by others.The Disney film Aladdin attributes the Sphinx's broken nose to a stonemason who accidentally chipped it off afterbeing distracted by Aladdin and Jasmine flying past on their magic carpet during the song "A Whole New World". Inthe cartoon book Asterix and Cleopatra, Obelix climbs up the face of the Sphinx and accidentally knocks the noseoff.In 2008, the film 10,000 BC showed a supposed original Sphinx with a lion's head. Before the film, the theory waspresented on earlier documentary films about the origin of the Sphinx.

Gallery

André Thévet,Cosmographie

de Levant(1556)

Hogenberg and Braun(map), Cairus, quae olimBabylon (1572), exists in

various editions, fromvarious authors, with theSphinx looking different.

Jan Sommer,(unpublished) Voyages enEgypte des annees 1589,1590 & 1591, Institut deFrance, 1971 (Voyageursoccidentaux en Égypte 3)

George Sandys, Arelation of a journeybegun an dom. 1610

(1615)

François de LaBoullaye-Le Gouz, Les

Voyages etObservations (1653)

Balthasarde

Monconys,Journal

desvoyages(1665)

Olfert Dapper,Description de

l'Afrique (1665),note the two

different displaysof the Sphinx.

Cornelis de Bruijn,Reizen van Cornelis

de Bruyn door devermaardste Deelen

van Klein Asia(1698)

Johanne BaptistaHomann (map),

Aegyptus hodierna(1724)

Frederic Louis Norden,Voyage d'Égypte et de

Nubie (1755)

Great Sphinx of Giza 8

Frederic Louis Norden,Voyage d'Égypte et de

Nubie (1755)

Description del'Egypte

(Panckouckeedition), Planches,Antiquités, volume

V (1823), alsopublished in the

Imperial edition of1822.

Description del'Egypte

(Panckouckeedition),Planches,

Antiquités,volume V

(1823), alsopublished inthe Imperialedition of

1822.

Members of theSecond Japanese

Embassy to Europe(1863) in front of the

Sphinx, 1864.

Jean-Léon Gérôme'sBonaparte Before theSphinx, 1867–1868.

Popular documentaries• Mystery of The Sphinx, narrated by Charlton Heston, a documentary presenting the theories of John Anthony

West, was shown as an NBC Special on 10 November 1993 (winning an Emmy award for Best Research). A 95minute DVD, Mystery of the Sphinx: Expanded Edition was released in 2007.[36]

• Age Of The Sphinx, a BBC Two Timewatch documentary presenting the theories of John Anthony West andcritical to both sides of the argument, was shown on 27 November 1994.

Notes[1] Emporis – Great Sphinx of Giza (http:/ / www. emporis. com/ application/ ?nav=building& lng=3& id=greatsphinxofgiza-giza-egypt)[2] Dunford, Jane; Fletcher, Joann; French, Carole (ed., 2007). Egypt: Eyewitness Travel Guide (http:/ / www. dorlingkindersley-uk. co. uk/ nf/

Book/ BookDisplay/ 0,,9781405320931,00. html?/ Egypt). London: Dorling Kindersley, 2007. ISBN 978-0-7566-2875-8.[3] Coxill, David (1998). "The Riddle of the Sphinx", InScription: Journal of Ancient Egypt, 2 (Spring 1998), 17; cited in Schoch, Robert M.

(2000) (http:/ / www. circulartimes. org/ New Studies Confirm Very Old SPhinx. htm). "New Studies Confirm Very Old Sphinx" in Dowell,Colette M. (ed). Circular Times.

[4] Book 36, chapter 17, in The Natural History of Pliny, translated by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley, Volume 6, pages 336-337(London: H. G. Bohn, 1857). (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ naturalhistoryof06plin)

[5] Christiane Zivie-Coche, Sphinx: History of a Monument, pages 99-100 (Cornell University Press, 2002). ISBN 0-8014-3962-0[6] See Thutmose IV#Dates and length of reign[7] "Why Sequence is Important", Lehner, Mark; Hunt, Brian V. link (http:/ / www. aeraweb. org/ khafre_seq. asp)[8] Hassan, Selim (1949). The Sphinx: Its history in the light of recent excavations. Cairo: Government Press, 1949.[9] Lehner, Mark (Spring 2002). "Unfinished Business: The Great Sphinx" (http:/ / www. aeraweb. org/ PDFs/ aeragram5_2_2002. pdf) in

Aeragram, 5:2 (Spring 2002), 10–14. Retrieved 23 December 2008.[10] Colavito, Jason (2001). "Who Built the Sphinx?" (http:/ / jcolavito. tripod. com/ lostcivilizations/ id17. html) at Lost Civilizations

Discovered (http:/ / jcolavito. tripod. com/ lostcivilizations/ index. html). Retrieved 19 December 2008.[11] Hawass, Zahi. ( The Khufu (http:/ / guardians. net/ hawass/ khufu. htm) at The Plateau (http:/ / guardians. net/ hawass/ ). Retrieved 6 January

2009.[12] Reader, Colin (2002). " Giza Before the Fourth Dynasty (http:/ / www. thehallofmaat. com/ modules. php?name=Articles& file=article&

sid=93)", Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum, 9 (2002), 5–21. Retrieved 2008-12-17.[13] Early Egyptologists were inconsistent in their transliteration of pharaonic names: Khafre and Khephren are, of course, both references to

Khafra.[14] The Great Sphinx (http:/ / www. theglobaleducationproject. org/ egypt/ articles/ phototr3. html) at The Global Education Project (http:/ /

www. theglobaleducationproject. org). Retrieved 23 December 2008.[15] Wallis Budge, E. A. (1904). The Gods of the Egyptians: Studies in Egyptian Mythology. Courier Dover Publications, 1969. 2 volumes. ISBN

0-486-22055-9.[16] Fleming, Nic (2004-12-14). "I have solved riddle of the Sphinx, says Frenchman" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/

africaandindianocean/ egypt/ 1478998/ I-have-solved-riddle-of-the-Sphinx-says-Frenchman. html) in The Daily Telegraph. Updated 14

Great Sphinx of Giza 9

December 2004. Retrieved 28 June 2005.[17] Riddle of the Sphinx (http:/ / documentarystorm. com/ history-archaeology/ riddle-of-the-sphinx/ ) Retrieved 6 November 2010.[18] Taylor, Karen T., History of the IAI Forensic Art Discipline (http:/ / www. theiai. org/ disciplines/ art/ history. php) at the International

Association for Identification. Retrieved 5 January 2009.[19] West, John Anthony (1993). Serpent in the Sky: The High Wisdom of Ancient Egypt (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=0S1qpP7By9IC& pg=PA232& lpg=PA232& dq=frank+ domingo+ west& source=web& ots=mCDxUhvmLd&sig=bjH-JglrK_KsjNpmcYYi2GHr6e4), 232. Wheaton: Quest Books, 1993. ISBN 0-8356-0691-0.

[20] Schoch, Robert M. (1992). "Redating the Great Sphinx of Giza" (http:/ / www. robertschoch. net/ Redating the Great Sphinx of Giza. htm)in Circular Times, ed. Collette M. Dowell. Retrieved 17 December 2008.

[21] Hancock, Graham; Bauval, Robert (2000-12-14). Atlantis Reborn Again (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ horizon/ 2000/atlantisrebornagain. shtml). Horizon. BBC. Aired 2000-12-14.

[22] Orser, Charles E. (2003). Race and practice in archaeological interpretation. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 73.ISBN 978-0-8122-3750-4.

[23] Hancock, Graham; Bauval, Robert (1997). The Message of the Sphinx: A Quest for the Hidden Legacy of Mankind. Three Rivers Press.p. 271. ISBN 978-0-517-88852-0.

[24] Fagan, Garrett G. (ed.) (2006). Archaeological fantasies: how pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public.Routledge. pp. 20, 38–40, 100–103, 127, 197–201, 238, 241–255. ISBN 978-0-415-30593-8.

[25] Robert K. G. Temple, The Sphinx Mystery: The Forgotten Origins of The Sanctuary of Anubis (Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions, 2009).ISBN 978-1-59477-271-9

[26] Regier, Willis G. (ed.) (2004). Book of the Sphinx. U of Nebraska Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-8032-3956-2.[27] Irwin, Graham W. (1977). Africans abroad (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?lr=& client=firefox-a& id=DBhqAAAAIAAJ&

dq=sphinx+ negroid& q=sphinx+ #search_anchor), Columbia University Press, p. 11[28] Ashrafian, Hutan. (2005). "The medical riddle of the Great Sphinx of Giza". J Endocrinol Invest 28: 866.[29] Mallet, Dominique, The Stele of Thothmes IV: A Translation (http:/ / www. harmakhis. org/ The Stele of Thotmes IV (Translation). htm), at

harmakhis.org (http:/ / www. harmakhis. org/ ). Retrieved 3 January 2009.[30] "The ARCE Sphinx Project—A Preliminary Report" (http:/ / www. hallofmaat. com/ modules. php?name=Articles& file=article& sid=13).

Hall of Maat. . Retrieved 2009-05-26.[31] "'Khufu Knew the Sphinx' by Colin Reader" (http:/ / www. ianlawton. com/ as1. htm). Ianlawton.com. . Retrieved 2009-05-26.[32] Popular Science Monthly, July 1931, page 56.[33] Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids. Thames & Hudson. p. 41. ISBN 0-500-05084-8.[34] "Faq#11: Who shot off the nose of the Sphinx?" (http:/ / www. napoleon-series. org/ faq/ c_sphinx. html). napoleon-series.org. . Retrieved

February 2012.[35] Reader, Colin (2000-03-17). Further considerations on the Age of the Sphinx (http:/ / www. ianlawton. com/ as4. htm) at Rational

Spirituality (http:/ / www. ianlawton. com/ ). Retrieved 6 January 2009.[36] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0316293/

External links• Riddle of the Sphinx (http:/ / documentarystorm. com/ history-archaeology/ riddle-of-the-sphinx/ )• An academic article arguing the case that the Sphinx pre-dates the commonly accepted dating of the Fourth

Dynasty (http:/ / www. thehallofmaat. com/ modules. php?name=Articles& file=article& sid=93)• Egyptian and Greek Sphinxes (http:/ / aldokkan. com/ art/ sphinx. htm)• Egypt—The Lost Civilization Theory (http:/ / www. eridu. co. uk/ Author/ egypt/ lost. html)• The Sphinx's Nose (http:/ / www. catchpenny. org/ nose. html)• Sphinx photo gallery (http:/ / guardians. net/ egypt/ sphinx/ )• Al Maqrizi's account (http:/ / al-eman. com/ Islamlib/ viewchp. asp?BID=224& CID=1) (Arabic)

Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and ContributorsGreat Sphinx of Giza  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541806991  Contributors: -Midorihana-, -Ril-, 21655, 2D, A. Parrot, A412, ABF, Aaron Brenneman, AbsolutDan,Academic Challenger, ActivExpression, Adam Bishop, Addihockey10, Aerawiki, Aguilarp, Alansohn, Alborz Fallah, Alchemist-hp, Alex '05, Alex43223, All Is One, Alpha Quadrant, Amaury,Andi d, Andres, Angela, Angrysockhop, Anna Lincoln, AnnekeBart, Antonio Lopez, Arakunem, Aranel, Archeo16, Arean don, Ariobarza, Art LaPella, Arthena, Articleer, Atif.t2, Auasr, AuntEntropy, Autiger, Autistic Donkey Hegemony, Avalyn, Avoided, Aznweibellion, B!ender3D, Bakabaka, Barryvalder, Bart133, Bfigura's puppy, Bhadani, Bhalli619, Bidgee, Big-dynamo,Binabik80, Binary TSO, Binot, Bobo192, Bomb12345678, Bongwarrior, Borgx, Bradv, Brandmeister, Bstbll, Btilm, BuddyLove23, Butterbauge, CJLL Wright, CLW, CSOFT, CWY2190,CZmarlin, Caffeined, Caltas, Canadian-Bacon, Capricorn42, Captmondo, Celarnor, Chapultepec, Charles Matthews, ChenisSupreme1, Chicago god, Chris chic14, Christman critter, CimonAvaro, Closedmouth, ClovisPt, Clubrune, CoYep, Code of the Sphinx, Codex Sinaiticus, Cohesion, Coke up my noes, Coolperson1, Cop 663, Courcelles, Crazy4HimNot, Creigs1707, Ctbolt,Cuchullain, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DFS454, DH85868993, DIEDIEDEAD, DJ Clayworth, DRTllbrg, DVD R W, Dailey78, Dajon, Dan4142, Dan653, DanielCD, Dantadd, Dantheox, DarkMage, Darkhippo, Davewichmann, Davewild, David.Monniaux, Davidgedye, Dbarnes99, Deb2222, Deeceevoice, Deibid, Dellarb, Demize.public, Demonking2002, DerHexer, Dicklyon,Dimadick, Djramone, Dominic20, Dougofborg, Dougweller, Doulos Christos, Dr galant, DrJos, Dragana666, Dreadstar, DreamGuy, Dudueduedu, Dureo, Durova, Dwayne, Dycedarg, Dylan620,Editor2020, Eequor, Egyegy, Ejosse1, ElationAviation, Elkman, Elmondo21st, Elonka, Emachinest3256, Emperorbma, Enviroboy, Epbr123, ErikNY, ErkDemon, Eskimopie300, Ettrig, Ev,Evadb, EvelinaB, Everyking, Excirial, Extransit, Facembanorth, Falcon8765, False vacuum, Faradayplank, FarafF, Fastily, Final-fantasy, Flamekeeper, Flewis, Fram, Frank3373, Friday,Frosted14, Fui in terra aliena, Fundamental6, Furrykef, Fylbecatulous, Gage14x, GcSwRhIc, Geezaplat, Gene Poole, Geni, GeorgeMoney, Gergis, Gfoley4, Ghirlandajo, Ghmyrtle, Gilliam, GlassSword, Glenn, Goldfinger820, Grafen, Graham87, Grandpafootsoldier, Green Cardamom, GregU, Greyson76, Griffinofwales, Grmanners, Grover cleveland, Gurchzilla, Guðsþegn, Gwern,Gwernol, Gökhan, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, Hajor, HalfShadow, Hamish2k, Harvstaa, Heracles31, HeteroZellous, Hike395, HisSpaceResearch, Hmains, Hotcrocodile, Huangdi, Icseaturtles, Igiffin,Ignacio Egea, Igoldste, Imnotminkus, InShaneee, Intgr, InverseHypercube, Inwind, Iohannes Animosus, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Iry-Hor, ItsZippy, Ivysaur, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, J424, JForget,JFreeman, JLaTondre, JNW, JRHorse, JaGa, Jacob decamillis, JamesHoadley, Jason Quinn, Jasonj123, Jaxl, JayJasper, Jayen466, Jbartelt9, Jebba, Jeepday, Jeff Dahl, Jeff Muscato, Jeffrey Mall,Jennica, JesseGarrett, JethroElfman, Jfmajo, Jguk, Jguk 2, Jim1138, Jimys salonika, Jkl, Joedarris, John, Johnbod, Johnny Squeaky, Jojhutton, Jonnay, Jossi, Jpers36, Jprg1966, Jrssr5, Juhko,Justforasecond, KDesk, Ka Faraq Gatri, Kaia2424, Kaisershatner, Kaiwhakahaere, Kajisol, Kaldari, Kaltenmeyer, Karenjc, Karnak666, Kastor900, Katanada, Katefan0, Kelsey59595,Ketsuekigata, Kevinhksouth, Kgray5, Killa425, King Lopez, Kjlewis, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kocio, Kokkei Mizu, Kongr43gpen, Korvis99, Krushia, Känsterle, L Kensington, Landon1980,Lanternix, Laurarosalie, LeaveSleaves, Legotech, Lenticel, Leoboudv, Leon7, Leuko, Levin, Lights, Limideen, Lindberg, Lineface, Lolmonkeys, Lowellian, Lugia2453, Luna Santin, Lung salad,Lupin, Lupo, Luzzoi, Macy, Madman2001, Majora4, Mardhil, Marek69, Marieblasdell, Mark Arsten, Mark91, MarkSutton, Markh, Marnanel, Marplejo1, Martin451, Materialscientist,MattWright, Maxman43, Maxviwe, McSly, Mchavez, Mean as custard, Melicans, Mendaliv, Mentifisto, Merphant, Mgiganteus1, Mike Rosoft, Mike s, Mikemoral, Mikerin, Milky99, Millahnna,Miscreantik, MithrandirAgain, Mkrose, Mlaine, Mmcannis, Mmcknight4, Monkeytail39, Monty845, Morgan Leigh, Mr Accountable, Mrt3366, Mtnfrog, MuZemike, Muntuwandi, Mushroom,Mwilso24, Mwng, Mygerardromance, MykReeve, NHJG, NW's Public Sock, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Nbarth, Neddyseagoon, Nemesis of Reason, Nev1, Niceguyedc, Nick1nildram, Nightscream,NikoSilver, Nissanleaf, Nivix, Nlapensee, NobbiP, Noosentaal, Nopira, NuclearWarfare, Nv8200p, Oarih, Odysses, OllieFury, Onewhoseeks, Opqr, Owen, OwenX, Ozgod, PRRfan, Para,Paranoid, Parkwells, Paul Barlow, Pb30, Perfect Proposal, PericlesofAthens, Perseus101, Persian Poet Gal, Petecarney, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Pewwer42, Pharaoh of the Wizards, PhilipTrueman, PhinneasJay, Pianoplayinman96, Pictureuploader, Pikiwyn, Planet-man828, Pmjkiller09, PowerCS, PrintedScholar, Prof saxx, Promethean, PrometheusDesmotes, Proofreader77,PseudoSudo, Quietbritishjim, Quirkie, Qwertybaby99, RB972, Racerx11, Raeky, RainbowOfLight, Rajah, Rampage Ruins, RandomStringOfCharacters, Raven in 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Connolley, Willy turner, Wimt, Winston365, Wizzy, Wmenden2, Wookiewikiwak,Writtenright, Wtmitchell, Wyss, X!, Xanzzibar, Xiong Chiamiov, Xpaulxfrankxgrlx, Xurei, Yath, YellowMonkey, Yom, ZPM, Zacherystaylor, Zaphnathpaaneah, Zara1709, Zerida, Zumwalte,Zuzzerack, Zymethdemon, 1729 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Great Sphinx of Giza - 20080716a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_Sphinx_of_Giza_-_20080716a.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Barcex, Berthold WernerFile:Pedro II of Brazil in Egypt 1871.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pedro_II_of_Brazil_in_Egypt_1871.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: M. Delie & E.BechardFile:'Le Sphinx Armachis, Caire' (The Sphinx Armachis, Cairo).jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:'Le_Sphinx_Armachis,_Caire'_(The_Sphinx_Armachis,_Cairo).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: National Media MuseumImage:Sphinx partially excavated2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sphinx_partially_excavated2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Maison Bonfils (Beirut,Lebanon), photographers : Félix (1831-1885), his wife, Lydie (1837-1918) and his son, Adrien (1861-1929). Most possible done by Félix.Image:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: PresumablyHamish2k, the first uploaderFile:Sphinx and the Great Pyramid of Giza panorama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sphinx_and_the_Great_Pyramid_of_Giza_panorama.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: kallernaFile:Magnify-clip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Erasoft24File:Sphinx of Giza 9059.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sphinx_of_Giza_9059.jpg  License: Free Art License  Contributors: Alchemist-hp (talk) (www.pse-mendelejew.de)File:Beard of the sphinx.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beard_of_the_sphinx.jpg  License: Copyrighted free use  Contributors: JMCC1, Jeff Dahl, Mmcannis,Neithsabesimage:André Thévet, 1556.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:André_Thévet,_1556.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Hogenberg & Braun, 1572.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hogenberg_&_Braun,_1572.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Jan Sommer, 1591.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jan_Sommer,_1591.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:George Sandys, 1615.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_Sandys,_1615.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmoses, 1 anonymous editsimage:François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz, 1653.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:François_de_La_Boullaye-Le_Gouz,_1653.png  License: Public Domain Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Balthasar de Monconys, 1665.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Balthasar_de_Monconys,_1665.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Olfert Dapper, 1665.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Olfert_Dapper,_1665.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Cornelis de Bruijn, 1698.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cornelis_de_Bruijn,_1698.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Johanne Baptista Homann, 1724.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Johanne_Baptista_Homann,_1724.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: James086,Twthmoses, 1 anonymous editsimage:Norden, 1755 (1).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Norden,_1755_(1).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Norden, 1755 (2).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Norden,_1755_(2).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Description de l'Egypte, 1823(1).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Description_de_l'Egypte,_1823(1).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmosesimage:Description de l'Egypte, 1823(2).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Description_de_l'Egypte,_1823(2).png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Twthmoses

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 11

Image:Japanese Mission Sphinx.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Japanese_Mission_Sphinx.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Catfisheye, Glenn, JMCC1,Juiced lemon, Nopira, PinkvilleImage:Jean-Léon Gérôme 003.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean-Léon_Gérôme_003.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anne97432, Glenn, Hsarrazin,Infrogmation, JMCC1, Juanpdp, King of Hearts, Mattes, P. S. Burton, Pitke, Shakko, Tpbradbury, Xenophon, 1 anonymous edits

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