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ISLAM AND POLITICS ~;~DER THE 'NEW OROER'

GOVERNMENTININDONE~A

1966-1990

ISLAM AND POLITICS UNDER THE 'NEW ORDER'

GOVERNMENT IN INDONESIA

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•

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ISLAM AND POLITICS UNDER THE 'NEW OROER'

GOVERNMENT IN INDONESIA

1966-1990

Dody S. Truna

J\ [11('sIS Submlttecl to the Graduate Faculty of Arts and Science

ln Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of M<Jster of Arts

lnstltllte of lslamlc Studies

McGill University

Montreal

©Dody S. Truna

•

•

•

i\lIthol

Tltlc 01 llwsl'

DCpdltlllCl1t

Dcgl ce

Tllc 'New Dt (k:,' ~~

',\lH (l1Ht \"0111 1(':- llndel t Ill' "Ncw ()I dl'I"

'\ ·\l111llH'~' t ln IlldOIll':-ld 1 t)h(j 1 ql)(l

undel takcn (lifter l'lit 1 ; , ,'" ;

Islalllll1ll1donc~I<l Slllt' "l,', ln I~)(,b, Il fi"" C\('I<I'>I'd ',III< 1 IUIIII(I\

generally [weil tnlC'rélnt [\11<1 ('v('11 '>Uppullt\l' Il)(' 1(''>lIlt Il .. '. IH'('II" (l)ll'>ldt'l.tlJ\('

weakerllng of hldllllC POIIIIC,II 101 «'" bill .1 l "JlHlly <!('V('IOjlllll', '1 ('hp,IOIl'" hl.1Il1

ThiS leallty ha~ fOI({'<! Ill(' pl ('"clll-<!ay ~~t'IJ('lrlIIOII 01 Itlr!OIlt'''ldll MII',IIIII 111111"('1',

to tdkC' an apprO<l( Il Will( Il 1" dllklclll 110111 111.11 01 III<' IH('VIOII" 1',('111'1.111 0 11 III

respolldlllg to the gr)VeIIlIlWIII'~ pol((J(''' 10W,\I«(., hl.1I11 1111111<1' 1111'11 pl('d('«''''.OI'.,

some of wholll Ihlc! IO(j Iclcologlfill ;llIll /Olllldll"ll( ,,( Ollct'pllO/l 01.111 hldllilc '.1.111',

the present Musllm thlnkels take <lll dPIJr<hICI! whl(1t 1" lOI III!' flIO',1 p"ll

politlcally non-partisan, 1 here hac., 1)('cll ,\ )~rowlIlg tt'IHl!'IH y clI1I()1l1~ 1111'111 10

denounce the efflcacy of l.,lamlc (lollllrill Pdll«· ... llwy "('(' 111"1 III<' Il'dll/dlllJ/llIl

an Islamlc comll1l1nIty tlllCl the wcll-ht'llIg 01 litt' ufnll1t1h WIll (Oll\(' "holll /Ill 1

through exclUSive and uncOlllprolllhlflg poUllc,,1 .If 11011'> bUI IliI()('l,.ll '.1,( III

e(onomlc and cultural means and the ,IIJlIIlY 10 1)(' )('"" ('xC IU'>IVI' dlill wll 1 1111', 10

work wlth thosc who sh,tre cllfklcnt Icll'c1'" 1\" d 1(',>ull (J!d!ol\<. dlllll!" IIJ(",(' 11111".,

the relatlonshlp bctwt;cn Ihe MlI,,111n (OIIlIlIlJlllly dlill IIIC' l',fJVI'lllllll'lll Il.1'.

Improved suhstantlally, Nevetlh('\CO"". Il (('lIlellll', 10 tw ',('('11 wlJ('lllI'l (I! 1,01 1111' .

developmg 're!lglou~' hl,un WIll. dl ,>(JIII!' tutlll(' d,lf(', ,)(' Ildll'./Ollfll'd IIdu d

powelflll 'pollllcal' Islam.

II

'\llll'111

ï Illé du ~léll1()l/L.:

D('p:tl (l'11Wlll

f)lpJ{lllll"

RÉSUMÉ

Dody S Trllna

1"lal11 el pollllque en Ind(}nt:~lC à l'~r()que ùu gouvernemcnt

du "Nouvl'llllllre", 1 1.J6() - l <jyO

In"tltllt dL''' ÉlUÙL'S blanmjlles, U:ll"crsité M(;Gill

M'tllll.\e C,) Arts

SOl!" 1,1 ÙlleC110!1 LILI pl~.'.ident Suharto, le gouverncment dlJ "Nouvel ordre" a

l'lIUl'pll.'. LIli 1 él entL'.\ mlt;"ll ve,,,, devant l '1...,1 a 111 "poli tique" ct l'Islam "religieux" cn Indonésie,

l' hl.tlll .. pol! t IqUl''': pal L unll c, ..,lIl\ all1l11dl' ;\ 1\~gaHl dL' 1'I.\lam "Il' Ilg1ClIX" li généralement été

llllL' attItude dL' !<MlarKl', VOl! m0111è dl' .\outH.'n, II en ré.\lllla un aflaihlts~cment prononcé

lk.., 101 LL'" rh II 1 lltjlll''> l ,I.\I1l1qUL'Ioi, m,II loi 1111 dévcloppement rapi ùe dl: l'l.\lam "religieux", Cette

nOllwlk Il~allt~ a ohJJgé la gl-n~lallon actucllc dL' pcn~cllr.\ 1~1L1Su1l11ans Indonésiens à

adopll'l ulle applol'lll' lhlll-lcnte lk ll'Ik de la pll~cédL'nt'~ g~nératlOn pour rl~p()mhe aux

pnIJtlqul'.\ l!IlU\'l'll1l'Il1I.'lll,lks à \'~gald lk l'Islam À la ll!l-r~IL'l1CC de leurs prélléccsseurs,

r:tr1111 Inqul'I ... \,I.'lla1l1 ... avat~llt une C(\l1L'epIWll lmp ld~()l()glqlle cl formelle d'un état

1.\lallllqul'. k~ pl'll.\l'UfS l11u'lIll11ans al't,ll'l~ adoptent lIne aprwche (lui est cn gramle partie

nlln-palll"'.lI1l' Il Y aL'lI lIrk' ll'mbnCè :Il'L1l1C de la part dL' l'eux-ci à dénoncer l'effkacité des

pallll'~ POII!H.lul''\ Cl'~ rl'n~euls Illu.\ulman.\ aL'tllel~ reconnal.\sent quc la réalisation d'une

Clll11ll1l1ll.luté 1:-.lanllque, dl' mêml' q~\e le hien-éllc th! la lImmnfl, ne ~c r~aliscront pas par

l'Illll'lllll\h,~\ll' d'lin.: puhlllJuc d'L'xcl!l .... Hln ct d'lI1lranslgeam:e, mal.\ plutflt par le hiais de

1111l)'l'n.\ '\lIL'lO ('L<llHlll1H)lICS ct L'UIIl\Il'b. Ùl' même que par une hahIieté à être moins fcrmés

l't ~ èlll' pl0h ,lll.lvailkl av .. '\.. l't~lIX qlll paJta~ellt des IdéL'~ lhff~rentL'~, Les efforts cntrepris

d,ms Cl' SlllS l'Ulèl1t l'()I1lI11l' 1 ~~sl\ltat l'amélioratlOl1 suh~tanllcllc des relations entre la

l'Omll1tlll.llllé musulmane l't le gnuVl.'lnl'tnL'l1t. Néanmoins, il reste à savoir si il y aura ou

nl\11 1I11l' Irall~rllrm:lti()n ullél il'ule lk l'l't Islam "religieux" en dl' venir en un Islam

Hi

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 am pnHldnly mdebtcd to illY the~l~ ,\dVI~OI, Pro!. 1\.IIIll'1 1\l11~"\', Illi

hls continued ~upervislon and t'IlCOlll'l!!ement th OllldlOlil ,III pl1,I~,l'~ nI 11\\'

wOlk on thl~ thc~ls. In thls (ontex! 1 <1111 dlsn 1!1<llelul 10 l'lol.llo\\.dld 1\1.

1 ederspicl wlthout whose advlCc the PIC~l\llt WOI k \volll<l Ill'\ l'I il<l\ l' !)lll'il

completed. Many thanh go to l'roI. C1ldrle~ 1. /\d,IIW" Illy d( ,HklllH

superVIS(H, who has glVCIl me 1l111ch CIlCllllrdl!l'Il11'lIt ,wei "cl\ 1< t' t"'IH'C Idlly

at the earltel stage~ of Illy ~tll(h\s al the 11l~1111Ilt' of bldllll( ~I\ldll''', 1\11 l,dl

Ul11verslty. 1 am <Ilso apPIIXldllye 01 the d~~I~talJ( e 1~IVl'lI Illl' br ),lIw ..

Feralmlll of the Islamll' StlldlCS Itbl,lIY 1 () \tl'p!1l'1I Mdkl, w!'o 1H'lpl'd III('

ta overcome my cldltcultle~ wllh I.nglt~h 1',1i.llllllltlr, 1 oWP ail l'1l011lI(\\1\ de'"

of gratitude.

FmanClal assIstance 1'01 a two ycal pCIIIH\ "0111 (1 DA ( ,111<1<11<111

InternatIOnal Development !\gcn( y), thloll~~h (; II' (,('IH'I"I IldllllllP.

Pro gram) and MIIDP (MeCtll Indonesla [!\IN [kvclopmellt 1'1 O!l'( 1), plov('d

Inyaluable to me, Ilcncc. 1 would like 10 exprp:-,:-, tIIy apprl'c iatloll to ( 11>/\

affluais and lo Prof. Charles J. J\dams and l'lol.l{('!JCUd B. /\lk('lI. 1)lll'(IOI

and Acting Dll'cctol' of MIIDP, Icspcctlvely, 10 Mie !tacl Drapt', 1)11('( lOI 01

GTP ln Jakarta, and to ail ~taff membcrs of MIID\' (md CIl' III (dlliUI<l cl Il cl

Indonesla fQI' thelr wonderful help.

IJ. \.1

IV

• TRANSLITERl\.TION TABLE

III 1111', ',fuel)', Alllbrc wonh arc tran~lItelat('cI Into the Roman

,tlplJ<dwt !le ((JI dllll~ to the equlvalents glven be!ow lf1 the Lnglrsh table.

l"dOIH'''ldll "drn('~ <Incl wOlds ollgmally wrrtten III Arable SCllpt are

Ildll',IIt<'latl'd tl(,('oldrn~~ 10 the respective tables for those languages,

111< ('W 1 ~(' hl' 1 () W

1\1 (d)1!' I.ngltsh Indoneslan

C--' Ih ts

G Il h

y" h h , r>-C./ kh ch/kh

• J dh dz

"

U ~h sy

if ~ sh

d cl dl

.v th

h l dh

CJ c '_ or k . C' gh gh

) w U Ol'W

III the (tise of the fil' l11al'bÏl~al1 (6) thls is written "h" unless It

0('( urs \\lllhm an Il.1üfah III which case It IS written "t".

• v

• ABRI

gAPll.lJ

BAZ .....

HMI

BPUPK

DGI

DPR

GHliN

• Golkar

GUPPl

HMl

IAIN

lCMI

lPKI

KAMI

KAPPI

• Kostrad

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

i\1l~~btdn Ikl ~l'I1I,ltd Rl'publIk Illdolll'~I,\ Iltl' Indoncsl,1I1 1\1 tlll'c\ 1 ()1Ct.'~

Baddll Pl'lll~l'IHI,\1t Pcmdtll,\Il 1I111111l1

Co 111 roi t Ill' C; e Ill' l " 1 1 Il' ( 1 \0 Il

Bddan PellYl'ltd 1" Ih,lIld Ils.lIld 1'('1 ~Idpdn "l'llIt'l dl'kddll 'Ih~ lnvesllgcltlllg (olI1l1l1l1l'l' lOI Illl' 1'11'P.lldIIOIl (lI Illdcp~ndene e

()CWdll Cell'ld ll1c!OI1l· .... ld Ille (Ol!IH li 01 III(\OIIl".ldll Chlilchcs (Illotl'sl,IIII.,)

I)cwan Pel'wdkll,lII Rdk)'''1 1 Ill' l'('opk\ 1 t·l~I.',ldll\'I· i\~~cl11bly (Pdllldllll'Ilt)

(J(III~-CdIIS Bl,.,dl ll,dlldll N{'l~dl" IIIt' (,1'\1('1<11 (lIllllI\('

of the Stdlc'S 1 )m'( lIon

COI0I11~d\1 K,II Vd Ille 1 li Ile IH)(ldl ("0111>"

Gabunf~all lIs.dld l'cl!J,lIkall l'Clldldlk,lIl hl""1 1 fil' i\SSO( Id.t\O\1 fOI' the 1 111 Il 1 OVl'I1I('111 01 1 II<.' 1',I.I1IlI( IdlHatloll

HlmpUl1dl1 M<.tlld!-.I<"Wd 1~lalll 1 Ill' 1:--.ltllllIl IJllIVI'I'.\ty Stlldcnts !\~~O( Icltlon

Institut !\I~arna hlam Nl'I~l'rJ 1 he ~tai(' 1/1<,111111(' ni 1~laml(, ~llIdll'"

Ikalan (cndcktaWdl1 MIISIItIl Sl' IlIdolll",ld 1 lit' i\sso('JatlOn of IndolH'slan rvl\l<,llIlllllt('IIt,( 111<lh

Ikatan l'endllklllll~ Kl't!l(',c!ekddll IrlllolH",ld 1 lit' i\sso( iatlol1 of IlldolH~<'lan Illdl'p<,lldl'rJ< t' \IIPPOII('I <,

Kc~atllan !\k~1 M,dl<l<,I<,Wd IlIdolll">Ia II({' IJOIII of Indo!1c<'1il1l (l/lIVl'/C,lly '-JIIJclt'lIl <, Al flOl1

Kc!-.atuan Ak~d J!('r1l1ldd (\,tt1 1'('I'lldl Illdolw'"" IIIl' Ilont of Illdonc<.,ldll YOIlIIt·) (Ille! \11((1('111 .. (\( t 1011

Komando ~tldlcgl'> !\1l1~kdldll j),Udf

~I ratq~(( lI.e<,cl Vl' ( onlllldlHI

VI

• M/\N

M dllipoi

MAWI

MI

MIN

M 1'0

M l'I{

M l'I{)

M 1 !'IN

• Mlii

Nil

Nil

\' .1 (\'1'1'1')

Pd 1'11111 SI

\,\)I

PDII

1'1 111/\

1'1 R Il

• l'III )l'

Î\1,lIl1/e,>ld\1 Polltlk J h<: l'o!Jtl( <d Mand estdtlon

M,qdl" 1\f~lIn~~ Wall-}~el('Ja Indoncslé.l l'he CI eat (011111 Il 0/ IIlc!olle<.,lan ( hUI( hc:--, ( dthollu,)

Mu~IHlIlll Illdone~ld -1 he (Organl/atlOn of) Indonesléln M 1I~11r1l:-'

Madl d~dh Ibt Idalyah NCi~en The State Islamie Pl'Illlal y )(Iwol

Mawlls Penyelamat Organlsasi 1 he COUllci 1 to Save the 01 j~dl)J/ation (o! H!VII)

Mawh ~ 1'('1 m lI~yaw a ratan Rakyat lhe Pcople's (oll~lIltdtlve J\~~embly (Scnate)

MtlWII~ l'l'I1111 l\ydWéH dttln Rakyat Sementd ra The Provl~lolldl People's ConsultatIve Assembly

Ma(1I aSdh 1 s<Hldwlyah NC}~{,II Se! olld.1I y School

1 he State Islamle

Mé\Il'''~ (Jldilla Illdol.c~la '/ he C:oulleil of Incloneswll ( U/am{l'

N('~(ara Isl,lIn Indonesla 'Ille 1~lamlc State of Indonesla

Nalldatulllldntd 1 he Rcssurgenec of the Intelleetuals

Pedom<.ln l'ell~~hayatan dan Penf~amalan Pancaslla ï he ClIId<\I1cC 101' lIndcrstandlllg and ApplicatIon of the l'dllca s i la

PdllaI Mmlunin IndonesJa The Indoneslan Muslims Party

l'arlal Dem 0 krasl IndoneSHl The Indoneslan (){tlllaCI dtlC P .. u ty

l'artal lkrnoklasi Islam Indoncsw' 111e Indonesian Islanllc [)Clllonatlc Party (also callccl POl Partal I)clllokla:'II~lalll)

l'cmbdll!~lIllall Illna rahun The rIve Years Ih'vc!o(Jlllent Plan

PClgel .. ",1I1 1' .. 11 blyah )slal1l1Ydh "he Isla/llIe Education l\Iovellll'llt

1\lm.HI Il,\ IIlIldu Dharl11a Pusat The Representat IVC

VII

• Pli

Pli

PKI

PNI

PPKI

ppp

PRRI

PSII

• RI\PBN

RPI

SOI

Sckber Golkar

SI

SUPERSEMAR

TNI

WALUBI

•

( Olll1C11 nt IllChl(ll".Idll Illlull!'.

PeI,lIal hltllll Illd()IlI'~I,l ~t\ldl'nt<.., I\~:-'l)( l,II Illll

Ille IlldOlll''.ldll l\l\l~,lllll

PMU\! K () 11111111 ~ ln do Ill' ~ l, \ 1 Ill' III Il (lI Il "d. III ( () 111111\ III '" 1 l'ait y

PartHI Ni.\~lolI,,1 l/1dolll'~ld Iltl' IlidolH'\ldll Ndllo!l,dl,,1 Party

Panltlé:l Pcr~l"pdn Kl'Illl'Idekddli Indolll':'ld Ill(' Prepali:ltolY COlllllllttec ID\' IIIc!OIH'<"'ldll Ilit!('\ll'llIll'lll ('

Péll tél! PCI ~atlldll Pell1lhllll~\lIldll lIllIon Pally

11lt' 1 )l'\'l'lo!lIIll'1l1

Pcmcrintahan R<.'v()llI~I()IH'1 l{l'plIll"k IIH\OIH'\ld III(' Revo/utlOrléllY COVCIIlIlH'1I1 01 IIIt' 1~('(lIIIJI/I III IlldOlll'SlcI

Palldl Sarckat 1~ltllli IlldO\H'<"'ld 1 hl' hldlllll IJIIIOIl

Party 01 Indone~lt\

Rene and !\nlŒi:Ilé1n 1'<.'11(\(II>"ldl1 dall 1\l'l.lIlId NI"',dlcl '1 he Natlollcll Budget

Republlk Pcr~(\tllan IIlt!OIH'''I.I Ill<' lllllll'c1 (<l'I)l11l11( III /nclone~ra

Sare kat Dagang hldm '/ he /~,I"1Il1C (Olllllll'\( l,II IJIIIO"

SckretaI Idt BerSdlllll C;olon!~all K.II yd

Secretanat of IUJlctlonal (,1'0 Il p,',

Sare kat Islam / he hlarlllC IlJlIOIl

III(' IOlllt

Surat PCllntah ~e1)('I(\" Mail'! IIJ(' 1)('( Il'I' 01 1 1 M.t! 1 Il 196G

1 entant NaslOlJal In(\ollCSla 1 Ill' IlidorJ(""dll !\lllIy

Perwallan lJmdt Bllddha Indolle~ld / hl' /{('PI (",('111.111\)(' Cou n< Il () 1 / nel 0 n('~ 1 a n Il udclill', t <,

VIII

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

AB ~ 1 RA( 1 •••.••.•••••..••••••••••••••••..•••••.••••...•..••••..••• Il

I( 1 ~ ( J MI. . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . • • .. III

1\( KNOWIII>CI MI NI <) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , • • • • • • • • • • • • • IV

1 RAN)IIII RA liON IABU '" . . . . . . . • . .. . . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . . . .. . . • . . • V

I.IS 1 01 I\BBIU VI/\ liONS •.......•..•....•...•.......•••.........• VI

IABII (H «)NIIN1~ .....•...•..•.•••...••.••.•.••.•.•..........• IX

( 'hapter

IN 1 ROIHJC liON 1

1 II)II\M I\ND POUllCS lJND[R SUKARNO A BACKGRCUND ••.••• Il

2 1)1 AM AND POUIICS lJN\)/]~ '1111. 'NeW ORDER' GOVERNMENT •• 42

J 1 OW ARJ)S A IIARMONIOUS RELATIONSHIP • • . • • • • . • . • • • • • • . . •• 96

4 «)NCIUSI()N •••..•.......••..••.••.•.•.•.•.•••••.•..•.•••• 149

SOUR<ï) CONSUI.T\]) .....••...•....•.•.•......•.•.•...•..•••••.. 159

IX

•

•

•

INTRODUCTION

This thesis analYIl~s thc polit ((',lI IcldtlOll:-hql l>l'tWl'l'll thl' ~t,lll' ,\Ild

Islam ln Indonesla undcr thc 'Nc\\ Order' l!o\'errJllll'lIt dl""II~ tlle IH'IIOt!

1966 to 1990.1 l'he stucly CO III l'Ill 1 dte~ Oll t \\'() 111<1111 plohll'Ill" (1) Iltl'

poliClcs of thc goYellll1lcnt tO\\'illcb bl.\Il1 ancl lite 1\111~1t11l~' Il',\( tl()1l tn

these pallcics, and (2) the MlISItIll~' .H tl()l1~ .\Ild the I~O\'l'IIIIIH'llt'~ Il'd( tUlIl

ta the latter. DISCUSSion on those Iwo ploblL'llI~ I~ <lho dl\'ldl'd mto Iwo

parts accordmg ta two dlffcrent pCllOds (lI poltlll dl dt'\'clopIlH'1I1 "' 'Nl'W

Order' Indanesla 19GG- 1984 and 1 9X ') - 1 ()<JO. III 1 l\(' ( 0111 ~l' () 1 t IJ(' Yl',11 ~

1966-1984 Istamlc palttlcal patliCS and IIld~~ orp .• llu/lltIOll:--' ~tlll 1I~l'd

Islam as thelr orgat1l/atlOnal fOllnclallon. IloweYl'r, ~IIHl' IIJK', the

goyernment no longer tnlcratcs polltl<<l1 pallll'~ 01 III .. ~:-. OIl'.dlll/dIIOIl:-'

using any Ideology fOI thel!' constJtutlOnallJa~l~ olhl'I Ih"n l'IIJ1UI\//II (Ihl'

Ideology of the state).

To undc!'staml the nature of Ihc IclallOns/llp helw('('11 hl,tllI (11)(1 th('

state in the 'New Ordel' penod, al Iea~t SOIllC l~elll'ial kllowkdl!(' 01 lite

preceding period IS Important. Ilencc, eycn th(}lIl~h tl1ls ~)llIdy lOI \I:-'{", 011

the 'New Order' penod, the polltrcal l'eldtlon~hlp hetwcl'Il 1<,1,1111 <llIcI tlll'

1 The term 'New Order' m the Indolle~JaIl pol!' H al c olll('xt ,'. JI<,II.dly defined a~ a system and a way of thin"'1Il1~, hcllcvrrll~, (llId d( tllll! WIIII Il

is consistent wlth the Pancaslla and the 194~) ('()Il~tllullon. Il .. Id('dl'" d'. expressed by A.II. NaslltlOn, Challman of Ihe PloVI~lolI(\1 ')('lldl(' III 1966, were "to upholcl truth and JII~tlC c, 10 uphold PellI( d',II .. .11H11 II!' 1945 ConstitutIOn, 10 sma~h <III Im'lIlal, f)1()Jill ,lJl() J(1I'ol{)l~J( .d/ pohtlcalleconorTllc/so( lai (Ipolebo,» adycntull",tn alld d('VldIIO/J'" dlld to realtze the threc demand~ 01 tll(' people «n/lAra)", /,(' I() dl'.bdIH) the PKI (the (ommllnl~t Pat ty), 10 dJ .. ~)olve 1 he /)wlkoyu ( ,t!mH't Ct IJ(' liI',1 of Sllkarno's (abll1et~), ancl to recluce PIH(':-'. )ce Nd'''1 1.'"1.11.1, "\<.lrllfI under the New Order 1\ PoiitH al J Il'.tOf y," fJn,>ma J he fnr1()n('\wn Indlcator 49 (June 1990), H.

•

•

•

2

<,I(II(~ lfI Ihc 'Olt! O,dc,' (~ukalno) pCllod I~ dlsclIsscd ln the fll'st ehapter.

1 here arc tlHec malll rea~()n~ fOI thls study. Ilrst, the majonty of

IJldOI)('~I,lIl pcople arc Mw,"m~, who Illdke up of 87.1 per cent of the total

POPUI'I!IOII.L 1 helelorc, blam ha~ the potentlal to play as si~~mfleant a

Iole III IlId()II('~I,1I1 poil! IC ~ a~ Il does now ln sOCIal affall s. Second, the

pollC y of the Illd{)ne~1él1l Rovernment, on the basis of the 1945

( OIl~tllllll()Il, IS 10 tleat aIl rellf~lons CXIStlllg III Indonesla as equal and

plovlde 1 hcm wllh the same opportllntty to progrpss and plav Important

lol('s Hl Ihc C( onotlllC and ~ocial development of the nation. The

1~()V('lllIlIelll IS of 1 H':lally 'unpal tlal' regal dlll!~ any ~pertfIc religIOn despite

the l,\('I th,.! the population IS overwhelmmglv Musltm. F-mally, the l'ole

wllIC'1I \:ll~ Id('a"~1 Mu~IJll1~ waIlt to play ln the polltKal Itfe of the modern

~tate IS IlO! li Il Hl llC. Strntlar situations currently eXlst m other Islamie

('OlllltllCS IhlOllldlOUl the worlel. 1 hls case stuely of IndonesIa, It IS hopecl,

Will shed "nh! on the CUITent issues rcgardmg the role of religIOn in

1ll0de11ll1'1Il1~ Muslllll states.

Islam III IndonesJa has 'radulOnally round Itself at an Impasse in

tt'nus of Its pohtJl'al role. l hls 15 to say that the Musltm on the one sicle

alld the ~~o\'elnlllent on the other have long vlewed each other wlth

~lJsplnon. SOIllC bUleaunats and mcmbers of the mlhtary ehte in

govel'lllllcnt t'lIe1es saw a polttlCally-orgalllzecl Islam as a potential power

, )

<-- Sec Blro J1uSdt StatlstIk, .<,'tatlsuk Indone~/a 1985 (Jakarta BPS, 1986), 25, 1 )()-l~) 1, fluoted III I\lfl..n, "Ulama, Umat Islam, dan Perl11hhan Umum," .lUrtw/ /lmll l'o/Iuk :~ (1988), 39.

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threatenmg the allthollty 01 the ccntr.\1 1!0\'l'rnllll'1l1 ,lIld II~ \\'<.'11

established Idcology of the Ptl11CaS,lll ,1I1d the Constltullon 01 1 (j·l l). 1 hl'

MlIsltms arglled aga1l1st the (\lClIS,\IIOIl th,\t Iht.'\' WCll' ll/u,-l'lIlHtI"liI.

They, for thelr part, lelt thdt the II1Ie Ulldl'l~t.t\l("IlI! 01 Ihl' J!lIlI(ll\t/a

should be that whlch was based 011 tht.' "1,\\....lIltl (h,\IIl'I" \ 1 hl' /'III1((/"/d.

thus. had bl'en IIltl'lpleted by e,H'h ~Ide dtlll'Il'\llly d( (Oldllll~ ln Il:-,

respectIve pelceptlOn.4 Deltal' Noel, a MlI~11I1I ~(hol,1I \\ 110 \llldll'~ Ihl'

history of modern Indonc~Ja, deC',( Ilbe~ the SltlltlllOIl 1 hll~

The widenlll~~ gap betwl'l'Il thl' M\I~IIIJI\ ,\IId IIIl' government, and IIlCleaslIlgly Illuludlly S\I~pl( IOll~ .. \llllIdl'~, can perhaps be l'l'laled to l'all( <\:-,11.1, the plilH Ipk~ 011 whl!" the state IS foundl'cl. Whde altno:-'I ('Vl'I yhocly III III tOlll'~I" now agrees wlth Pan(,I~t1tl, tlH' MlI\llIlI~ ll'cI IlId! IIIt' governmellt want to "~,('Culdll/e" Ille Ilv(' 1>lIIH IPIl':-" 011 Ih(' other hand, thec!~OVeJ'lllllellt leel~ thd! tlH' 1\11I\IIIIl', Wdlll 10 "Islanllze" them.:>

Notwlthstandlllt~ the ~~overnll1elJt's dut y 10 ploll'( 1 Ihl' 1 «'l'dOIIl (II

religIon m IndoncsIa, contI 01 was of tell l'XCI'! I~l'd (JV('I ,illY lelrl'.lolI w!J(( It

was rrgarded as 11Innm~~ (ounter 10 and 111It.'atl'lllllg tlIc I~OV('''IIIJ('Ilt':-,

policy. ActIons plIrsued by the so-called 'radl<'dl' Mu:-.IIIW, III IlJdolll'~I",

3 This SUSplCIOllS attItude was apparent, for exalllpll', III IIH' d('hal('~) 01 the ProvlslOnal Scnatc (MPRS) 111 Marc h 1 C)hX. III 111(':-.(' (khdll'~), 111(' Islamic partlc~ prcsscd for le~~alI/(ltlOn 01 tlH' "Iaktllld (IIall<'l" d<, IIH' preamble of the ConstItutIOn whIle the (1111\11<111 and 'c!l'V<'lO!JIIWIlt' factions (the latter domlllated by the Illlillaly ('111l' dl HI ':,('( 111,11' intellectuals) opposccl thl~ step. ~ee Mohalllllll'd ~~d"l,d Ild~,~.all, "ContemporalY Muslrm ReIIJ~lo-PolIll( al 1 h()lIl~"t lil IIHlo/H'\ld 111(' Response to New Orcier ModeIrll/atlon" (l!hd. J)1\',{'!t<IIIOII, (OlllllllJld UllIversity, 1975), chaptel 1 pa~:-'lIn. J)I~( lI~<'IOII of II\(' "j,d',11 t il Charter" IS provldcd III (hapter 1 of thl~ t"e<;I~.

4 Sec Z.S. Nalllggolan, PandaJ1gan (~~J1dekl(lwun MIA\/lnl ler!wdup 1'4 (Jakarta Gema Isra Utama, 1990), (hapter ~ III and IV p;'~~lIn

5 D~har Noer, "Contcrnpo rary POlllH al d Irnen~)lon of hlarrl," III I\/um ln

Southeast /hta, cd, M.B. Ilookcl (J ('Iden MdltlIlU:-' NlJholl, 1 cJklJ), 1 CJK

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'>LH h a~ the f)arul i~/am rnovernents 111 West Java, 111 Aceh, and In South

Sul<lwe~1 III the pellOd of ~ukdrno, the Komando Jihad (the Holy War

Command) movement III West Java, and the" 1 anJung Prrok" Incident in

Jakarta III the ~lIhar tu perrod, wcre ~everely dealt wlth by the government

III OIdel 10 demon~tlale It~ (luthonty.G

Such 'rddlcal' rnovement~ "Iso lesulted ln stncter control bemg

l'XCI( I~ed over othel 1~lanll( (lrtlvltles 111 IndonesIa. How stnct thls

cont roi wa~ has beell de,')( Ilbed by DelIaI' Noer

Ihe Mu~lrlll~ leel th~\t the govelnment has been too severe; IHi.llly of thell (U1amü> have been Impnsoned. In 1978, about the tUll(' whell MPI{ (Sen(lle) was to convene for the election 01 the (Olllltly'~, plesldent. <l IlUmbCI of Mushm leaders, Ill< 11Id11lJ~ Mahlnlb /)Illllaedi (d former promll1ent member of the Indone<;ldn IOlilnalrst~' aSSOciatIOn and currently scn el'b v of PPP), ISll1arl ~,Ully (plOfessor of constltutlonal law dt Ille 1I111Vel ~Ity of Incloneslé\ and rector of Muh.lI11mad -iyah lJlllver~lly), and Sutomo (well·known as Bung 1 o tllO , thc .'-,lIlaIJaya helo, who 111 1977 defended the Darul Islam 1ll0VCllH-llt al~(lInst excessive accusatIOns from certain govelllllll'nt qlldl {crs) weI e detall1ed. So was Imaddudm A. Ralmn, a lerlurer al thl~ Bandung Instltute of Technology who Il<ld been III IIVC 111 dakwah (111ISSlons) at 90me and abroad. 1 hey weIl' leieased ooly about a year later.

A l~rouP wlth1l1 the prescnt-day generatlOn of Mushm elite generally

takcs il cl" (CI elH approach, one whlch IS more compromising and

coopcratlvl' latllel than confrontatlonal. They now share ideas for

G On the KartoslIWII.lO, Daud Bcurcueh, and Kahar Muzakkar movements, sec C.(Chnstraan) van DI.lk, Ul1der the Banner of Islam, The Daru: IlIlam Movement 111 lntlol1csltl (rhe Hague Martmus NIJhoff, 1981), a more detmled stlldy on J)arul islam 111 Aceh is provlded by Nazaruddin Syalllsuddlll, Pemherol1takan Kaum Repuhllk Kasus Darul Islam Aceh (Jakarta G ".tflttpers, 1990). So far, the author has not found a scholarly contnbutlon on the Komandc Jihad movemcnt or the TanJung Priok' IIlndcnl.

{ Delrar Noei', "Colltempo.·ary Polrtical DImenSion," 198.

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achlevmg a wcll-developed Indol1csla 111 ,\Imosi l'\'\~1 \' .tSpCl t.S llll'

Muslims no longer dll'l~ctlv oppose the j~O\'l~lllIlIcnt'~ polle\, but

constructlvely cntlCI.:e It and conlllblltc Ihell Idc,\s, j~Cdnn!~ Ihcm 10 thl'

Ileeds of ail COmll1l1mtlcs (Incl to the Icll.'dl 01 .t lll~t and pl O~pl'I nl\S

SJClety. This change cOllld prob,lbly be IIltClIlIl'tl.'d to 1lIl'.Hl III.II tlll'

Indonl.'sIaI1 MlIslum: havc lo~t thciI Ici l'dl 01 e~t,\bll~hIllj~ "" bl,\I1I\( ~1 .. 1l'

However, artel' having matui l'cl as (\ (OIllIlHIlllty OVl'l 'IIlIl' ,ml! h,I\ I11!~

expenenced many ~()CIal and polItl( dlllphcdV<lb, they h.lVl' loulld oui Ih.lt

the most Important goal IS not an Isldlll\( ~1,,1l' whcl'l' IllI' \Iltlll' 1111

formally serves as ItS con~tltutlOn. but an hl<lllll( (OlllllllllIlty (111111111111),

whose well-bell1f~ IS basecl on a lu~t ~()( Iiii <111(1 P( ()1l01l1l( :-.y~tl·1I1.

Accordmg to them, thcse goals wIll be rc,\( IIcd tlll ollgll ~O( 10 C('OIlOJllJ(

and cultural actlvltles and throll!~11 beJll!~ ll.'sS ('X( 11l~IVl' ,lIld 1ll01t' wIlIJIIg

to work wlth thosc who share cldf crellt Id cas.

ln short, the present Muslim f~enerallOl1 has bC('Jl sIIIVIIlJ~ 10 l~et l'Id 01

the ImpreSSIOn that Islam IS an ob~tarle to thc realr/atloll 01 thl' ~tate'~

goal of achievmg a modern state. In léu l, they wallt 10 plOVl' IIIat th('y

Wlsh to work cooperatlvely wlth the I~OVCI nmcnl to Il'all/t' thl' ~tate's

Ideal and to achleve the well-bern~ 01 thc Ulnmall. 1 hey ,,\<'o Iw!t('vl' t !tat

thelr participation in the proccss of natIonal dcvcloplJl{,llt I~ (/II( l'Illy

important.

8 Mohammed Kamal Hassan calls thls group "all otnodal lonl~t ~". J 11('11

beliefs were foreshadowed by Nurchoh~h MadJld'~ Idea 01 "/\/am Y('\, ParlaI Islam No" (Islam Yes, IslamJ( party No). Ilw, !~l'Olip (alh IIpOIl

Muslim society to be posltlvely rnvolved III the' 'New Oldt,,' development programs. See Ilas~an. (hapt el ~ pa<,<,1Ir1.

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1 iJ(' UlelllOdol(lI~Y lI~ed III thls study IS that of an histoncal approarh.

IIIIS Ihe~,Js 1I111..,t/att'~ the development of the relatlOllshlp between the

I~OV('I'llrn('nl and the Musltm community and analyzes the pro;:ress 0 f the

POllllf ,t1 Idt'dh of euch side dUl1ng the 'New Order' penod, whIle

1)(,!IP1 III 1I11~ 1 rom the tht'ory 01 1 l'cd L. von der Mehden regard mg the

«(Jlllllllallli po~t-wal pdtteln~ 01 the relatIOllshlp between state and

1 ('ltl~lon, will( Il (onsl~1 III the lollowmg 9

1.1 nlolc ed support of leltgIOn,

~. 1 IH '0 1I1 dl~elllen t () 1 1 el q~IO n,

J. Nt'Ulldllty towald lelll~lon,

'1. ()pp()~III()1l 1 () pail J( li lai' 1 eltglOlIs groups,

~). Oppo:-"IIIOIl 10 lellglon as a force in society.

1 he:-..e categoll/allOilS arc ht'Ipful in determilling the nature of the

1 eldllol1~hlp between 1 eltgIOIl (Islam) and the state III IndonèSIa as weIl as

111 ShOWlIll~ how thl~ 1 e\atlOllshlP has influenced the policy of each slde

toward~ the Idelll 01 II Just and prosperolls IndonesIa.

Ille thesl~ IS ()1f~aIl17ed mto four chapters Chapter 1 provides the

!'>()( ID-polIt" al hdrkground, III WhlCh Will be Iilustrated the position of

Isldlll dnd the Ml1~IIIllS III the Sukarno pel1od. Three sectIOns can be

Idl'nltlled III t hls (h'\IJter (1\) The stlllggle for the state's Ideology, (B)

Islaml( POlttH dl pdI'tles, and (C) Radical Islarmc movements. SectIOn A

Illust rates t h<.' dcbate among the IndonesIan nat:onahsts concernmg the

Ideolof~Y on \vlw h the state of IlldonesIa woulci be based. ThIs debate

9 Il l'd 1. \ 011 der I\tehcicn, "1 he PoIttlcal and Social Challenge of the IsI.mlH Revlvdl III 1\1.llaysIa and Indonesla," The MUS/lm World 76 (1986). ~ 1 l)- 2~().

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reflected the thought of two glOups 01 Indol1cSldl1 n"I\OI1,III~I~ ,ulhl'llIlg tu

two dlffcrent POhtlCdl trcnds thc 'senllal' natloll,llt~ts ,lIld 1 Ill' bl,IIIl1C

natlOnalIsts. Here, thc tClln 'SCt llillI' does Ilot IInply Ih,11 the pl'opll\ III

thls category \Vele pcrsollally sC(,lIlalJ~t wlthout .Ill\, Il'II~~IOII" Illlell'"I:-.

and affiliation. l'he terlll lelel s tn those (Mushlll~. Chll~tl"IIS. ,1Ilt! ntill'I~),

who beheved 111 a ~tnct SepdI'dtlon bctween stdte and 1 elll~lOlI, wIH'Il'<I:-'

the term 'isiamic natlOl1ah~ts' lefers tn tho~e who \Vele (Ollllllllll'd l') the

view that the state and sOCIety ~hould be l~overned by bl,II11. 1 ()

Section B dlsclIsses the IslmnJ(' pal tICS born III 1 he l'drly 1Il<lt'Ill'Il<ll'IH l'

penod. fOUI pa:'tlcs ale plc~el1ted 111 thl" ~e( llOll Md~llIlIll, 1\'111, Iht' 1'\11,

and the NU. In terms of the blpoldllldlHHl 01 '~l'( 111,11' ,IIHI bldlllll

nationalists, these partlcs (lU OHllllocIated the hl,\Illl( Ildtl()lI.dl~t' .• tilowllIH

them to contInue thelr (\( tlvltles III the pohtl( ~ 01 tlle ~t"I('. B('I~IIIIIIII". III

1945, leaders of these pdrtlcs would play ~11~nIfJ(allt lolt'~ hotl! III polllll ~

and In the state's admullstratlon, a sItuatIOn whH'1I l'XI~t('d IIlltll Iht'

penod of "Guideû DemocnH y" (l 9S9-19V», 111 W/lI( h ~ukalllO dl~\IIII:-'~l'd

the parliament and l'eplared Il wlth the one Il(' cll'~';~lIated. )('( 11011 (

deals 'radical' IslamlC movemenb, SlH h as the /)uyu/ 1\/0111. 1111'-; ~('( II()II

IS also concerned wlth the blpotélll/illlOn 01 's('('uh,," ancl 1~1"1lIJ(

10 See Salfuddin Anshan, "1 he Idkalta ChaTter 01 JUlie 1()4~) A 11I~.I()ly 01 the Gentleman's Agreement betwl'en thc 1~lamlC' alld IIJ(' )('( 111,11 NatlOnahsts In Modern Indonesla" (M.A. 1 he~I~, M( (,dl 1 J/lIV('1 '.Jly, 1976),6-7. Il IS Harry J. Benda who ll~es the tClIlI ''''('f 111,11' (!J('lw('('1I apostrophes) ta delme the !~IOIiP rderred 10 h('ll' a~ thl' f 011111('1 pdl 1 of the Istamlc natlOnall~ts. Dellar Noer preter.., to fait tlll.., 1~IOllp 'rehgiollsly neutral nall()nah~ts', ~ee Ilarry j. (Jllldi J( h) Bl'lIdd, 111(' Crescent and the Rl\lng Sun Indonc,\/Un I\/om unaer ,hl' f(/f?lInfJ)(J

OccupatIOn Cl he Ila!~ue -W. van Ilf)eve, 19')S). ~('(' al..,o 1 kll"l NI)!'I, Il'/(' Modern/st Mus/lm Movement ln Indone\/U 1 ()()() 1 ()4;! ()III!~dr)()1 (', V-lJala Lumpur Oxford University Pre~~, 1 (Ji ~).

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lJatJOllall~t~. lJnltkc tho~c who struggled for thelr IslamlC Ideals through

0111( laI hlaml( partlc~, the leaders of radIcal Islamic movements chose

djmrC~Slvc and ~ometlme~ violent ways to realtze thclr Ideals, often by

mCdn~ of rebcllloll~ and the establishmg of Islamlc states In vanous

rCj~lon 01 the rt'publl(

( Il,,pl CI 2 dcab wlth the rcIatlOnshlp betwer.n Islam and pohtlcs III

Ihe 'Nl'w Oldcl' pCllOd. 1 hlee scctlons arc contamed wlthm this chapter

(A) 111(' Ilan~ltlOl1al pl'!ïod, whlch eovers the penod 1965·1971, (B) The

Ulllr 1( atlon 01 Islamlc pohtlcal partIes mto one party, and (C) The

govellltllent poIl( le~ towards Islam. Thc 'New Ordcr' search for Icgltimaey

IS tlle I()( dl pOll1t 01 section 1\. One of the important events III thls period

IS Ihe 111I11t<lIy'~ deCislOn to mallltalll Its authonty through the

trall~f()IIIli.ltlOl1 of the government SlIPPoIted·party, known as 'Golkar',

will( h would lend the Il1I"tary pohtlCal legltlmacy. As will be seen, the

cholec 01 Colkar, whlch was founded and dommated by the military, was

aUl1ed at ll1alllta1l1inf~ the ml~itary interests and pOSItIOn m the potities of

the ~Idlc. Âllothcr Important evcnt m thls period was the establIshment

01 a IlCW Isl"llllC party, namely Parmusi. What was interesting about thls

Isli.II11K pal ty WdS thc control and mterference on the part of the

p,ovelllllwnt III the party's affairs, partlclllarly m decldmg Its leadershIp.

Siller thls party \V~'s controlled by the authontlcs ItS leaders found it

cid Ilcult to dc"clop the party mto a sohd pohtleal force for the Mushms.

ScctlOn B dlseusses the umfIcatlOn of the Islamie partIes whieh

cOlltcstl'd the 1971 e1ecttOn mta one, namely the ppp (the Development

lImoll I\lrty). 1 he ullIflcatlon was effeeted in 1973 on the initIatIve of the

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government to sHnphty the pohtlcal p,lItles III Indolll'SI,t l.ll',\t (h,\Ilgl's

oceurred 111 the Islamic polttlcal forces dltel the ll1en~er. \ hls r,\Il hl' ~l'l'Il,

for examplc, rn the three electlons held Icspectlvely III \977, l qX~ ,\lId

1987. SectIOn C deals wlth other f~()Vel'llll1l'llt POlllll'S !o\\t\J(b \sl,\llI III

social affatrs. In thls sectIOn there Will bl' t\ dl~( 1I~~1()1I 01 thl'

governrnent's concelll for 1I1StitutiOllS ~1I( Il <l~ Il la 1 1 IIlgl', 1:--.1,11\\1(, (Olllt'.

Islamie education, and the Itke, as weB a~ 101' Olg,\llI/.tIIO\l\ ~,lJ( li .t:-, thl'

MUI (the Counctl of Indoncslan cUlamü') and the Ih'p,ulllll'Ilt 01 I!l'III',IOU~

Affatrs.

Chapter 3, conslstmg of four SCCtHF (hs(,lI~sl'S the P()~ltl()1I 01 bl.1I11

and the Mushms ln the Indone~li.\n state alter tll(' ,~()Vl'lllIIH'IJt':-,

promulgation of the law of the "Sole 1 oundatloll 01 l'tll//(/\II(/ lOI polttll,d

Parties and Golkar" and that of the "~()k 1 Olllldatioll 01 /'111111/\1111 lOI

Mass-OrganizatlOns" in 1985. An examlllatioll 01 the'.!: Idw\ 1\ (llovl!lt'd III

section A. As will be seen, these laws have le~lIltcd III tlll' dllllllldtlOI\ 01

Islam as the foundatlOn ot the PI'P and 01 ,dl Islallll( Illa:-,~, ()1l',"III/"tl()Il~).

ReactIOns to the~e laws, as was expected, carne Il 011\ ,dlll()~t ('Vl'I y

segment of the society. Ihls thCSIS, however, only dIS(,lI~~('~ the !t'd/IIOII

From bve Islamlc orgal1lJ:atlOns, whICh arc ((HI~ldeled ,,~ Il'pl (,~)(,I\tllll~

various Cllrrcnts of Islarmc thou~~ht and tendel1ne~ eXI~tllll~ III IIIc!OIlI''-,1i1.

ThIS tOPIe is dlscusscd 111 sectIOn B.

Section C deals wlth Islam a~ a partlc Ipatory rOI((' tri tlte natloll,,1

development schemc. Wlth rerercncc to Indone~Jan devdoprtl('lIt poil! y,

which gives pnonty to the ccononlH ~e( tor, the c11~( U~~IOfl loc 11',(",011 lite

Mlislims' contnbutlon to the cconomlC' tn~tltutlon~ 01 ! he (0111111 y. 1/11'

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Idea:-. 01 1~lIee MlI~lml mtellcc luals on the 15lamIC concept of economy are

ple~ented to depll'I the Muslrms' concerns ln th,; domain. The last part,

:-.C( tiO/1 1), dJ~( us~c~ the l'Ole of the present Muslim mtellectuals ln the

lIatlOnal developrnent. 1 hls sertlO'l de5cnbes the response of the Muslrm

1111 ('lIe( luah 10 Indone~lan llatlOnal dcvelopment. In contrast to those of

Ihl' 101lllei Idetlll~t MII~lltns, the response of the ple~ent-day Muslrm

!1I1 elle( luab to Ihe natIOnal development I~ both cooperatIve and

«)rnp/'oml~IIlI~. I\.~ Will be seen, thls attitude on the part of the Muslim

mldle( Illais has (hanI~ed the nature of the relatlOnshlp between the

Mllslun ~O( Icty and the I~()Vel Ilment.

1 he ConclUSIOn rontalll~ the author's overvlew of the relatlOnshlp

lJetwel'1l Islam (Mw,lnl1 SOClcty, Islamlc ol1~amzatlons) and the state (the

'New Older' government). It IS the author's beltef that the attitude of the

present-day Mushm society, partlCularly ItS mtellectuals, to the

~~()vcl1lment and to the prof~ram of national development has paved the

way 10 a POSitIve rclatIOnshlp between the two sides.

IlI1ally, evcn Ihough the i.luthor has tl'led to arrange the chapters by

1()lIowllll~ the cllIon()lo!~ICal development of events, he has neverheless

round Il neressary al tllnes to take a restl o~pcctive vlew wlthln the

{ontexl of a 1~lven dl~( lISSIOIl, and Ihls wlth a vlew to reaching a

(ompl ehcnslve descnptlon of the problem under consideratIOn.

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CHAPTER 1

ISLAM AND POLITICS UNDER SUKARNO:

A BACKGROUND

The Struggle for the State's Ideology

Wh en the comllllttce 01 the BPlll'1\. Ohe IllvC~tll~<ltlll!~ (Olllllllttt't' 101

the PreparatIOn of Independenle),l held ItS III~t ~e~~101l 110111 ~~l) Md\,

untll 1 June 1945, two speeches amonl~ thosl' dellvl'Il'c1 hy tilt' IIH'IIIIH'I~

were to praye of partlCulal' slgnd Icance III tht' dt'veloJ)IIIt'lIt of litt' I1t'W

')

Ideology for the IndoneslilTl ~tdtl', tht' Pllll(lI\II(/.~ III o Ill' 01 tlH'~t',

delivered on the fll'st clay, Muh,lll1ll1ad Y"llIlll olll'Il'd IIVl' plllll Iplt'~ ,,~

the intended basis for tl fl'ec Indonesld. 11l()~e plllJ( Ipll'~ W{'I t'

1. NatIOnahsm, 2. Hurnallltanamsm/lnt ertldt 10nallsHl, 3. Bellef 111 God, 4. Dernocracy, . 5. Public Welfare and SOCIal JustlCe.3

l This committee was established on 29 /\pIII 1 <)t1 f) by Il](, Idpdlll'~ll' 1 () discuss the state foundatlOn and the constllutlon lOI the 11111111' 01 Indonesia. It consistrd of (,2 meml)('l;" Wlt Il 1)1'. I{.HII1111dll Wedyodll1111grat and R.P. Socroso as It~ l'r(,~ld('nl "/ld VI! (' 1'1(",1<1('111, respectlvely, and was Hlstallccl on 2K May 1 (H'). Idl'()I()I~1C ,dly 1111', committcr representcd two malt! 1~IOUP~ ni l1101q~1I1 Il)(' ",('( 111,11'

nationallsts and the Islanllc natlondlJ,>t~, c,('e ')dl'llIddlll AII',II<lII, "III(' Jakarta Charter of June 1 <J4S 1\ II!~tol y (JI IIH' (,('III !l'lIldll", /\1',1<'('111('111 betwcen the Islarme and the ~e! lI1,H Natloll,dl',I', III MOr!('111 [II!1011l",I,t" (M.A. Thesls, McGIlIlJmvclslty, 1 ~)7h), 1·1.

2 Pancaslla IS a word dellved from ),lIl~kllt, W!t('II'/Wt1(U III('dll:, Ilv(' dllfl slla rneans foundatlOn or pnnnple. 1 he \('rtrl Wc\', fil ',1 w,ed by \1Ik.lll1o

on the advlce of a IlI1gUlst, to narrll' tlte live Plll\( Ipl('<, III' ofl('II'fI I() tlH' Investlgatmg Commlttce.

3 Sec B.j. Boland, The '<;trugyle of Islam In Modern In(}()nn/(J ( 1111' Ildl~II(' Martmus NIJhoff, 1982), 17-] 8.

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12

On the la',t day of the ftrst ~eSSlon, ~ukarno, another commlttee

tr)('mbpf', dehvered an histone ~peech ln whlch he also proposed flve

plltIC Iple~ a~ Ihe ml cnded nct<,ls for a frce Indonesla

J. IndolH'\ldlJ Nd! IOIl,t!I"ll1,

L In!erllcltl<HldlI<'/n 01 perrkemaVlu')wan, 1 Mulllklll (JI 1 )enH)( lac y, 1. \(H Idl Weil 1)('llIf~, rI. BellPI III (,ocl."l

\ld(alllo'~ 1 ('tridI k~ III many way~) gave a conCise expressIOn to the

\('111 UlH'lIt " 01 1 he membel s of BPUPK. So Impresslve and Important was

tlll' ~pt'e( Il Ihat thl~, cIdte is le~~é\rded as the 1)lrth hou!' of Panca'lJla, and

~lIkaJ'110 IlUll~l'1I the "c 1 eator" of Pancas/la.

( ornparccI to tho~e of Yarn1l1, Sukarno's flve pnnnples are obvlOusly

:-'111111<11' exc t'pt III the (oltnulallon and tlle terms lIscd. Muhammad Roem, a

pl 0111 IIlCIlt 1~1,1Il1I< nalIOnalrst, (onfIrmecl that Sukarno, havll1~ been the

lasl speakt'I III Illdt Ilr~t \CSSIOI1, r~ave thc ImpleSSlOn that the thoughts of

thl' 1IH'll1belS who had spokcll pllOI to hml had been II1cludecl 111 hls

!->pccch. 101' tllIS 1 cason ROl'1ll ~cems to doubt that l)al1(u.~I1a was the

(l'callon of Sukarno. Ile expresses It thus "If there IS somethmg we

~houlcl a( kl1()wledi~c ft om Sukarno, that IS the name of those rIve

pl 111( Iplcs, that I~, Pal1Ul Slla.',5 Doubt IS abo expressed by B.]. Boland, a

Dutch scholar 01 modcrn Indoncslan hlstory, who says "Pancas/la was, m

l'tlct, <1 ('J'catloll of Y(ul1In's and not SlIkarno's".u Ncvertheless, becallse It

·t Suk,lIllo, 1 hl' H/I rll of Pancas/la lin Out/me of the Flve PrlnClples of the StClte (\)/,II...al ta Ikpartmcnt of InformatIon, 19GO), 27.

') Moh,Hl1Illad Rocl1l, J /f/ll l'cnstnvo Bersejaral7 (Jakarta Smal 1-I11daya, Il}72) 2·1, quoted 111 ;\n~hdll. 21. In tills statement Roem lises the old ~Pl'lIl1ll~ Ponta .\'/Ia Il1stcad ot the reecnt spellmg Pancas/la.

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was Slikaino who expltcltlv stated these II\'l' [)(IIl('Ipll'~ dllt! lldl1ll'd thelll

collectlvely as "Panca Slla", he IS regtll'clcd <l~ thl' (1l'.ltOI (lI ['tll/( d,du.

Smce the fIve pllllClples p[()po~ecl b\' t11c~l' t\\O 11H'1I1IH'I" \\l'Il' (lll

that occasion stIll open to question, the dch.th' tlll (HIl~llOlIt l!te III ~I

sessIOn of the meetll1g contll1ucd to levolve ,\l'(HlIld Ille I~~lll' 01 tlll' hd"\(

foundation (~}r ldcol()I~Y) 01 thc ~t<lte. '1 Ill' problelll dll~1111~ \V,I" wlH't IIl'l

Indonesm wOlild bc an Islarlllc ~t(\te 01 a ~t,\te wltl( 11 wou Id "l'Pdl.ll('

rcligious from state affall s. In thls l'('I~dJ'(1 SlIpOIllO 11'1IIdl kcd

On the one hand (t hell~) IS t Ile OpllllOIl (l' the 1 t'lt,~I()m experts (ohll Clflll11W) who .Ill' J)IOpOSIIlI'. 10 l'~t.lbll!'-.h Indonesm as dll Islalllic ~tdte, (lnd 0:1 tht' otlH'1 Il'''1(1 (tltl'Ie) 1" anothcr proposai, a~ ha~ 11I~.t \)('1'11 PI()p()~I'd by 1\11' MohflOllllad Ilatt", thdt I~, d IIdtIOI1"IIIIILI"'Y !'-.tdlt' wlt\( Il wdl scparate the ~tate fi om 1 dIJ~I()IIS (tll,\I 1 ~,.I

(0nsequently, when SlikaulO enc!NI thl' III~t ~l'~~I()1l WIll! III~ «(1111 IlIdlllg

remarks, a dtfference 01 OpllllOI1 bctwl'clI the hl,lIll11 1~1()IIP ,llId 1 III'

natlOnalist group still eXI~ted.

To find a solutIOn, 38 mcmbel~ 01 the (Ollllllllt{'l' (OlltllJlH'd IIIt'

meetmg and formed a sub-commlttee (onsist 11l~~ 01 IlIIH' Il 1 t'Il JI H' 1 ~

Sukarno, Mohômrrwd Hatta, I\.A Mal<UlllS, I\blkoe~ilo 1 J()LI()~,('dJw'(.,

Abdul Kahar Mll/akklr, Il. 1\1~lIs <)alull, I\hmad S()('baldJo, 1\l>dlll Wdlllrl

HasJim, and Muhammad Yamlll. J\lter ~('I'I()t1~ dl~( W,:'I()II~, 1/11', ',lIl)

commlttce cvcntually succecded in l'cac hllll~ li modu\ vivendi hel W('('II Il)(,

Islamlc group and the '~c(ular' 1~I'OliP. On Ih(' fll:,t ddY 01 IIH' ',('(Olld

6 Boland, 17.

7 Sec Supomo's staterncnt 111 II. Muhammad Ydllllll, No\kah !leY\lupoY/ Undang-Undang IJasar 1945 (Jakarta YaY(I~é.1I1 PlapdlH a, 1 (l'I!)), 1'2 '10, quotcd III J\nshaIl, 23.

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14

~(,<-':-'IOIl, wlll{ Il was helcl on 10 July 1945, Su karno rcported on the

aJ~n~('ment re(lrhed by the nme mernbers. In the report dehvercd by

\\1 kalllO at t 11I~ :-,e~~lOn, the f Ive pl mClplcs, upon whlCh a frce Indanesla

woulcl be ba:-,ed, appealecl Itl the preamble dlafted for the cornnllttee of

B/'lJPK

"I)reamhle ~m('c Inclepenclenle IS the' Iight of every natlan, ,IllY fOlm of ~ubJuJ~atlon m thls world, bemg contrary to hurnalIIty (kCI1U1I1U\Wal1) and Justice (pn-keadtlan), must be abolt~hcd. Now the strugglc of the Inclaneslan mdcpcndence rnovelJlcnt ha~ 1 Cd( hec! the blessec! hour 111 whlCh the tlJdolJe~"1Il peoplc have been est arted sai ely to the threshold of <III Il1d()ne~lan ~tate, whlch IS mdepenclent, umted, ~()vel elnll, JlI~t ,lI1d pl'Osperous. By the grace of Almlghty (.od (I<uhn-wl Allah Yanq Mah(l Kuasu) and moved by the hIJ~he~t Idedb to Iead a flee natIOnal IIfe (herkehtdupan ke!JuI10\(wnJ, the IndollesléHl people hel eby procléllm theu IIIclepelldcll( C (kL'merdckaannY{l). turtllcl, Hl order ta ('~tahlt~h fOI the Indoneslall ~tate a govcrnment whlCh wIll plote( t thc wholc Ind()nc~lan people and Indoneslan tl'iiit Cl l'ICS, ,lIld 10 plOll1ote publIc welfal e (keseJahteraan), to IlllplOVl' the hvcllhood of the people, and ta partlclpate m cstablt~IIIIlJ~ a wolld 01 dCI founcled on r reedolll, everlastmg pedCl' ancl ~()( 1(\/ JlI~tICC, the Indepcnclenee of Indoneslan people ~hall bc oldcled III a Con~tltutlon of the Indoneswn ~tat(', will( h I~ llIolded 111 the form of a repubhc bascd on the ~ovelelnnty of thc peoplc and IOllnded on (the folloWIng pl Ill< 1 plc~) Kc- 1 tdw na 11 (t hc Bel i cf III C;od), Wlt h the obhl~atlol1 to {ally out the SllOri-ah Islam ((slamle Sharïcah) 101 It~ adhercnb 111 "lTordance wlth the pnnClple of Just and C1vlhn.'d humal11ty (kemanustaan yang adtl dan beradab), the unit y (pcrsatuan) of IndonesIa, and a demoCl'acy (kerakyatan) l~lIIded by the Splllt of Wlsdom (yang clipllnpll1 (J/eh hikmah kelJljtlk'i{iluwl1) 01 Illutual clchberatlOn by a replesentatlve body (f1crmu'Iyawaratan perwaktlan) and ensllflng s~cial lu~tJ( e (keadtlall SOUCI/) lOI the whole IndoncsJan people."

II11S prc(ullble W<l~ sll~ned by the n1l1e mcmber cammlttee in Jakarta on

22 lunc 1 ().t 5 ,md IdtCI came to be known as the" Jakarta Charter" (Piaf/am

X 1 he t l ,m~latlon 01 thc Preamblc IS taken from Susan Selden Purdy, "l.cl~lt IlBatloll of Power and J\uthol'lty 111 a Plurahstlc State Pancasila ,me! (IvIl Rc111!IOn III Indonesra" (Ph.D. DissertatIOn, Columbia 1I111\'CI Slty, 19H4). 440 (appendlx Il), \VIth sorne IllInor adaptation by the pll'~l'Ilt ,\llthOI.

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Jakarta). It IS clear that thls pleamble contallls the Itrst nlfICl.\1

formulatIOn of the Pancns:!a, I.e.

- The Bellcf III Cod wlth the obligatIon to C(\II)' out the Islanllc Sharï(al1 fol' Its adhcrents,

- A just and clvlll7ed humanlty, - The umty of Indonesla, - A demoll'acy glllded by the Spll'lt of WIS(\OIll III

dellberation by Cl representatlve body. - SOCIal JustlCC fOI the whole Indolle<;mll people.

This first officiaI formulatIOn of Pancas/la reml\lIwd 1I1l('hanl~l'd 1I1lttl

18 August 1945, one day after the proclamation ni Indollt'SIiIl1

independence, when the PPKI (the Prepardtory COllll1l1ttee lo! IlIdOI\('''ldn

Independence) was formed. 1 hls COlllllllttee, will( h (om,l:-.tl'd (JI :2 7

members and was headed by Sukarno and MohalllllhHI Ildllll ,,~ ( Il.1l1l1ldl1

and Vlce-Chamnan respectlvely, held a llIe{'tll1l~ 011 Ihe ~"IIIl' ddY Il Wd ....

formed. Wlthin cl short tlme (betwcen 1 LW a.lll. and lA') 1>.1l1.)() the

meetmg brought about several Im()()nant (hanl~cs to t Ile PI ('"mille, III

which the formulatIon of Pancas/la appeared, alld to t he body of the

Constitution.

As far as the formulatIOn of the Pancas/la in the" Jakarla ( harll'I" I~)

concerned, a change was made to the first pnnnpic "1 he B('llel III LocI

with the obligatIon to carry out the IslamlC Sharï(ah f or lb ad IH'Il'lIt~"

became 'The Beliet m the One, Supreme Cod" (Ketuhunan Yoml Muhll

Esa). This change was surpnsmg to the Islarlllc j{IOUp. Olle!".' lOtiS aro~('

as to the reason why the formulatIon of the "Jakarta ( harle!"', wllH h had

been achieved with dlfflculty, could be c hanj~ed wlth ~\lC h ta~('. Il W<l',

told that a Japanese otflcer of the KUlqun (Japanc!".c navy) (ante 10 Ilat ta

9 See Ibid., 39-41.

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10 tell hml Ihat a Chnstwn repre~entatlve from Eastern Indone"iia

ob,cc tcd to t hl' (Iau~e o{ "t he Bellcf ln God wlth the obllgallOn to carry

out thc IslaulI( Shari-ah {or Its adherents". <;hould II be kept unchanged

he and Iii.., people (n()n-MlI~llm~ from J:astern Indonesm) would separate

Ilorn Il)(' R('!>ubltc .10 Influenced by this opinion Hatta promlsed to

dl~c lI~S 1 III ~ mattcr ln thc mcel mg.

-lllIS ('han!~c had, lndeed, resulted ln the omiSSIon of the "Islamic"

~Iat ement f rom the Ilrst prinClple of Pancas/la, rendermg It general and

llIultl-1I1lcrpretallve ln nature. Each cItizen cou Id mterpret thls flfst

pnm Iple an ordll11~ 10 hls 01 her lespective religIOn. In defense of this

dee ISIOII, 1 latta al J~ued that the oml<.;SlOn of the clause was to dvoid

lInplea~allt {eellll!~~ wlth non-Muslnlls and 10 mamtam the unit y of the

lIat 1011, wh wh was very cruCIal at that tlme. ll ln addItion, Sukarno

si rcsscd t h(\t the COIlStltutlOn was only a "ternporary Constitution", a

""J~htl1l11!~ COllstltutlOn", or a "revolutlOnary ConstItution", WhlCh In due

('ou l'se l'OU Id be perfected by elected representatlves of the people.l 2

1 hls del'lSIOIl was mlltally dlsappomtmg to many in the Islamlc group.13

10 IVlOhamrnad Natslr, "pengorbanan Umat Islam Sangat Besar," interview wlth M. Syaft'I Âilwar, Pan)1 Masyarakat (Jakarta), Il June 1987,28.

Il ÂI1~hari, 44.

12 Boland,37.

13 CA.O van NleuwcnhulJze mentIons that an anonymous author wrote: "when loI' the flrst tnne freedom and mdependence were wrested f 10111 t Ill' (101 CI~~ll) aggressors, the M usltm populatIOn, havIng glven thclr full share III sacrifice of Itve and posseSSIOns, counted upon the estabh shlllcnt, d~ SOOI1 as IndoncsJa was frce, of a power (read state) wlth Islam as ItS basls. Therefore, as soon as It had become c1ear after Indonesl,\ll lIldept>ndcncc had been proclaimed, on 17 August 1945, thal a !~OVelllmel1t had been formed, not on the basis of Islam but on a Ihlt iOIl,tl basls, the Iml)ollty of the Musltm populatIOn feh

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They felt betrayed, tOI' they had ueen IIlvolved \Il li Inn~~ ~tlllgl!le, hut

when the fruit of thelr strllgglc, namely, the Ileedol\l ni Indollesld, Il,\d

been achleved, thelr aSpIratIOns weIl' Ilcldected. Isa I\nshaty, .. p10mllH'1I1

Muslim leader, consldered t hls evellt to be lal,(dl\lOIlIlI to dl!'lhoIlC:-,1

pohtics. 14 Probably it was becausc of a scnSl' 01 !'lolldilJ'lly dlHI ItOlH~ loI'

later reconsldelatlOn of the Issue that thc ctele!~aleS ~\(n'ptl'd tlH' dl'( ISIOII.

StIll, they were Icd ta belteve that thelr !~oal wa:-, IlllplH Illy ~\( (t'pIed will'Il

KI Bagus lIadikusurno, one ot the PPKlmcmbers (Iom tll(' 1!'l1,1II11(, ,~I()lIp,

asked I-Iatta what was !1H'ant by the phrase Kellllllltllill )'llllii Ma 11lI 1 \lI.

Hatta answered that il was nathll11~ othcl than the lillv/1/{1 (of IslllllI).l~)

Since the Preamble and the body of the ('()n~tltull(}lI, wlll('h had 1>('('11

changed, was offIcially pronoullccd on 19 ÂlIRII~t 191\ the I0I1111Il,ltlOlI

of the Pancas/la became

- Behef 111 the One, Suprcme God, - Just and Civlltzed Humalllty, - the Untty 0 f Indonesia; - the Democracy Guidcd by thc Spll'1t of WlsdOIl1 III

DeliberatIOn and RepresentatIOn, - Social Justice (or the Whole 01 the 1 ndoneslall l'copie.

As a matter of faet, the Musltms' hope for latcr lIldll~1011 of tht'II

aspirations in a new constitution nevel' mat('nalt/ed whl'Il IllIs

formulatIon was re-afftrmed in the Prcsldent'~ Dc( lee ni ') luly I()',<) dll('1'

the ConstItuent Assembly fallcd to complete It~ ta~k of 1 Olllllildt IIII~ il

Permanent ConstItution for the RepublH of Indom·~la. 1 he dCI \('(' ~tal('d

disapPolnted", sec C.A.O van Nieuwenhulj/c, Â\PCL/\ of I\/am In /JO\I­COlomal Indonesla (1 he Hague-Bandung. W. van Iloeve, 1 <)')/1), L'~ 3.

14 h Ans an, 42 .

15 Natslr, 28.

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'1 hat we are (onflclent that the Jakarta Charter clated 22 JUlie 1 ()1 ') 1~lve.., Iife (menj/wui) the 194) Con~tltutlOr and f omis (Hl lI1~eparable Unit Y wlth the 1945 Constitution.

1 herefol c, bast'd on the above mentioned prinClples,

WI, 1 III PlU ~1f)1 N 1 01 ï III IU.PUBLIC or INDONESIAI ~ 1 JI1RI MI (OMMAN DI R or 1 III. ARMI]) I- ORO~S,

Dc( laIt the dl~~ollltlon 01 thc Constituent Assembly,

Dec Idlt the Ic-appllCatlon of the 1945 Constitution for the wholc.' Indone~tan People and the whole Indoneswn 1 atherland as f rom t he date of this Decn.ic, and the dIS{OntIIlWlI1(C 01 the Provisional ConstitutIOn.

18

It IS 1"" twular Iy JIlt{'rc~tllll~ to note In the prcamble to the DeCl'ee the

allllmatlOll that the "Iakarta Charter" "glvcs IIfe" (menJlwaI) to the

(OIlStltlltlO1l of l~)4S and that It lorms an inseparable unit y wlth the

COIlStltutlOll. L 7 1 he se consIderatIOns were deslgned to umte two

( (1111)( t Ifll~ st 1 CLlIll~ of tholll~ht that of thc supporters of the Pancas/la ln

the "Jakalttl ( harlel", (.\Ild that 01 the supporters of the Pancas/la ln the

pl'('alnble 01 the ConstitutIOn ot 1945. The words "Jakarta Charter gives

IIfe to tht' C()n~tltlltlOn and forms an Inseparable unit y with the

(OllstltutlOn" h(ul i.I ~i~~l1Ifl('ant mcanmg for the Islamic group. As a matter

of fact, thls ~cntcncc has remamcd a tOplC of dIscussion in the years

slllce, ln that 1 t rcflccts two groups of Indoncsmn pohtlcal thought The

IslalllIC lli.ltlOlhllISt !~rOllp and the 'seclllar' nationahst group.

1(; 1 his translation IS takcn from Anshan's with sorne mmor adaptation. 101' a cOlllplete text of the Denee, see Anshan, 93.

! 7 Anshan t ."(ll1slates "menjHwl( as "to give Itfe", whereas Boland trall~I(Ite~ i t as "to IIlllucnce". In thls respect, Anshari's translation sccms tn be closcr to the Illcamng of the term. The ward "to III 1 IUl'1ll l''' h,lS <ln exact mCdllll1g III Indonesmn ,i.e., mempengaruhl. lIowc\'l'r. the Denee lises the term "menj/wOI" rather than "II1C1I1/1t'll!1Ll1lII1l". See Anshall, 104 (footnote 6), Boland, 94.

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The Istamlc group cOlltmucs tn IIlterpl et Pmu lIS111l 110111 tlH'

perspective of reltglon and hnks It wlth the "Jakart{\ C1l<\ltcl'''. III thls

respect, Salfuddm AnshalI, an Indonesh\ll Musltm scho 1.\1' who ~Pl'l'h\lt/l'S

in the study of modern Islam III Indonesill. states

Until we have an offiCIai mtel pretat Ion 01 the l'.mca Sil" Il)' d commIttee instttllted by t 11IIy denHH 1 dtH <Illy t'lP( tl'd M/Ull\ Permusyawaratan Hakyat (peopte's COIl~lIlt,ltIV{' (OUIH'II). thl' most allthontatlve Illtel'r1etatlon 01 the 1'<111(,\ Stl,1 Il'IlI''I1I~ that glven by the nille !ofmlllaf,ols 01 tly')"lak{\It{\ (,hMtl'I''', and thls baSIC fact should not bl' 11~1l01 ('d. 0

ln Reference to lIatta's statelllent that one (dllllot hll'dk "I> lite

histoncalllllkage of "Jakarta Chaltel" wlth the COllstlttltl()Jj, \y,III'1 M,I'dld,

another Indoneslan Mushm scholal, sl\{\le~ Il,ltta'~ ,\I1d <';,IIII1c1dlll

Anshan's pOlllt of VICW. Ile ~tatcs thdt the 1I1ldei ~1<l1)(1J1l1~ 01 l'IlIl( lI\IIu I~

correct when It is hnkcd wlth the 11I~tolJ(<l1 1,\(L 1<) MtI'anl 1IIIII1l'i

comments that the replacempnt c1(IlI~e "1 he Bl'Ilei III Olll', )IIPI ('111(' (,od"

should connote Tawhïd (Islaml{' mOllol hel~II1). Ilowevl'l, M,,',u" dll.II(,~,

this connotatIOn does not mean that aclhelenls 01 other IPhl~I()II'" ,11(' Ilot

free to interpret Pancaslla arcoldmI~ to thel!' respective I)l'II('I~. Ill' Il'lel'~

to the Qur>amc verse that the Mmlun may not ('oerce 1l()Il-MII~)IIIII~ 10

follow his or her falth (Qu r>5n, 2 25(;).20

On the other hand, The 'secular' f~rouP wanls Pancaslla to n'llldHl

neutral From the perspective of reltglOll. Sld,labat, an Indoueslan ('hll~llilll

18 Anshan, 131.

19 See Syafl'l Ma'anf, "Islam dan KonstltuslOnah~rne l'LIlI~alatrJalJ IndonesJa," Pnsma (Jakarta), spe( ml edltJOn (] 9H4) 74.

20 Idem, Islam dan Polillk dl Indone.\/U Pada Ma\U JJcmokyu\1 1 eYf1In1pln (1959-1965) (Yogyakalta IAIN Sunan Kahlal~a 1'J(\l,~), 1 (mH), HL Henceforth clted a~ J\/am dan !)ol,IIk dl Indone\/U.

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20

~(hol.ll, :-.howrng hl:-' dlsagrcemen Ith van Nleuwenhuljze's oprnlOn,21

:-.ay:-. fhat the f rr:-,t pnnciple of Pancaslla IS not necessanly a

'de('onfe:-'~Ionahzed concept' of an Islamlc Gad, but rather a general and

nClIllid (OIH cpt of Cod that !~Ives room for everyone who worshlps God

wlthout bCr{)mlflf~ IIldIffelcnt rn rnatters of rellglon.22 B.J. Boland, a

(alholl( sc tlOlal, ~halc:-, )ldJabat's Vlew, pointmg out that

(the) fll'st pl'llH Iple or Pantjaslla is nelther a syncretlc compronllsc .. nor I~ It a concept wlth only one IIIterpretation, so that adhelents of one religIOn could pl(,:-'( "he to others what thelr beltef 111 God and thelr WOI sillp :-.hould be Itke, rn order to he rn accordance wlth the ha:-'Is of t he ~tate. "1 hls r Il'st p"nCIple must be lInderstood as il 1ll1lltl"lIltcrprctable fOlmllla and must be appreCIated as PIOVldlll!~ e~/eal pos~lbtllty for people to agree whlle cl l~af~re(,lllf~. '

Wlth lel~atd to the lelatIOn between the ".Jakarta Charter" and the

''l'reamble'' of the ConstItution, rn whlch the two dlfferent formulations of

the [Jllm (1'\11a al e presented, Bolane! notes

21

2~

23

It IS worth mentionrng that on May 5th, the repre:-,entativc of the CathollC Party, B. Mang Reng Say, :-,trcs:-,ed that for hls party the Djakarta Charter was nothing morc theHl "onc of the hlstol1cal documents from Indonesmn sOlI whlch have o CClII rcd III the course 01 the history of the Indolll'slan pcoph: movmg toward the proclamatIOn of their 1I1depcndencc", so that the Djakarta Charter "may not and canl10t be il ~()ur('e of law" but may only be consldered as a l''CCUI SOI, a draft, 101' the preamble of the ConstitutIOn. The Stlrne POIllt of vlew was also expressed by lCT. Simorangklr,

CI\.O. van NiellwenhlllJ7e says that the word Ketuhanan "is a c1ear IIlstal1ce 01 'deronfesslOnallzed' Musltm Idcas mfluencing the central IcleololW and phtlosophy of the Indonesran state." 'The whole of Pa 11<\\ SIl.\. .. dS~lImCS the character of somethmg that In Its totallty is rh.\l'actcrt/ed by the mtel'play betwcen Muslim and 'other' concepts. Sec van Nlcuwcnhtlljze, 210.

W. B. Sld.ldb.\t, Rd/UIOUS Tolerance and the Chnstwn FaIth (Djakarta· Bddan I\~nel bIt Knstcn, 19(5), 74.

Boland, 39.

•

•

•

the speaker From the Park1l1do U'm tm K,lstel1 1I1donc."tl tla' Indonesmll C~~stlan Party) III hls speech ,\t the f\s~<"llIbl) O\l

17 May 1959.

Such vanolls IIltel pret.ltlOns 01 the !'11I1Ul 'il III weI c stIll 1H'1\11~ IIlllde

even after the Scnate III 197G prollllllg.\ted <lll 0111('1.\1 gUIde to thl'

understanding of the Pancasl/a, narnely, thc "pr l'cdo/1/lIl1 l'enui/(/)'IIIIIII

dan Pengamalan Pancaslla (the GUld,\llce 101' llndcl ~tlllHllIlg ,\Ild

Applicallon of the Pal1casl1a). In thls olllClalllltcrprctatlOlI, 110 ~1,11l'l1Il'l1l

concernmg the positIOn ot the "Jakarta Chartl'I" appc,lIl'd. 1 hl' l'tli/( 0\110

accordmg to thls gUIde IS that as stated m Ihc 1 ().Il) (OIl~tltllll()lI. Otlll'I

interpretatlOns of the Pancaslla arc no I()nl~er PCllllltl<.'d alld tlH' I~Stll' I~

considered to be c1osed. Slglllf!cantly, people still Il,lve dlill'Il'111 pOlllt~ 01

view, mterpretatlOns, and understandmg~ about the 1'-1. 1 he qtll'~tIOIl 01

the P4 remams left open.

Islamic Political Parties

The birth of organizatlons m Indonesia was l~elH.'I(llly IllIked Wlt h,

influenced, and motlvated by the situatIOn that eXlsted wh<.'11 alld wllclt'

these organizatlons were born. The challel1j~(' of colonlallsrn, t IH' d<.'~11 C t 0

preserve Islam from the influence 01 mysllcal (élltlls, tlle Ideal 01 11l11tllll~

the people on the basis of culture or profes~lon, ami the l'l'a! 11011 01 OIlP

group to another, were among the motlvatlon~ whl( Il rontnlHIIt'd to Ihe

creatIOn of thesc organrzatlons.

Even though It was not apparent ln the bCf~mnln~~, rnany pal t J(~~ h011l

ln the colomal and 111 carly indcpcndcnrc pCf'lod~ had ét polit Hal

24 IbId., 95.

•

•

•

22

motivatIOn b('hmd thclr establishment. The SDI (Sarekat Dagang Islam

the Islamw (ommef( lai UllIon) was IIlltmlly estabhshed to unite the

MuslIrn tradel ~ al~am~t 11~lIlg competition r rom Chlllese traders and the

c('onotfllCally (on~tn(tlve practlCcs of thc Indonestan Noblllty.25 Later in

191 h Il be< ame an IIlfluentlal IslamlC polltlcal organrzatlOn lInder the

namc 01 c,,1 (S'arekat J')/am the 1~lamlC Union) and still Iater lInder the

name of Ihe l'Sil (Panat Sarekat Islam Indonesra the IslamlC Union Party

of Indoncsla). On the other hand, the Budl Utomo lhterally the Noble

1 ndt'avor), an ol'f~alll/.ation 01 IndonesJan (Javanese) scholars, who had

~tlldicd III Wcstel n M hools, c1ung stlOngly \0 Javanese culture. This

Ol'gallllatulIl, latcl', nrcw III IIllPOltance and berame the cradle of

IndoJl('~ldn ':--C( li/a'" natlolwll~b. 1 he NU (Nahdatul Ulama) and Pertl

(J'erqcraklln larhïyah 1.\lilmïyah 1~la1TIlC LctucatlOll Movement) were

fOllndt'd by tradltlOnalJ~t MlI~llIns III response to modern Islamlc

th()1I1~ht.LG At "'J'st, these two orgamzatlOns were active III sOCIal and

edul'atlOnal aHalls, but ln the post-mdependence period they offiClally

became polltlCal partlc~. In thls section, the diScussion concentrates on

the Islanllc polltlcal parties whlCh eXlsted III the post-mdependence

pellod, alld thclr rclatlOllship with the state (government). Four parties,

whICh played a very :--lgndlCant l'Ole dUling the peliod of Sukarno, are

25 DWIRht Y. KlIll~, Jnterest Groups and Polit/cal Lmkage ln IndonesIa 1800 - 1.965 (Detroit, M,c1l1gan Northcrn Illinois UllIverslty, Centre for SOllthca~t ÂSJan StuclJes, 1982), 35.

2(i NalulatLIl li/ama IS dCl1ved trom the ArablC Nahdat al-cUlama>, which IIterally IllC,lIlS "the re~lIrgencc of the IIltellectuals". Here, It refers to thc né.\mc 01 an orgamzatlOn. Hercafter the names Nahdatul Ulama, l'c,ue'lIkll/l Iarf;;}'al1 Jslllmi}'ah, and Partm Sarekat Islam IndonesIa MC ntcd as the NU. Pertl, and l'Sil as they are commonly used III Indonl'Sld.

•

•

•

presented MasJUml, Pertl, the PSII dnd the Nt!.

Thc most slgnlfICant (1t1rty fOI the plll po~e~ 01 t he dl~IIl~~1011 \11 Ihl~

part IS the Mas.l1ltnl party.27 Its hl~tory be~~\\11 III Dl tobel 1\)·1'), \\lIWIl Iwo

months after mdcpcndencc, the ~~OVCI nllll'Ill IS~lIl'd ,1 ~t .. II'IIIl'llt

encouragmg thc cstablIshment o( pal tICS sn th .. , \'.11 101I~ ~t Il'<lIII~ (lI

thought and ide as could be fUl1l1clcd mto a polrlll ,II \HOI ('s~. III Il'~\)()Il~l'

to thls cali, along wlth the challengc (rom the SI'I'llIal Il,IIIOlhlll~1 1',IOllP,

which had bccoITIr more cOllsohdatcd, the Muslllll Il' .. dl'I ~ Ill'Id " 1 11I11',Il'~~

to reorgamze the wartllllc Islamlc (Mltles and ln UIlIIl' tllt'1l1 11110 o Il t'

politlcal party. 1 hls congrcss was held dt YOI~yak,1I la 011 7 X NOVl'IllIH'1

1945 and was attcnded by the represcnlatlvc~ (lI ,III MII~IIIII OII',dlll/dll()ll~

as weil as vanolls ull-affIlIatcd MlIslim Il'ader~, Altl'I 1H'"t('d dl'hdll' ,Ihollt

purpose and strategy, the cOllgrcss (1I1,lIly (allie 10 t IH' dl'! I~(()II

27

That thls body (MasJuml palty) ... wa~ e~tdlJlI~lH'd d" d (lt'dtIOIl of the Mad je Ils S)ura MU'}'Jlf1l1l1 /mlone\w (Ma "/IIIIU), will< Il III> unt Il now f unc t i 0 ned as a cc nt l'tll (0 Il ~lIlt" t 1 V(' () Il(dllli d Il () Il for the Indonesian Muslrm conunulllty. Il (Md~lllll\l) 1l0W will he transformed mto thc only IlldOl](,~lilll !>olrll<,11 parly,

The name "Mas.luml" has actually bcen Il'('Oj(lIl/cd ~111( l' 1 hl' IdlhllH'~l' occupation period as the acronym o( thl' M(/lll('//~ ,')IIlY(} Mm/m'lin Indonesia (the Cons,-I1tatlve Counnl o( Illdoll(,~lall Mw,III"" .. ). Il w,,~ .. estabhshed to replace the aider blanllC fedcldtloll, Illl' MIAI (MlIll/f'//\ Islam ACla /ndol1eslU the Hlf~hcr hlamH' (OllIlC ri of IlIdolll'\ld), II\JOII

whlch the /apanct:.c mihtary govclIlHlcnt 110 1()lIl~l'1 Wdllll'd 10 Il'Iy smce It represented an olganl/éltloll WllH Ir lldd l)l'l'II d<'~()( Idll'd WIIII actlvltles dIr<~cted agamst a lorclf~n l~ovel 1l1l11'lIt 1111' .. c 0'111< ri, lib' t Ill' former fcderatlOn, was establIshed to IlIlIte Ihl' VdIIO!l', hldllll< orgamzatIOns existing at that tllllc.llowevl'r, lInllkl' III<' MIAI, Md~,JlI/III was completely cont rolled by t hc IdPdIlC"(' 1'.()V('III1tIl·II1. Consequently, thit:. counnl (ould Ilot Indy lIllIle liIl' hl,1I1111 Pdll"", because, cven though It hac! the alm <-Incl plll'pO<'(, 01 <,tl('III',1 1)(,1l1l11~ 1 hl' relatIOns among Muslrm orgarll/atloll~ III Javel dlHI Mddllld, IIH' Japanese govcrnment confmcd Itsel! to Iho~)l' MlI<,11I1I d',',(jC IdtlOIl~ whlch had becn accorded ICf~al statu~ lJy Il)(' I<lPdlll",(' 11II111.IlY government, a privllege, whl( h, III lac t, had only 1)('('11 l~rdlll('d 10 Il)(' NU and Muhamrnacllyah, ~e(' NlellwenhllIJ/c, ')0 ') 1.

•

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whl( h has a~ It~ alm~ d. 1 0 ~UPlH)1 t t he ~ovef elgnty of the Repubhc of Indonesla

and hldnJ, b. 10 put, )1110 practl( e the ideals of Islam in the state's

affalf~ 2K

24

At t hl' out~ct l'OUI' mass-o rgamzat IOns jOined thls party

Muhdmma(l!yall, the NlJ, Pellkatan Umat Islam and Persatuan Umat Islam.

Besldc~, d IlUmbCI 01 the PSII leaders Jomed thls Ilew party, thclr former

party haVqln hecn mac tlVl' ~lnce the end of the 1930's. OrganizatlOns

~lJ( Il ,1.., l'('r~atlldll '~Iam (Bandunn), J\I-Ir~yad (Jakartd), AI-Jami'ah al-

Wé.l~hlIy,dl and /\1 IttlhaclJyah (North Sumatra) and many others, later

JOlllcd Ma\llIllll III thc «)lII~C of 1949-1953.2 9 MasJumi, thus, constltuted

a hctl'I()P.l·lIe()lI~ pdlty. -1 lm, heterov;enelty c entered in two mam-streams

of bl,lIllle tholll~ht in Indol1esla the moclelnIst group and the

tra(IIII()llall~t 1~IOlip Ilowevcr. Ma~Jll11l1 raplctly took on thc appcarancc of

thc 1lI0delllist 1~lOlIp slnce lb leadcrshlp rame from that factIOn and was

errcrt Ively ront IOlIed by those who hacl expcnenced higher Western

educatloll. Ilw., lt't\(lershlp was Itse\( dlvided along dlfferent Imes

drl ord 1Il1~ to lunl ~IOIl. Ilel bel t 1 clth observes

28

~9

(thelc ,1re) at lcast two Important lines of cleavage, one lJetwecn ~~I()lIp~ of dtffercnt IclIglolts onentatlon (where t!tele IS " (Io~e j ,)JTespondence to the divisIon between

<

Sl'e l\1uh.lIIHlldd !\sy'ary, "The Rlse of the MasYllml Party m Indonesia and thc Role 01 the fUlamû) III Its I:arly Developmcnt" (M.A. Thesls, M< Clil llnlvelslt)', 197G), :)3, thls ql1otatlOn has bcen adapted sllghtly by the ple~elll ,Iuthor Ilonl !\sy'ary's work. Later. the ward MasJumi IS mOI e \vell-known d~ only a namc and not an anonym. ThiS mlght bl\ IIltcllded 10 (11ft erclltiatc the Maslllnll C1eated by the Japanese Covellllllent III 19·.n fr'orB the MasJl1tnl Party bom in the Indepl""lclH e pellod.

Sel' Iklt.!1 Noer, l'arllll {sIam dl Pentas Na~JOl1al (Jakarta Glafltlpers, 19H7). ·lt). llelealter Partal hlam dl Pentus NasIOnalls citee! as Partal /,-111111.

•

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"adnllntstrators" and "solldanty rll,ü,ers" Ie,\dershlp\ another between (hquc-hke lart!8l1s wlthlll "admmlstrators" Icadcl~hlp 01 the palty.'

.md t Ill'

) 1 ,. 1

It turned out that thls dIf f elcm c \Vas to lwcollle Illa!~l11lled ovCt' tUIll' and

cause the party grcat cid ficlIlty.

The basls of MaSjllnll, hke that 01 other 1~lall1lC olg.lIIl/allolls

affihated to It, was Islam. The Masjllllll Ieadl'r~ 1Jl'llcvcd that hlalll W,lS

not merely a system of faith and worshlp, but a (ompll'tl' ~y~Il'1l1 «()Vl'llIll~

aIl aspects of human IIfc. î hus, Il WdS (Oll( enwd Ilot only \VIt Il qllt'~t 1011

of how man worshlppcd hls Cod but "bo dedit Wlt Il 1~~lll'~ 01 1I1"II'S

earthly lifc.31 As an Isldmlc polJtlcal pdl ty, Md'.llIlIll WOI "pd to IIldllll"lli

the sovereignty al Inclonesld a~ well,ls 01 bl,lIl1 dlHI to leah/l' tlll' Idl',tl~

of Islam In the state (politH'al) aflalls. Bd~('d 011 thls polltu dl 1(1,,~()IlIIlH

Masjuml Isslied its offinal plogrdlll whl( Il II1dllded tlle 1()II()wlIll~

positIOns:

l.

2. 3.

4.

5. 6.

A republIcan fOll11 of sti.lte wlth the teal hlll!!~ 01 bldlll"~ its basis. Freedom of leliglOn mu~t bc !~lIdl(\Iltced. A presidenttal clcmocracy in WhICIl tlle President I~ responslblc beforc parllalllcllt. As Indonesla is composed of dtflelcnt ethrue (,lItltles, parhament must consist of Iwo chantl)l'Is, a Iloll~e 01 Representatives, representll1J~ the people, and Il '>t'(}flte, represcnt\ll~ the plovillee~. Human nghts must be nuaranteed. Wornen arc cquat to men m thel! polit\( al, ~()('t(d .:nd economlc n!~hts.J2

30 See Herbert Felth. '/ he Decline of Lon\fIIUllOnul IJerno( YfU y 1/1

Indonesla (Ithaca, New York Cornell lJnlvcJ<;lty Ple~s, J%l). 1 ~') 1'~7

31 HE"un Nasutiofl, "Ihe Islarme ')tate III IncloJle~1iJ Ihc RI'>l' 01 tl/!' Ideology, the Movemcnt for It~ (~'eéltlon and the Iheoly of tlll' MasjumI" (M.A. IhcSIS, MrGlll lJnlver~lty, 19f>'J), U7-1 ~H,

32 MasJuml, Pedo.'11un perdJounqan (I)Jdkaltd (Il,P,), 1 (1'1 ') ()O, qllOt(ld III

•

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26

Md~Juml\ (oflllibution 10 the nation were consldera.ble In the early

r)(~II()(1 of Indone~lall IIldcpclldenre. It provlcled Ieclder<; for cabInets and

p.ullilllll'Ilf<.lrom If)"'" whell Ma~ILnnJ \'Vas establlshed, untrl 1960, when

Il Wd~ "IHlllslJ('c!. 1 hc pc f JOcI () f 1949-] 9S7 was consldef cd to have been

Ihe 1I1()~,l IdoIIOU:-' pCl'lod III the Imtory of MasJulll1 when It constltuted

olle of 1 Ill' Idl }~c~1 part le~ rn Incloncsla. in thls penod four or rIve

rnllll~I('I:-' 111 evel y cabrnet were repl esentatlves of Masjuml, exccpt ln the

fll'~1 (abIlH't of 1\11 ~astloamldJolo 0953 to 1955), when the Masjumi

1l1('l1lbCI~ ICJcrled ,IllY pOSltlOIJ ln thls rablllct.33

Ma~JUIllI'S t~lc"t power wancd dS Icadershlp and factlonal spltts

O( (\lrred, ,111<1 cvclltually two 01 lb afftltatcd olgallizatlOns, thc PSI! and

t IH' Ntl, (jUlt and ('~tabhshcd sepdratc polltlcal parties of thel r own. The

P~II wlthdlew Ils II1cll1bcr~hlp in 1947. 'Ihe NU followed III 1952, taking

wltllit the !>OWCIIIII vOlee 01 the cUlumü>, It ',ubscqucntly became a tough

rival to Md~.Il1llll. Wlth thPl1' defc':IIOIl. Mas,Iuml was no longer the only

polllJ("t1 (hdllIwl of the Islamie Ort~~Hllïatlons and, thus, the Islamlc

polllJ(al (OICt'!'> !J('C(\IIlC Illcleasingly cltvlcled. Nevertheless, unttl 1960

MaSlllll11'S performance on the polrtlcal scene ' . .vas still Influenttal, even

th()lIl~h It Il,HI to competc wlth other lslamlc politlcal parties.

I\~ IC!~,IJ(b the MasJulllI'S relatlOnshlp wlth the government,

dlllclCI1( es II1ldeolol~y and policy pleference betwcen the party's leaders

Ibid., 123.

33 Sec Il'Itll ... H)-~7 011 the (omposltion of Mohammad Hdtta's Cabinet, Ibid .• 1 SO 011 that ot the Mohammad NatSlr Cabmet: ibid .• 180 on that 01 the Sllklllldl1'~ Cdbinct. Ibid., 228-229 on that of the Wtlopo Cabinet, rI)J(f. ... 1 1 ~ ·11 ~) 011 Ilhlt 01 the BUl'hanuddlll Harahap's Cabmet. and ibid., ·Ihl) ·170011 that (JI the ~('rolld ClblOl't 01 Ait SastlOamld,loJo.

•

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) . . ,

and PresIdent Sukarno, espeClally III the second IMIt ni tlll' 1 ql)()'~, !l'cl 10,\

serious poltttral spltt. Sukarno saw po!ttu\ll detenol<ltloll ...... Ille plnd\(( t

of natIOnal dlsunlty and "llee-ll1~ht" Itber,t1I~Il1. whl( Il Ill' \\'dlltl'd 10

counter \VIth stlong presldentl,ll Iule III ,I (OIlCl'pt IH' ("lied "( .1I1dl'd

Democracv,,)-I Ile also urged thdt the P"I (the Illdolll':-'Idll ( OIlIllHIIll"1

Party) be IIlcluded 111 the Cabll1ct so that ail Icvl'l:-. (lI :-.()( Il't\, \Jl'

represented III It. In contrast, the MasJlIlllI 1l'(Hlel:-', '>'\IIIII1I,,,I\'

Mohammad Natslr, cntlCli'ed Suk<liflo's ('oncept of "CIIHll'd ()t'IIH)( Id( v",

which, they bcltevecl, would be tantdlllount 10 dll ttllOISlllp 1\1"~1\l1111 ,d"o

Issued strolll~ ~tatell1ellts tll~d1l1~t ~l1kdIIlO'-; (k~lIl' tn Ill< Il1d(' IIH' P"-I III

thc Cabmet, ~eelllg the ( Olllllllllll\tS tI~ <lllll-dl'III()( 1.1111 ,\1HI (k,lll\, Ilh'

enemy 01 Islam .

Entering the penod of "Clllcled ()cmo( l(ley" the ~I ItllIlt'd 1 t'Idt lomlll!>

between the IslamlC group and the I~ovcrnlllellt !l,HI dl'tI'110Idll'c1 10 1111.'

point of becormng a seriou~ ('011111('1, l'spe( 1<llIy 1H'IWl'l'1I Md\JIIIIII Il';ukr

Mohammacl Nat~lr and Plesldent Sukalno. 1 he (onlll( t (11II1II1Idl('d III

Natslr's dCClslon to .10111 the PIUU (the RevolullOlldlY (,OVl'IIIIIIl'llt 01 1IIl'

Repubhc of Indoncsla) movement whlC'h had dcelaled Ihl' )lIkalllO

government Illegal. '1 he PRRI 1I1tcndcd on e~lahh~lIlnl~ d IICW I~OV('II)IIII'I)1

system In whlch lel~lonal (outel 1\1,IIl(h) IlIlell'...,I" wOllld IldV(' 1~J('dl('1

34 The penoe! 1959-19bS I~ <allet! Ihe pCllod 01 "(,lIlded I)('I)IIJ( Id(Y" OfflCially thls pCl'lod be~~dn whcn ~u kal no 1\~II('d 1 h(' 1 kl 1('(' () 1 .) IlIly 1959 concelntn!~ the retulll to 1 Ill' 1 <H') (OIl~tllllt((lIl. 1 hl 0)11',110111 1111', penod Sukal no Imp()~ccl 111\ )(leol()l~y 01 IJ)I)! K, will! Il Wd'. III(' acronym 01 hls live c<,<,enlldl pOlllt~), 1 (', 11j(' 1 CH) (Oll'.! ItllllOIl (Unda no-Undang /)({ Wlr J IJ4 J), Indoll('~'')dn \o( Idll ',III (\(J \/01/\/1'1('

Indone\'Ja), (JlIlcled J)elllo( rd( y (/)emol<ru\/ 1 erf71t1'l(7111) , (.!lld(·d Economy (J:kon0/111 / erf7I111f7In) , and l/ldOIll"ddll JI(') ',DI),tltI Y (J 1 Id('11111 Y (Keprrbadwn Indonc,>/U), ~('e Ma'dld, h/om don IJo//fik (11 Intl(}I1f'\/I/, l, see alsn 1 elth, S'l(J,

•

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28

VOl( e VI~-~l-VI~ jdva, whlCh seemed to be the f()cu~ 0 t power m the existmg

I~()vel muent. Mas)umi's ~ources of strength were ln the outer Islands, sa

Nal~',Jr'~ rnove was not mconsistent wlth Masjuml's mterests. Still, not

('ver ylwdy wllilln 1 he Mas)uml leader shlp agreed to Natsir's policy and

cle( 1~1()11 ~IIH e <)ukal no reprcsented the legltJmate government and many

0/ Ihe ()1J~anllatlorwl rncmbers of MasJuml had strength on Java itself.

1 hl~ abo ncatcel confhct wlthm the party's leadership. However, the

pl C~<'lI re f r orn 1 he )ukarno government was the most detcrmmant factor

III leadllll~ Ma~)llInl to a dllhcult situatIOn. It turned out that the ultlmate

blow (aille when Ihe Ccntral Board of Masjuml recelved a letter from the

1)1Il'( lOI of the l'reslclent's Cabinet tellmg the leadership that Masjuml

IlIW-,t .")()h~h Il ~cll or Il would be fOllllally banned. The ccntral board saw

IlO (hou l' t'XI cpt 10 abollsh the party. Its deClslOn was taken on 13

\cpll'IlIIH'1 19hO.·~:>

1 he sec onel party born alter Masjuml was Pertl. Unlike Masjllml, Perti

was nClther a big palty, nor was It as mfluentlal. Estabhshed in 1930 in

BlIklttIllHl~I, Sumatra, Pertl was formerly an Islamlc organizatlOn which

attcmpted to elelend traditlOnal Islam accordmg to the Shéf flci school of

tholll~ht al~,-lInst modern Mushm actlvlty. In the early mdependence

pl'nocl f .dtcl Ihc Indoneslan government encouraged the establishment of

polltH dl IhlltIC~. the Pertl Icaders opted for a separate status, taking the

ol/ICItll dcn~lOn to do so III November 1945. By convcrtmg thelr rehglolls

()q~.lIl1/dtlon JIlto a polltlcal one, they argued, It wOllld bc casier ta

1ll'\Intalll and 10 lall)' out Islam accordmg to the Shéf flc i school. Thus, in

.~) Nocr, ['tll tOI Isla 111, 386-387.

•

•

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contrast to the MasJunll's concept 01 the 1I111ty 01 the 11lIIl11tll1, tlll' l'cil 1

leaders pald more attention to the mallltcnalH l' 01 thelr 1e:1!~lOliS

concepts. Its statutes of 1953 stressed Its lon!~ telln CO III Il Il t III l'Il t to

pnnclples' "1 he party may Hot bc dbohshed. 11ll' pal ty ~holiid ~1I1 ,'IVl'

throllghout the centunes as a torttltCatlOll to dcfcnd the 1\111 li 1-.\/111 1111 Il Il'li

al-Jamacah of the Sha fl(~ school".3G

On polttical issues, Pertt tended to be 1ll0lt' p"\( tirai ratlH'1' th,lIl

idealistic. While Pertl behevcd thl,t a Musltlll w(\~, ohlll~l'd to estahlt:-.h

Islamlc law for the beneflt of himsell ,\Ild lOI ~o( Il'ty, III pld( tl( l',

however, Pertl held It necessaly to look <lt the polttl<'al ~ltll"II()1l ,lIul

assess vanous pohtlcal actlOn:-, (\( {Ordllll~ to t hell ,\CIV"III"I~(' 01

dlsadvantage to the party. Accoldtnldy, Ils position vl~-a Vi .... I~OVt'lllIlll'lIt

policles often chanl~ed. lor instance, notwllh~talldlllg It~ 1)(1~11I()11 10

support and cooperate wtth MasjuJllI and ot hel I:-,Iallll(, poltt 1< al pdl t Il'~,

Pertl was, as It were, wilhng to COOPCI'tltC wlth IlOIl MlI!,11I1I 1~1 OllpS

incllldmg the PK\. Perti was the only Indonesaan IslanllC' pail y whl( h ~elJl a

delegatlOn to the "World Peace Confel'en( l'foI ASla and Pal lIu" hdc! III

Beijing in July 1952, which was imttatcd by the ChllJ(.~~,e dlHI ')OVI('t

Commumsts. Il also supported Sukarno's demancl thal tlH' PKI 10111 tll!'

second Cabtnet of Ah SosroarllldJojo.:37 ~u('h (le tlons, ('VCII tllOlIgll tlH'Y

helped Pertl to avoid direct conf lIet wlth Sukarno, wei (' 1)('1 hap<. ~.OJrJ(' 01

the reasons why Pertl was never able to f~enerate wHle polit If al ~.lIPP()11

from Indonestan Mushms. In the penod of "CUlded l)(>nJ()( 1(1( y", wh(,11

36 Ibid., 75 .

37 Ibid., 74.

•

•

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30

Illdone~lan derno( la( y went mto declrne, Pertl adju~ted ItS programs 1/1

ahf~nrnent wlth ~u karno's pollcy of "Glllded OemoCl'acy". As a result, PertJ,

ulI!lke MasJurtll, wa~ able to survive untll the next penod oF Indonesian

f~overnment.

1 hl' P~lIr as noted abovc, emerged as an IIldependent entlty wh en its

Ieader~ wlthdrew theu membershlp from Mas .lU ml m Apnl 1947 aFter

lIavlll~~ belollJ~ed to the latter SI/lCC 1945. After thls separatIOn, they re­

l'stabhshed the PSII as a separate Islanllc polltlcal party.3 8 The decision to

rl'-l'~tabllsh the party was taken when Amlr Sjanfuddll1 Formed hls

C'abl/lct 111 1947 and IIlvlted the MlIsIJm leaders From Mas.Jumi to .loin hls

('ablllet. lJnllke othel MasJlImi leaders who refllsed Syanfllddrn's offer, the

l'Sil lead('I~ (who at that tlme were stIll members of Mas .lu ml) were

IIlterested 111 and accepted thls offer. Other reasons for ItS wlthdrawal

IIlduded thelr dlsapporntment wlth MasJuml's policy to employ the PSII

leaders III less slgnrf Icant posts than 111 the former cablllet, the plIable

attitude 01 the Mas .lu ml leaders who agreed to compromIse wlth the

Dutch, and requests made to the Central Board by the PSII leaders III local

branches to re-establlsh the PSII separate From Mas .lU mi Party.39

ln the rablllp.ts followlIlg Sjal'l(uddin's Cabl/1et the raie of PSII was no

lonl~er SI!~llIfl('ant. It only occupied one or two unimportant posts whlch

for the 1l10st JMIt dld not continue untIl the end of the cabll1et's mandate.

ln looklll!~ at these events, one may assume that the recruitment of the

1'511 letlClers to JOI/1 Sjal'lfuddll1's cabinet 111 1947 was related ta the refusai

]H Sec IClth. 13H.

~ 9 N (ll' r, Pm' tII Isla 111, 7G.

•

•

•

) 1

of Masjuml to Sit III the cabinet, and not beclIllse 01 the qU,IIII\ 01 Ihl' PSII

members.

ln the perrod of "Glilded DemoCl\l< y", the PSII, IIkt' Peril. look d

cautiolls step by applYlllg accomodatlve POlttICS. llll~ Ihtrty dl'( lalcd th.tt

the" Mampo/,,40 was III IlIlc wlth PSII prOI~ralllS and 11\ cOlllpll,\IH e \\'11 h 1 hl'

teachings of Islam. Thus, the PSII was w"llIll~ to suppolt l'velY pl'Ogralll

proposed by Sukarno, two of whlch were the IIbel'dllOll 01111.111 H,lIal lroll\

the Dutcll occupatIOn and milttary operations (\f~(l\Il:-.t Malaysl<I.'11

Another polltlcal party born III the post -Illdept'Ildt'IH C pCllOd was 1 hl'

NU. This party was establJshed Hl 1 <)~l> dlHI Wil~ !llIt l,Illy a 1l'111~I()tJ~

organizatlOn intendcd to plomote 11 <ldll lOlldl hldlllH ,h()lIl~hl III

Indonesta. It was, as It WCI l', establl:-.hed 10 (Ollllll'r 1 hl' IllOdcl'll hldlllll

thollght whlch had bcen spreadmJ~ \Il Indolll'!',I<l d!', " 1l'~1I11 01 Il)('

incrcaslIlg nllmbcr of Indoneslan Mu:-,IHn~ who IIdvl'Ilt'd 10 Iht' Mlddll'

East on the p,lgnrnagc and to study Islalll 1 h(,1 e. Bef 01 e lIull'pl'/lrlt'IH t' Illl'

NU was only activc in social and l'ducat IOlIal ail il Il ~ Il :lvoIVl'd Il ~l'II

occasionally m pohtical matters only If these (OIlCCIIll'd th,' 1l'11I~101I'> Ille

of Indonesian Mllshms III partlculal and t he Illdoll('~lilll I)('OPIt' III 1~l'lIt'l dl.

Its participatIOn in thc polit iraI scene Wd~ disc l'l'Il1lJll' in the 1 evolllllollili y

penod. In 1945, for cxample, If gave the lJ)~tlU{ IJOII Ih(ll dd(,IIr1J1I1~ tlll'

40 Mampol IS the acronym of the Mumfc\/u\/ [Jo!/I/k Il tH' l'oltll< al ManifestatIOn). This IS the name of P/'esJdent'~ add/('~~, W/IH h l'volved into the GBHN (Gans-Gans Besar lIa!uan Neqaru t hl' (,('1]('1 dl Ollt III)(~ of the Statc's Direction) approved by the I>lOvl\lollal )('11.11(' (Mllf<.)' MaJe!,~ Permusyawaratan Rakyat Scmenlura). Mamp()! 1<, 1I\lIally hnked wlth USIJLK, sec footnote 'H of thl~ (hdptl'l' .

41 Ibid., 396.

•

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32

Inelonc!-'Ian land and natIon (rom the enemy was an obligatIOn on every

Mu~lIm. J hus, It calleel upon MuslJms to perform holy war (jIhad) agamst

thc Dute h am~r(~ssor.4L

(Jntrl 1 ~)4() It!-. relatlonshlp wlth MasJumi was strll harmomous and It

(le knowle(h~ccl Ma!-.Juml as the only Islamlc party in Indonesla. However,

aftcr 1949 the relatlOnshlp begall ta weaken. lhe dominatIOn of the

1l10dClmsts over the tradltlonahsts In the orgam't.atlonal structure as weil

as In tlll' cablllet s and the dlHercnee of oplmon concernIng the

oll~d/lllatlolldl llIee halllsm of the party had creatcd conthct between

thcllI ... hl!-. ('o/l(II('t rcached a entlcal POl\1t when there were changes in

thc Ol'f~atllli.ltlon whlch were lInalceptable to the NU leaders. In addItIOn,

the 1I1l!-.lI( e essllli dttcrnpt of the NU ta have one of its members occupy

the pO:-'ltlOI1 of the MlIllster of Relrglolls Affalrs In the Wllopo Cabinet

(19:>L-) !):, ') fUll her (~lsapPolllted the members of NU. Consequently, on

5 I\pnl 19~L Ihe NU wlthdrew fl'Dm MasJuml and became a separate

Islan1l(, polltlcal party.43

Alter Its separation from Masjumi, the NU expanded its political

IIlllucl1ce thl'Oligholit the country. It also slicceeded in attainmg

dOllllllant pOSltlOllS ln the Department of Rellgious Affairs and was to

head thl~ mllllsl l'y III 20 of the 23 cabinets over the course of 20 years

(1945-1965). Its positIon ln the cabmets between 1952, when the NU

separatt'd From Masjllnu, and 1965, the year whlch marked the end of the

'Old Order' re~~lflle, was constantly strong, esr,ecmlly after Masjuml was

42 Iblcl.,I;O.

·13 Ibid., HG

•

•

•

aboli shed m 1960. Besldes the I\1I11IStl)' ni RelIglolls I\II.HIS, III Wllllh tlH'

NU members dommated man)' posItIons Itom the Illll1lster to the 10\\'l'r

offIciais, many othel 1Il1poftant posItIons III sevelal l"lbllletS Wl'Ie ,Ibo

occupied by membcrs of thls palty. In thl' III~t C.II HI ll't 01 I\h

Sas troam Id jOjO, III whlch nonc of the M,\SJlllIll IlIl'lllbl'l ~ ()( (lIPll'cI ,Ill\,

mmistenal post, the NU occuplcd two othcl po~ts 1H'~1(1l' tlldt 01 tlle

Mlnlster of RehglOlis Affall's. 1 hcse posts were Vu l' PI'IIIll' 1\11111~tl'l Il .11111

the Mmister of I\granan I\lfalrs. !\Iternatlvely, the Ntl oht.lIlll'd two P()~t~

m the Blirhanuddm Cabmct (1955-1 ~)r)b), and live P()~t~ III thl' ~l'(,oll(l

Cabmet of Ali SastroamodJoJo (l95G-1957). \ hl~ ~h()w~ thdt thl' \)()~III()11

of the NU party on the Indonesldll polltH dl ~!'l'Ill' Wd~ Ilot Wl'<lk, l'Vl'II

though it had separatcd (rom Mas.JlIllll. On thl' (ontr,IIY, It obtdllll'd l'Vl'II

more seats m the rablllets al ter ItS ~Cpdl'dt 1011.

ln the penod of "Guided Democracy", the NU, as we\1 a~ l'l'III alld 1 hl'

PSII, employed accomodatlve pobtlcs and ad,lllsted Ihell' J)olltH'al platlolt;

to coincide with the demancls of PI l'SI dent SlIkal'llo. Il ~l'('''IS 1 Ildl Itll~

policy was taken up to savc the party (rom the Idte that Iltlcl tH'l'1l \Id flolt'd

by Masjllmi. The NU fully acceptecl the (onclJllons o( the pdl ty ~y~ll'nl

stlpulated by the Prl'sldl'nttal Dcc l'ce, and (lJ~recd to bd~C II~ PIOI~ldrtl ClII

the Man/pol. Thus, cvery ~tl'p taken by Ihe NlJ wIll( h had a pollllC.d

implIcatIOn was adJlIstl'd to the polJ('y 01 Ihe "(;lIlded IklllCH 1 <le y"

government. As a rl'sult, not only dld the NU ~\lrVlve but It pldy('d tllI

important role III the penod of "ClIlded J)emonac y" and lemallle€! ,1( Ilvc'

m the next penod,44

44 ln adclttion to thesl' (our partle~, thclc wen' ae 11Iillly Iwo olltel politlcal assoCIatIOns III the penod o( "Clllded \>eIHO( Ide '1", IldlllPly

•

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34

Darul Islam: 'Radical' Islamic Movements

1 he/'(' wei e many Hl( Ident~ IIlvolvmg 'radical' Islamlc movements

will( Il wCle of Importan(c III the hlstOlY of the polltlcal development of

Illdone~1a dllllrl!~ 1 hc ~lIkal no pel1od. I\mong them were the Darul Islam

(fIoUl the /\falm IJùr ul-/s/üm) rcbcilion III West Java III the course of

] 94H-) ()(lL (Jed by ~.M. KartoslIwIIJO), the Darul Islam rebelhon III Aceh

dlll'lll!~ 1 !F) ~-I 959 Ocel by Daud Beurcueh), the Daru! Islam rebellion ln

~otll Il Slllawe~1 f 10111 1950 to 1959 Oed by Kahar Mllzakkar), and the PRRI

relle/lloll III We~t Sumatra Hl 1958.45 Of aIl these rebellIOns, the Darul

1.\llIl11 rtlOVCIlH.:nt III Wc~t Java was the most senolls threat to the central

nOVCIIlIlH.'nt. It wa~ the longest rebelhon and resulted ln a large nllmber

of r(lslI.tllies IlOrn both the TNI (lndonestan Army) and from the Daru!

hlam sJ(le~.

IIUlI MU.\!1I111n lndonesla (the IndonesIan Muslim League) and Llga IJemokra\1 Indonesla (the IndonesIan Democracy League). Llga Mu\llI1l1l1 IndoJ1esla was establlshed lt1 the fIrst half of thr 1960's. It was the fedetatlOn Dt the three polltical parties, whlch shared the ~ml1lar IladlllOnal rellglous thought, I.e .. Pertl. the PSII, the NU, and two other sOCIal orf~arllzatlOns in South SulaweSI, namely Dar al­IJlI L wül1 \Va al Irsl1i1d and Pers)unkatan Tronghoa Islam Indonesla. Yet 1 he IJII th 0 ( Ilua MuslllnIn lndonesla was not a solution to the problem lu< cd by bldllll<' polltJ(al partlcs. It, III faet. IIlcrcased the number of hl,II111< 01 ~~allllatl()nS and reflccted the rupture III IIlstead of dYIMllIlCS 01 Indolleslan Mllshm sOCIety Itself. LI(la Demokrasl Indol1c\w wa~ IOllllded by two NU leaders, III additIOn to MasJumi, the P~I (the Indoneslc\ Sonallst Party), Partal Katollk Indonesla (the Indone~"i.\Il I\.atohk Parly) Porkmdo (the IndonesJan Chnstlan Party), and the IPKI (thc t\SSO( Jatlon of Indol1cslan Independence Supporters). 1\( tl"llIy. IIOll J)cmokrasi Indoncsla was not an Islamic party. Its cst<lbll~hlllcnt was Il1cant only to oppose Sukarno's authontanan sy~tell1. Ilowevcr, thcsc two orgalllzatlOns were not decp-rootecl ln

the SO( lety. Whl'Il Sukarno dlsmissed them, there was no wldespread 1 e~pOl1~e. UnI" thc end of thelr eXistence. Liga Muslunln Indonesla and ll!fll 1 Jcmokrosi ltldonesw nevel playecl- an Important role III

Illdol1e~llll1 polltlCS, nor dlcl thev become wel\-known orgalllzations. 1 hey dl~~olvl'd wlthOllt leavlIlg any unplesslon on the hlstory of polll IllII pdl tle~ 111 Illclollesla. Sec Noel, Partal Islam. 94-97, 402-403,

•

•

•

" .) )

The leader of the Darul Islam Illovcmcnt III WI'~1 lav,\ was S.M.

(SekarmadJI MandJan) Kartosuwino. He was bOI11 111 ('l'pu. CCIII l'al Java III

7 February 1905. Dunng hls youth he dlcl Ilot l'l'reIVl'd ail 1~lal1l1r

educatIOn, but ratller a scclIlar olle ,1Ilcl "Iso attl'Ildl'd the pll'Pdl,\tory

course on medtral StucllCS wltllout l'ver r()lllplctll1~~ It:lb 11t~ kIlO\\'ll'dp.t' 01

Islam and hls lcleahsllI III estdbltshmg ,\Il Isldlllil st,lle IIII1~hl htlVl' Ill'4.'11

acquired dunng hls actlvlty III the l'Sil and hls d~S()( latloll \\'Ilh II.().~.

Tjokroaminoto, a promlllent PSII le"del. RelatlollS 1)('lwl'l'll thl'Ill Wl'Il'

close and KartoslIwlrjo 1 ernamed loy,,1 to the 01 ~~anllatlOll. Ill' l'Vl'II

became Tjokroamllloto's pnvate secretary untt! 1 <)~9.4 7

After dedteating hllllset( as pnvate sl'crdaly 10 1 Jokloalllllllllo lOI

about three years, he moved to West lava alld workl'd dlh,~l'Illly 10

develop the PSII there. IIIS career rcarhed lb pClIk whclI he WtI~ dPI)()IIIIl'd

Secretary General of the 1'511 in 1931 and then VI( c-PIl'~ldl'1l1 01 1 hl' l'~II III

1936. He was also one of the Masjllmi leaders Ilont 1 (H~) 1I1l1t! I\I~

rebelhon ln 1949. When conniet occlIrred Hl the hody 01 1 he 1'\11

concerning whether or not thls party should coopcrate wlth tht' \)ut('h,

KartosuwirJo was in the non-cooperatIve camp. Ile then !-.cpal alcd '10111

the PSII and estabhshed a "nval" PSII, 1 rom whlch a radlc dl hldll}l(

movement m West Java, I.e. "/Jarullslam", was horn. l hl~ cvellt (H (1I11('d

in 1949, one year after the Dutch returned to IndonesliI to 1 ('-(jC (Upy the

Ma'arif, Islam dan Polltlk dllndoneslU, 55-Gl and 64-()7.

45 See Boland, 54-74.

46 Ibid., 55.

47 C. van DIJk, Under the Banner of Islam 1 he fJuru/ I\/am ln Indone'l/U (The Hague Martmlls Ni)hoff, 1981), 2:~.

•

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36

( Ollllt 1 y.

Karto~uwlI:Jo, thrOllJ~h hls "Darul Islam" movement, attempted to

('~rab)lsh <lll I:-,)mlll< state (JJâr al-Islâm) m IndonesJa -n whlCh the Isiamie

Sharï( ah would be t he basIC' Ideology. -, hls movement at hrst sided wlth

the l{eplIlJll< to rlJdH agam~t the Dureh aggresso r . When the Renville

!\J~J('ement bet wcell the Duteh and the Indonesmn government, aeeordmg

ro whu h the rcpubilean troops were to be evaeuated from the Duteh

h''''Itone~, was 1 atd Icd III 1945, Kartosuwiljo strongly opposed it. He and

hls t l'OOp!'. stayed m Wcst Java. WhlCh, aceordmg to the Renville

!\1~I'CcJ1)Cnt. was l'cgarded as Dureh terntory. Consequently, he became

IIlvolved III a conl het wlth the Indoneslan government as weil as wlth

Maslullll, whlLh 1 ceogllllcd the Renville Agreement.

1 ('('''n~~ stronl~ cnough to opelate independently, Kartosuwlrjo

dlssoC'lated himsell From MasJlmll and eontmued his struggle under the

banncr 01 thc radICal movclllcnt hc had established the Darul Islam. lt

was III thls ycar (1948) that KartosuwII'Jo began to speak of hls idea of

establlsllInJ~ an Islamle statc III West Java If the government of the

RepubllC 01 Illdonesla wcrc to bc ovcrthrown by the Duteh or if the Duteh

were to cstabllsh a Rcpubllc 111 this reglOn. As a matter of fact, the Duteh

(lld estahh~h a "Pasundall State" (Negara Pasundan) in West Java. In the

meantlllle, the Indonesldll Government III Yogyakarta surrendered as a

ICSUlt of the Dutell Illlhtary actIOn m Oecember 1948. Kartosuwirjo,

f.lSSUIllIllH the Repubhc of IndoneslH to have been overthrown, felt that

estahhshing a IlC\V Islanlle state, namely the Nil (the Istamic State of

Indollcsla), was not a rcbcllton agamst the Republic, whleh had actually

•

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•

fallen, on the eontrary. It rcprcscntccl a lontliluatlOll 01 the ~tllll!!!1e tOI

the sake of the ProclamatIOn of Frec Indoncsld IIhutc on 1 7 AlIHlI~t

1945.48 When the republlcan arllly gave oldels 101 the l'\'.H'lI,ltl'd .\Imy 10

return ta West Java aftel' the Rellvll\e Agleclllcnt h,ld Ill'l'Il \'lnlall'c1 il,

Duteh aggresSlOn ln Yogyakarta:·t9 K,\I·to~lIwlr.l() «()I1~ldl'll'd 11\1:-- Il'Ilii Il 10

be an aggreSSlOtl agalllst the NIl. lonscqucntly. II1Cll' Wd~ ,1 Illdll!!lIl.IJ WIll

between the replIbheun army, the lJarul Islam t ro()P~, ,\!lei Illl' \)ulch

troops, who still oecupled the rcglOn. 50

Efforts were undertaken by the Incionestan !~()VCl'Illl1ellt 10 ~cd~ ,1

solutIOn to the confhet wlth KartosuwlI:jo by establl~hIl11~ a (,()lllnll~!',1011

chall'ed by Mohammad Natslr, Natslr then tlled 10 l~t" 111 1011( Il WII h

Kartosuwlrjo, appeahng 10 hllll and hls tlOOpS ln rl'Iuln 10 Ihl' Rl'pllhl"

and restore pea[(~ ln the land 01 Indonesta

On November 14th the Covernment a1l1lO1l1lC cd 1 Il .. , Il wa!', giving the guenllas an OppOI tumty to 1 ('pOIl 10 \ lu.' allthoritles From the 28th of that month untlllk( l'IlIIH" 141h, durmg whlch pCl10d thcy lould SUITell(\er 1 hl'III<'l'ivl'~ alld thelr arms at the Government's dlst l'lct off" e~. Il}('y were promlsed admiSSIOn mto the AI med 1 or('c~) or 1 Ill' l'olt< e Force ln accordanœ wlth the eXlstmg mies Il they wl~h('d. Il they did not, tt;t~ government would as~i~t t he III III 111I(hlll~ él

new livehhood.,)

Kartosuwlrjo responded negatlvely to thls appeal and 1 e-allllltlt'd t he'

proclamation of the Nil as a ~ubstltute for the RepubllC 01 IlldOIl('~1(1. 1 Ile

Natslr commiSSion, III faet, had falled tri ItS mandale fo ~('( lire

48 Noer, PartaI Islam, 181.

49 van DIJk, 90.

50 Ibld.,90-91 .

51 Ibid, 11 O.

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38

K(lIto~lIWIIJO'~ co-operation. l he same appeal was repeated by Natslr

when he led hl~ cabmet In the penod 1950-1951, but agam there was no

positive rcsult. 52

ln thc penod of the second CabInet of Ah Sastroamodjojo

(] () ')()- ] 957), mIlltary ae tlOn was undertaken to anmhllate the Darul Islam

movernent III West Java but It was unsuccessful. Further mlhtary action

was IIndel taken III 1962. llavmg been considerably weakening by ItS

pl eVIOII~ "J~hts, the Darul Islam mavement was ultJmately quelled.

Kar tOSllWlI,lO hUll~ell was captured and sentenced to death on 16 August

19G2 alter a thlcc clay tnal. Ile was exccuted a month later.53

1 hl' J)lIrul hlam lebelhon In I\rch m September 1953 represented the

peak 01 1\( l'hncse all~~er wlth the rentlal government ln Jakarta, whlch at

t he end 01 1 9S0 had cie( Ided that Arch he umted wlth l apanuli and East

Sumatra JIlto the sll1gIe plOVIIlCC ot North Sumatra. Daud Beureuch, who

at that tlllle WdS the govclllor of Acch, felt humihated by thls decislOn and

he 1 eSl{~ned ft 0111 government serVIC(~. The situatIOn remained tense but

wlthaut nldtters commg to a head when Daud Beureueh decided ta adopt

a moderate attitude as long as the Repliblic was led by MasJuml or by

anothcr Islamlc party. But whcn Ah Sasroamodjojo of the PNI (the

IndonesJa!l NatlOnahst Party), came to office on 1 August 1953, Daud

Beurcueh 1 clt he had no cholce but to declare Aceh part of the Islamic

StdtC of IndtmcsJa.54 '1 hls declaratlOn was preceded and followed by

52 Noel', l'l/rlll/ Islam, 182.

53 VlHl DIJk, )(j2 .

5·1 b 1 1 \(., 2h9.

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aggressions by Daud Bellreuch's troops aga1l1st the ,Hildccnt ,\le,I~.

It is certam that therc were commUlllratlOl1~ IJl'twl'L'1l \),llId Bl'llll'Ill'h

and KartosllwlI"jO 111 West Java before the Âl dllH'~l' le\)l'lIlon Ollllll'd.

They contmucd to be 1Il touch wlth c,ll"h otlH'r thlOlIl~h l'llV()\,~

afterwards. 55 By these mcans Daud BClllcueh also Sl'nt kttl'rs to

KartosuWlrjo expressmg hls wIllll1i~ness tn Il1te!~I"lte JIltn the Nil 01 We~1

Java. He also declared that he wou Id alkl1owledf_~e K.lI IO~lIWII1() t Ill' il',Hll'l

of the Nil and ensured him that the people 01 1\( eh ~lIpporlcd 11lt' Pll/lIf

Islam.56 However, thelr contacts weil' eventlldlly dl~('()vt'Icd I>y tlll'

central govcrnment when 111 May 19')3 tll(' I~OVCI'IIIIIl'1l1 dlll'~Il'd

KartosuWlrjo's envoy, !\bdul Fatah. Daucl BellrclIch'~ l'Ilvoy. J1y,,~ Il'IIIH'.

escaped, but his document acknowledl~llll~ Dtlud Bl'UIl'lIl'h'~ ~II!>P()II lOI

Kartosuwirja was sClzed. 1\';, a ICSlllt, tlll' 1~()Vl'lllIlll'llt w,,~, .. hie 10 ohldll\

informatIOn about Daud Beul'eueh's acuvltles 1/1 I\nl .. ')7

Once the rebelhon broke out, thc l'cpubllcan 1 ro()P~ wcre 1J1'011J~hl 1111 ()

actIOn. The repubhcan army round that thc (ouncr were ~lIPI)()I 1 l'cl hy

people in almast every village and by many 01 the !\rchlH'se Iloo!>,> alld

polace. The central government, thus. l'calI/cd th .. t IIHIllary dC tlOIi wOllld

not solve the problem and that ne~~ol tat Ions were pl'l'f CI ahh' a~) d IIleall~)

of arnving at a solutIOn. A number 01 a~~reements wlth thl' leadl'I~ of tlte

rebellion were reachcd, the mo';,t important 01 whwh wa~ 1 he

55 Ibid., 300.

56 Nazaruddin Syamsuddm. Pemberontukun Kuum Uepuhllk KUH/\ !Jurul Islam Aceh (Jakarta GrarltlperS, 1990), cn .

57 Ibid., 99.

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40

(tC kn{JwledJ~ement 01 Arch as a ~pcClal adminIstratIve distnct (Daerah

ISlImeWa) wlth Imllted autonomy, partICularly In rcllgious affalrs. 58 Daud

Beureudl hJllI~ell, however, (ontinued the struggle. He Jomed forces wlth

the PlOU tlOOp~ whl< h eventually proclalmed the e~tabltshment of the RPI

(HCf1uhlik Penatuan Indonc'ilCl 1 he UnIted Republtc of lndonesla). ThIS

~Ituatl()ll, howl'veJ, dlc! not last long lor 111 I\ugust 1961 the PRRI rebels

~ul'rend(,lcd and rc( elvcd a pardon from Sukarno. In 1962 Daud

Beureuch hllmelf (cased reslstance after fUllher negotlatlons wlth the

J~oveJ nrnl'Ilt, dllcl par tl( ularly aftcr he had secured the agreement that the

.~·haYl(lIh he ttppllcd hel1(eforth 111 I\ceh. Given parole by the government,

D,HIc! Be'ul cUl'h I)l'came an 01 d inary CItIzen and devoteà hlmseIt to the

d('velopllIellt 1111\( eh.

1 hc /Jarullslam rebe\lion 111 South Sulawesi occured in 1951 and was

Icd by Kah.lI' Muzakkdl.59 The nft wlth the central government began

when the formai rccogllltlon of 1I1dcpendence by the Dutch put an end to

Kahar Mll/akkal's Iole as commander of the Ovcrseas Command Group

(KonulI1c1o Gruf? Schcruny). The end of thls career caused hun great

dlsapPollltment and hc fcIt that the government dld not trust him

dnYJllo!'t·.GO 11l1ally, when the government planned to reorgamze his army

5~ Boland, 7K

59 1I1~ na me dur1l11~ youth was La Oomeng. He was born III Bone Bay, South Sulawesi, on 24 Mareh 1921. At the age of seventeen he studied III the Muhammadlyah (ollege. Artel' hls bnef return ta Ujung P(\lldalll~ al the beg1l1ning of the Japanese occupatIon, he stayed 111

lav(\ and took. ail actIve part In the Al'mecl struggle for Independence. IllIs WdS hls Ilf st st1l1t III the republtcan army, 111 whlch he served UlltlllllS l'e1>ellloI111l19S1. see van [)IJk. 155-1H4.

hO IL)I(I.. 1 (}G

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Il

lInits, he demanded that <111 bIs guellllds oe Il'C OI!llI/l'd d~ P,lIt 01 tht'

replIbhcan anny. The government ct Id Ilot agree tu IlIS (klll,lIld hut

wanted to choose only some of the l~lier t1la~ 101 IIlCItISWIl IIltn t Il(' .tllll\.

and return to sO(lety those who dlcl Ilot mel'I the lUlldltlOIlS put IOlw"ld

by the governlllent.G1 Anothel Illalor I~Slll'. Whlcll w,\~ ,t1:-.p Ollt' 01 llll'

baSIC reasons foi\ hls growlIll~ al1tal~0I1I~111 tuw,ml thl' <lIIII\'. \\',,~ hl~ \ ,

dlsappomtmcllt at the alll1y's refusai 01 hls requl'sl tu t.\kt' Pdlt III tlll'

peace-keepmg operations in South SulawesI. 1 hell' Wl'Il' ~t III ot Ill'I

problems cuuslIlg Kahar's disuPPollltment G2 whl< h fOI( ed IlIIll ,lI1d Ill'>

troops to retreat to the jllllide ta Oll~dl1l/e d 111Ovellll'ni '\I~<\lI1:-.t 1 Ill'

government.

Lrke Daud Bt:ureueh, Kahar Munlkkar ,d~o l~()t 111 louch wilh

Kartosuwirjo m West Java. l he latter of lered K,tlldl Mundzkdl 1 Ill' \1I1"w(':-'1

Command of the Islamlc Army of Indolle~I(I. wll\( Il hc a( (t'pll'd. 11i1I11J1~

his 1I1volvement m the Darul Islam Kahar MU/d"-kill dl'c1I1H'd ('velY ollel

of peace proposed by the governmenl. lIowevcl, IH' I~I dclually lo"t 111:-'

followers as Ihey surrendered to thc replIblll dn al'Illy III oull'I 10 Will

amnesty or as they simply delecled from Iw., ull1l~. 11ll' 1.'1 ICI of 1,,:-.

movement came rn rebruary 19h5 when Ihe .1I'r1ly dl~( ovc'Il'd K("I{\I'~)

hiding-place and attackecl It. '1 he m,Hl WllOlll t hey helJeve(\ '0 h' Kall.lI

Muzakkar was kIlled. Wlth the su('('e~~ of Ihl~ OrH'lallO/l the /)urul 1,lam

movement ln South SulawesI vlltually ended.G]

61 R.Z. Lemssa, PRRI Permesta Stutegl Memhanqun Inuonc\/U 1 unJ?u Komums (Jakarta Grafltlpers, 1991), 7H.

62 van Dijk, 182 .

63 Ibid., 217.

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CHAPTER 2

ISLAM AND POLITICS UNDER THE

'NEW ORDER' GOVERNMENT

Period of Transition.

'!lIee important cv'ellts «(In !Je (IIscerned in the penod 1960-1965 (1)

t he peak penod 01 the PKI (the Indonesian Commllntst Party), from 1960

1I11tll 1 (HIS, (2) the blJ'th of Sekber Golkar (the Jomt Secretanat of

IlIllct IOllal C;rol1p~) a~ a ('ounter-balance or the PKI m 1964, and (3) the

lall 01 the PKIIIl 19(,5/196<>.

1 he l'KI ellleq~ed as an Impoltant pohtIcal force after the 1955

e1ecIIOI1, bl'(oll1l1l!~ Ihe IOLllth most poplliar party al' ter the PNI, Masjllmi,

(111<1 Ihe Nl1. Its PO~ltlOll III Indoneslan polltlcs was considerably stronger

III the "(,ulded UeIllO( li.lcy" pel'lod. lJnder the protection of Sukarno thls

Pd .. ty dOlllllltltcd lI11portal1t pOSitIOns in the "National Front" (Front

Na\/OIllIl). li body \vhlC Il wa~ set IIp m 1960 to moblhze ail polrtical

partle~ .1Ild othel OII~dlll/atlolls, mcllldmg the armed forces, behmd the

l~ovel'llment pollnes. 1 ln the ~econd halr of the 1965 the PKI beeame even

more 11I111ttll11. 1 eelllll~ tllat It was stronn enough, this party undertook a

(OliP d'état on t he 1l1~~ht or 30 September 196:'. The movcment was in faet

<11('('( ted dl~all1st the (\lllly leadcrs who were consiclerecl by the PKI as

1 he "NdtlOlhtl IlOllt" WdS 1I11tially the al'my-sponsored "National Front 101' the IlbcltltlOl1 01 West 1 l'lan" (1 ront NaslOnal Pembebasan Irian /Jort/t), whlch Il.HI been ba~ed on the army·led mllitary-civilian "COOPl' 1 <ltlOI1 ho(lte~", ~ee llarold Crouch, The Army and Pollues ln Il1dtllll'.\IiI, Il'\. ccl. (lthac.I, N.Y. Cornell lJmverslty Press, 1988), 34 lootllott' (). Sllb~l'qllent",., dltel' Sukarno took over the leadershIp of tlll~ Ilont, the P(}~ltJ()11 ni the .11 Illy becdme no longer prom1l1ent.

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.. )

thrcatenmg the posItIon 01 Presldel1t )uh..\1110 JIll' lOllp Il'sultl'd 111 tlll'

assassmation of six gCI1CI\lls and onc IIcutenant.

General Suharto, Chief 01 Kostrad (the !\nllV St 1"ltl'!~J( Rl'~t'I"\'L'

Command), reccivlIlg support t'10111 the survlvlII1~ l~elll'l"ab, dl tl'cI

Immedmtely. Togethcr with Gencral NaslItioll, who w,,~ 011 tlll' IHurdl'l' lI~t

but hospltaltzed wlth a minor IIlJllry, he su«'cedl'e! III qUl'lIll1!,. t Ill' (nllp

and reassertlllg the army's position. Ihl~ .lholllVL ((I1I17111.1lkl'd the IlIp.h

point of the PKl's and Sllkarno's powel'S, will< h IIl1l11l'd lilll'ir dl'rllIll'd

thereafter. In the following year, Sukaillo ilnd tlll' l'KI (,llllapM'(1. IIH'

SllCCCSS of the army in cru~hml~ the "30 \l'ptl'Illhcl (011"" III 1 <)(,')

signallcd thc emergencc of a new pOWCI dlll~llIlH.'1I1 011 thl' Illd{)IIl'~llll1

pohtlcal scene, not only ber(\usc 0[' the dowlll(t11 01 SukalllO ,1Ild tlll' l'KI

but also becallse of the ronsplCUOliS (halll~e of polltl< (II ~Inl('tllll' ancl

actors. The emergence of the army as a pl'lllW pollll('al actol' I~ a ("~l' in

point.

Sekber Golkar2 IS an organil:atlOll whlch was IOllnee! 011 LO (Jllohel

1964 by the military to preserve the strenl~th of tlle l'KI alld It~ élflilldtl'd

organizations III the "NatIOnal 1 ront". 1 he l'~tablt~hlll(,111 III 1111<,

orgamzation was IllItiated by the army, wille Il III('d to tllill;-.,Ihlll 10/1 t'~>

From the IslamlC grouP. studcnts, mtellce tu,II~, and olhel <llltl PKI 1011 ('~.

Even though Golkar was establtshed 1lli.\llIly as LI 1l';-"pOIJ~l' 10 tlH' PKI, Il

2 Sec DaVid Rceve, Go/kar or /ndOnC\ïa An !\/tcrnallve 10 111l' /JlIrly \y\lern (Singapore Oxford Umverslty Press, 19Wi), ~WJ foolnol(' L'l. "\('/..:hcy Go/kay" stands roI' SekretuYial 13enamu C%Yl[lun Karyu (Ih(' 101111 Secretariat of runctlOnal Groups). "hl~ Olj~dlllli.III()1I wa~. 1I11t1,tlly a loose fedcratlOn of sorne 200 non-pohtlCal OIJ~(\Il1/allom ,lIId fllI·tIlIWI<. or the mllttary. IIencefOlth the rléJrne "\ckhn (,olklll" 1\ (11l'cl éJ'>

"Golkar" as IS commonly u~ed at ple~ent.

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44

later wa~) t ralJ~fornH'd mto a very ~tlOng polltH:al vehlcle of the mliitary

10 malfllam II~ (tuthorlly ln the 'Ncw Order' penod.

As ha~ bC1'1I de~( nhed above, thc rolc of Ihe army ln crushmg the PKI

rebelhon wa~ very denslvc. Ihls was, indeed, the culminatIOn of the

('onfllc 1 I)('t Wl'PIl the arrny and thc PKI, whic.h had been going on since the

l'cvolullOnary pennd when Ihe PKI ln 1948 staged an abortive coup

aJ~(ulJ<,l Ihe f!OVelllrn(lnt ln Macllun. It l111ght have been expeeted that the

al rny would Icad the effort ta deslroy the l'KI movemcnt which had

assa:-'~lIIated SIX 01 Ils genel'als. It was al so logical that it should have

peleclveel ib duly as a defellsc organ of the state ta proteet the country

11'0111 IIltl'lllal chaos, which Il Ilelieved was at the heart of the PKI's

deslf~l1s)

1 ollowiJl!~ thls event, antl-~lIkarno and antl-Communist forces grew in

~trength. 1 hey demandcd that the government dissolve the PKI and ail its

dl f Ihall'd 0 1 !~alll/ati()ns. The Muslim unit s, cspccrally both ex-MasJuml

and NlJ mcmb:.rs, took part in sOlne demonstrations, gathered

IIlformallon dbollt PKl's plans and helped in 1"01Inding up and sometlmes

pllnbhlll!~ the PKl mernbers. Many Muslims apparently hoped that the

downlall of the l'KI \Vould mcan an allspiciolls beginllmg for the future of

Islam 111 IndolleSla III the new cra. They consoled thcmselves that Islam

had I()~t wh,!1 was cOllsldered to be ItS greatest enemy, the anti-rdlglous

C()nHllllIH~t s. 1 he Musltms fcll from the outset that the PKI was a main

obstacle to the IslamlC movements, espeeially whcn It became a domlllant

3 M. Rush Kal'llll. Pe/:lnllll1on Panat Polit lk dl Indoncsla. Sebuah Potret !'(I.\1l110 ."'Llnll (J<lkal'ta Ra.lawalr Pers, 1983),153-154.

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power III the pCl'lod of "C;llldcd DClllocracy". 1 hCII' .\l'tl\l' Ih\ltH'(p,\tIOIlIIl

U'lIshing the PKI was madc com,plCuous by thcll' lISC of "lsl,lIlI" ,\S ,\

unifying II1strument III deallllt~ \VIth thc danl~er of (,Oll1nllllll~ll1. IIH' dlilly

saw that the Mushms \Vcre tH that tlllll' ,\ l'otcntl,\1 tOln' wlll('11 lOuld Ill'

persuaded to coopc.'atc 111 cl l'st ('()}'ï Ill~ the COll1ltnllll~t Ilet \VOl k, Coud

lines of communication bctwccn the two ~idl's wel'l' (,(,l'.lted ~() th .. 1 ,\

cohesive action betwecn thcrn could, III ('ase 01 ncccsslly, hl' IIlolHhll'd

fol' the sake of natIOnal stability,"

Another sOCIal forcc which had a dcnslve lolc III stl'lIl~I~lill!~ tn 1t'IlIOVl'

the PK) was that of the stuclcnts, United mtn Iwo Id.'I~l' oq~al1l/all()I1S, the

KAMI (the Front of Inclonesian UllIverslty Stuclcnt I\cllOn) and lite KI\I'I'I

(the Front of Indonesian Youth and Studcnt /\('tlOlI), tlll' ~llId('III~ plaYl'd "

very important part in bl'lnging about Ihe downfcdl 01 \lIk,lIllO <nHI II\('

PKI, sometlmes at the ii1stlgatioll 01 the anny. Il!l'Y took ln Iltl' ~II(,'(,'I~ to

force a turnover of powcr f rom Sukarllo tn Suhallo (lIId ()11~alll/l'd 1lIi1~S

demonstrations that callccl fOI transfcl' of power tn 1I01l-('()III1IHll1Isl~"

Their action was a resurgence on thc part of t hc allt i -l'KI st lId(,lIt~ alld Wil~

:) revenge for pr,htical losses 111 the carly l %O's at the lIallds of II\('

student organizatlOns 1I11dcr the l'KI.

With the downfall of the PKI and ils alllliated orWH,lzatiom" ~lIka,,\O'~

power began to declinc drastically. ail Ihc more so \)crause Ills at t Illide

towards the PKI rcbeilion causcd suspICIOn in rnost C'll'rles as 10 wh('tlwl

4 Idem, Dmamika Islam di /ndonesla Suatu 'IInJuuan SO.\/UI dan /Jufl"k (Yogyakarta' Hanimhta, 1985), 184,1 H C). lfenrclort Il (lIed d~ Dinam,ka.

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46 r-

OI Ilot he wa~ Involved III the movement.·) At the time of hls c1ownfall,

~lIkarno Wil~ lore ed IIlto transfcrmg authonty ta General Suharto sa that

1 he latlel (ould lake ail nec essmy actIOn to remedy the situatIOn. This

mandat e wa~ knowlI a!-> the SUPLHSI MAR (the Denee of Il Mar< h 1966).

()11 the ha)l~ of thls mandate ~uharto dl~solvecl the PKI and ail its

.tlllllatt'd ol!~ani/atloll!->. lIowevcr, the people'~ SuspiCIOn of Sukarno's

IIIVolvenH'llt Hl the "30 Scptembel 1\1 rail'" or, at least of hls knowledge of

1 he plol III ad " .... f U (', caus('(/ Ihe derlllle 01 hls chélnsmatlc leadership and

Il](' p(lIaIY~I~ of hl~ polttlCal power. Many pcople no longer trustecl hlm

<1\ d 1(~~1I1t. III the meantlllle, Ccncldl Suhalto belélmc a leadmg figure on

1 lit' Indolll')I<ln polit!! dl ~(,CIlC. 1 hloll~~h the DCClslOn 01 the MPRS (the

l'lovlslOllal Senatc) hc wa~ then apPoll1ted the Acting President on 12

MdlC h 19<>7, dlHI SIlice 27 Mareh 19G8 he has servecl as President of the

( oUlllly.G

1111s pellod, even t houRh t he exact clate remallls uncertai n, IS known

as Ihe bllth of the 'New Onler'. Il IS important to note that bccause the

al'llly had a dOJuinant rolc to play III this power rcshuffle, the nature of

'New Order' polatics III Indonesia has been rhal'actenzed by the mfluence

01 11ll' é\l1lly ovel the government adnlllllstration. Hithcrto, the arrny has

bCl'1I the only polJtlCal f orec which has exerted cOl1slci erable control over

thc st,lll"S ad 1111 111 st 1 ath.>I1 and ovcr the Indonesian society.lts control over

sOflcly has 1~1"ld ually becolllc tJghter si nee the early 1970's.7

:l See Donalrl W. Iryer and James C. Jackson, lndonesia (London' E. Benn; BOlllder, Colo. Westvlew l'l'CSS, 1977), 98.

() 11.1. Bol,lI](I, nU' Stru[lole of Islam ln Modern Il1donesla (The Hague: Mal t III liS NlJholl, 19H2), 143.

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Soon after the aJ'lny .lssullled power .lItel' 19hb. Il Illltldll\' Il,HI no

clear program on l"uhng the country. 1 here WdS no dl'''l :-,t,ltt'IlH'llt ,1:-' to

what It would do dfter It rame tn powel. would It IIlle the (,()lIlltly IlllOlI!~h

establlshmg li mi lltary govelllll1ent 01 would It 1001lld ,\ polit J(.d p.1I l,

which could serve the mt< l'ests 01 the 111111t.\I)'. 1 he r!l()J('l' W.l~ 1 Ill' ~l'( ond

alternative, \VIth the moddlUltlon th.tt tlll' polltH .11 p,uty l h()~l'll IH'

governed by the rllllttary, 111 a{ COI ddrH e wlth Its "dlhll-luIH t 1011" l'Ollu'pt

of the army ln the 11lIlttary and non-militai y Il'dlnl'.. In tlll:-' It'l~dld.

General Ait Murtopo, then the ~poke~nhlll 01 Ihe 'New 01 d('r', dl ,~l\('d

the statemcnts 01 ABRI (dl'ml'cI IOI(l'S) 1l',Hll'r (1,,"IIl'd thdl dWI fungsl (clual flltlCIIOIl) will ~tdy. And tlw, 1:-' .lIlowl'd hy the (rll1stitutlon. -\ he (ollcep! 01 ABRI \VIth H'I'.dlll !n tilt' State Ideology has been lIl~tlllltl()lldll/l'd, .uul ABRI wdl Ilot want 10 be the toob 01 a st<ltl' wh\( Il IId~ " <III 1('1 l'III Hil'olol'.Y Tht:rel'ore, the constltlltlOnallq~hh 01 ABRI Illvolvllllkll~l'Il 111 the pol!tlcal stlumde Will not 1Jl' ahdlldolll'd Ily ABRI

The cholcc cventually l'cil tn Colkal, will( h WdS thl'Il only ""

embryonic political orgalllzatwn. 1 he der rSlon to ('h()()~l' Colkw'

reflected mtlltary mtercsts slllce Colkm (lld IlOt relll'( 1 1:--.1.11111<.

communist, or evcn Sukarno's dO( t l'Ille, bUI r ellecll'd IIIOIl' the

aspiratIOns of the mlhtary and non-racIJcal lelJ!~loll~ ('\('rllcnl:-.. AII('I

Golkar becamc the choice, It was ~~tadllally r eOIj~dlll/e<l ,ulfl t Idll:-..loltrll'd

into a pohtlcal or'gamzatlOn. General Suharto, III I,,~ (cl!)d( Ily tl\ a ( 111("

Mimstcr of Se(urity and Delcnse, 1~~lIed an 1Il\lllHIIOII 10 Ihl' (1tJ('I~) 01

Staff of the ABRI (the Indoncsran Armed 1 ()I(,C~), lII~tllH t11\1~ tlH'tr1 10

7 See Baladas Goshal, The Ra/e of the MI/Ilary ln Indone\/U (MiHII d~) UniverSity of Maclra~, 1980),45.

8 Leo Suryadrnata, MI/llary !\scendancy and Polll/cul Culture 1\ ,\/udy 01 Indonesw's Go/kar (Athens, OhiO OhIO LJllIver~lIy, (etll('1 '01

InternatIOnal Stlldle~), '34.

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48

il/ovide ail po~,~lble far IIItl(~s lor the dcvelopment of Golkar at the

natIOnal and rel~loni.ll Icvel.9 1 he execut/ve boald of Golkar was also

1 enewed. 1 he fOI mer leddel ~hlp, whlch wa~ (hal red by pro-Sukarno men

ilnd Iwo others Irom the tTIlhtary, was eventually replaced by one on

wh/( Il IlIgh-tdllkItlJ~ tlllhtary Ill~ules from Suharto group served, w/th the

( IV/""II~ only (H CUPyllll~ the lower pos/tlOns.

Wltll 1 e~pe('t t 0 the blamlc polltlcal movement 111 thls penod, i.e.

SI/II t' the eme/j~eIH e of the 'New Orcier' government, It may be stated that

1tI()~t Islam/(' lIlass OII~(HlI/atlons enthlislastJcally welcomed the new era.

1 hcy, IOI~cthel with sc Ile Musllm leaders (cspenally the ex-MasJuml

leaders who had .Il/st bcen rcleased l'rom J<:ul as polltical pnsoners),

delll.lIlded the rchablltlatlOn of MasJurnl. An Il1Itwtlve ta revive the party

hacl ht'cn 1I1ldcrway ~I/H e eatly 1/1 the 'New Orcier' period when a meeting

of t hl' ex-Maslullll leadel s took place 111 1966. However, the Army Issued a

statelllent ()blcrtllll~ to the rehabtlltatlOn of thls party. ThiS statement was

conftnl1cd by a letter from General Suharto dated 6 January 1967 statmg

Ihat ICI~al, ('onstitutlOllal, and psychological consideratIOns had led the

!\l'llly to d<.'C1de no t to accept the Idca of rehabihtating MasJumi. lO ln this

lel~.\I'(I, the rlllhtary government seemed ta feel that revlvmg Masjuml

wOlild mCdll Ichabl"tat1l11~ former members of the party, some of whom

Il.\<1 1Illdertdkt'1l rcucllton and had fought against the army. The PRRI

!) Yople IlIddy.\1 ct aL, "Ilga Jalur Ântl-Korsleting," Ternpo (Jakarta), 21 ~cptt'lIIbl.'l' 1991, 31.

1 () Nasll' !".II11aw, "Islam Under the 'New Order' A Polltlcal History," J'II\H1tl IIIC Indol1c.\la/1 l/1llicator 49 (June 1990), Il, C1tmg S.U. Bt\Iasut, A/am Plklrlll1 dO/1 je..lak Perjuan(Jan Prawoto Mangkusasmlto (~lI\'abi.\va DocullIcnta, 1972) 214-216, Karim, [)l11anllka, 185-186. see .llso Bol.lIld, '12.

•

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rebellton, whJ('h was .Iomcd by I\1dS.lttllll IC.ldct ~ Mil h .IS I\\Oh.UIlIll,HI

Natst!', Burhanllddin Harahap, and SJafruddlll Pld\"ïral1e~~.lI.I, I~ ,1 (,I~l' 11\

pomt.11

Scc1l1g the flltlllty of lurthcr etron (1IOlll~ thl'~l' IlIll'~. the l\\lISIIIlI

leaders dertclecl to esti.lblt~h li new Islall1H party, wlth the 1()11!~ Itt'ld 1~(),11

of ttnttlllg ail polltleal MlIsltm d('llvltles. !\llh()lI~~h ~l'Vl'l,1l p.\IIIl'~ dld

eXlst, such as the NU, the PSII, and Pl'! 1 l, IIldlly ul Ill'! 1\11I~11I1IS Wl'!l'

comç.letely unrepresented. Sorne Muhalllllldd IYdh leaell'! ~ 1 dl"l'd 1 Ill'

posslbility of revlvmg the Pli (the Indonesldll bldrl1lC l'dit y), ,1 Pd! Iy O!U l'

establlshed by a group 01 MlIhammadlyah leddl'I'~ 111 Il) Ht IlIklll.1II

Harun, a young MlIhammacltyah leader who h,ld bel~1l Illvolvl'd 11\ Ihl'

establishment of Golkar, Jomed wlth other MlIh.lIl1ll!(uIIYdh Il'del('I'' III .III

effort to revive the PlI. More prollllsmf~ wa~ the elloll 01 !\10!tdllllll,ul

Hatta, a revolutlOnary leader and u prornlllent natlOlldlI~l, 10 l':...I"IJIt"II 111('

POli (the Indonesmn Islamic DemocratH' Party) as il rad 1'(' paIl y plOvHkd

pnmanly for the 1966 generatlOn that had brolll~hl clown Ihl' \lIk.ll'llo

reglme. 12 The mam aim of the 1'011, as Hutta assclled, wa:... 10 l'dll< ale Ihe

Mushm community in how to conduct u patly wlth Islmr\lr pl II\! Iple~ in a

responslble and democratlc way 01 hIc 111 II :...1 al l' ba:"'l'd 011 IIJ('

Pancaslla. 13 Agam, nelther of these mit lat IVC:'" WdS tt'dIJ/('d. Ilaltii

Il Sec Mohammed Kamal lIassan, "Conternpoi ary MII .... llrn R('III~J{) 1'0111 Hill Thought m IndonesIa l he Re~pon~e to New 01 dei Mod('IIII/dilOlI" (Ph.D. DIssertatIOn, ColumbIa lJnIvcr~lty, 1 <)7 rl), (d.

12 t<.oslhan !\nwaI, "Islam and PohtlCs III Ind()ne~I"." III I{ohel t () IIIlmall, Man, State, and S'oCiety (New York Pnlef~er fJlIbll~Jh(,1 ~), ) ()(,I)), ) W.

13 Mohammad Hatta, Bung Hatta') J\n.\wen, IIItl'l vlew~ WII Il ï. Ya<,111 (Smgapore Gunuilg Agunf~, 1981), 1 ;-)9.

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50

wllhclJew lm, plan Iwc au:-,e thc ProvlslOnal Senate did not accept his

plOpo~al. In Ihl:-' re~pen Hatta mentlOned

Plc:-'ld(~nt \ocharto explamed to me at that tlme, that dit hough the purpo:-,e wa~ good, the Provlsiollal MaJelIs (~erhlte) had alrcady dcr Ideel on the simplIficatIOn of the party :-,y:-'Iern, and therefore could not approve the rormatlOn 01 a new party. 101 me there was nothmg else but to accept .hat deI '~'9~' élnd therelore the POl (or PDII) did Ilot matenall/e.

Llkewlse, thl~ l~overnment deClslOn also ended the expectatioll of revlvmg

the PlI. 1 he Idea 0 r revivmg thls party, thus, faded from the agenda of

Muhammad Iyah.

Nevel t heless, the government still signalled that It would be possible

t Cl ('stal>h~h one Ilew blall1lc party, a party which was hoped to be a

partnel of the new allthol'lty and which wOllld support its pohtlcal

al~cndd.l S A romnllttee lOIlSIStlllg or seven moderate Mllshm leaders

1 <I((lh lJSllldll, Anll!-> Slidono, Ilasan BaSil, Ânwar Haryono, E.Z. Muttaqien,

Mdl"lllki Idt 1 Ill, .me! M rs. Sjdmsul'ldJal, was, therel'ore, formed. This

COlllllllttee WdS glvell the task or establishmg a new party whlch wOllld

1I11Jte ail eXlstlllg MlI~hll1 poIJtlcal cntlties. The party was later called the

'PallllUSl' (thc Illdoneslan Mushms Party).16 Feeling an obligation to this

Ilew·born pal ty, ail the Islalme Illass orgamzatlOns affiliated with Golkar

defccted f rom the latter and Jomed the Parmllsi.

14 Ibld.,lGl.

15 S :ce Ilassan, 64.

1G SOllle of the Mas.luml Clrcles expected the Parmusi to replace the MasJlIllll, but the government wanted it to have no cOllnectlOn to the lattel, scc 1 alllc11 d,lI.

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The government accepted the blrth 01 l"lI111U~1 dmi appeah'd 10 II 101

Its support of the 'New Glder'. In thls hi~ht. NllJcholtsh Madlld pOlllb out

that even thOllgh the l'KI had been ov~l!hI'OWll. SUppOlIl'rs 01 Ihe 'Nt'W

Order' government \Vele still few III Illll11her. l'rl'~l(lellt ~lIharlo.

therefore, mtended to 1ll0btlll.e the Mlishms to ~lIPP()1 lit ~ ,lut hOl'llY,

however, not ail ex-Maslllmi members WCI e l'XIH'( Il'd to l,III\, Ilw 'Nvw

Order' leaders, most of whom happcnccl 10 (Oille Ilom thl' i\BRI

(espeClally from the Army), could not al'cept tht' ex-l\1aslllllll \llt'llIhl'r~

who had been IIlvolved III the l'IOU rebelllon. 17 III ,l 1I1l'l'l1ll!~ Ill'tWl't'll

General Suharto and Prawoto Mani~kllS"sllllt(), olle 01 t hl' M.l:-'IIIIIII'~

promment leaders, Suharto declared that 110 ex-M.I~llIllli !e.UIt.'I ~ wOlild hl'

allowed to hold leading positIOns 111 the new 1'''lllIlI~l.l S

The positIOn of the governmenl toward~ Pal'lllll~1 was J(',dlll'lllt.'d by "

Presidentlal Decree JO Febrllary 1965, rat "YJnI~ the l'stahlJslllllcllt 01

Parmusi under H. DJarnawl HacllkuslInlo and lukllltlll Ilarlln, hoth 01 t I!PIll

Muhammadiyah leaders, as the palty's C1HIIlllIiln ,met Se( retal'y-(;clH"'t11.

This decislOn of the government dld Ilot saw,ly the mClllbpr:-. 01 1',11 rtIl1~l.

who had in faet appomted as chatrman of the party Mohamrnad I{oem, il

former Masjumi figure, m the IU'st Parmu~1 ( orWle~~> hdc! III MaldllH. 1 hl'

government dlsapprovecl of Rocm's apporntmcnt, wlllC'h wa~ (ort~,ld('I('d

as opposrng the government's dCC'l~\On re1~ardln1~ the a!~('(~enH'llt Ilot 10

place ex-MasJuml leaders in posltlOn~ 01 éllllhonty.l (J J\1!~urIlPllh look

17 Agus Basri, Sltl Nurbaitl, and i\rdtan laullk Ce~tllll, "Jld~all~~ \lllut Hubungan Islam-Benngin," fempo (Jakarta), ~ 1 Scpternher 1 IJI) l, L 1 -24.

18 Boland, 152 .

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52

pla('(~ III the body of the party bctween those in Favor and thase opposed

to the f~overnmcnt's apPollltmcnts. John Naro (now called Jallam Naro), a

memhcl' of a small Islamic orgamzatlOn III North Sumatra, Al-Jamïcah al-

Wa,~rlYuh, and Imlan Kadir, attacked the leadership of Hadlkusumo-Harun

and fOl'med a l'IVdI-leadel~hlp led by Naro hlmselr wlth Imran Kadlr as his

)e( letaly-Cellcl'al. 1 hls Illternal rupture oncc morc caused the

f~()VCl'llmellt 10 rntelvene III the mternal affalrs of the party by reJecting

the leader~hlp of both Naro and I-Iadlkusumo, and appointmg H.M.S.

Mrntal'ed.la, a mOle toopcratlve leader l'rom the Muhammadiyah, as the

new eharnnan of the Parmllsl.20

Slllec lb blrth, therefore, thc Parmusi had bcen tom by mternal

('onillet and hac! pOOl' Iclatlons wlth the government. ThiS internaI crisls,

(,ollpled Wlt h dlrerl II1tcrference on the part of the government m the

al lall's 01 thc party, hmited its growth. Its potentJaI to be an aIl inclUSIve

and IIlflllcnttallslamlc party never materiahzed, and so it did not become

a sen()lI~ thrcat to Golkar, which grew rapldly as a new pohtlcal entity. In

splte of thesc condItIons, however, Parmusi declded to partlcipate in the

1971 c1ectlOn. There was no expectation that it should get many votes,

1lI11ch less Will the c1cctlon.

Col!..ar, after ail Islamic organizations left it, had for its part become a

s"l~htly more homol~enous orgamzation, especially after the government

19 Sec Al~lIS Basn et aL, 24.

20 Sec 1 achry 1\11 and Iqbal Abdurrauf Saimima, "Merosotnya Ahran dalam Partal Persatuan Pembangunan," in Anallsa Kekuatan Polltlk dl Il1dCJ1!Co;lll Plilhan ;\yukel PYlsma, wlth a foreword by Farchan Bulkin (Idkal'l.1 1 PHS. 1988), 230.

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, ) .)

isslIed ln 1969 a regulatlOl1 knovlln as "Permcn 12" (Ihe 1Ü.~}~lIl,ltIOIl 01 tlll'

Mimster of Home AHall S l1umbe '" 12) conccrnlllg the proredlll e lor t Ill'

punflcatlOn of Golkar. IïllS l'egulatlon stlPllldtl'd, lI11e1 al/II, Ih,\t t,olkal

members who had connectIOns to othel pollillai parlles hl' dl~l1l1:--':-'l'd dUel

')] l'eplaced by new members wlth no such (Ollnertiom.- Su ppoJt ed Il\' the

milttary, intcllectuals, and many othcr groups, Golk,\1 WdS !t'DI I~dlll/l'd

and, in faet, glew healthily. Neverthclcss, to facc the ,~l'llel,\1 elt'rlloJl

Golkal' was uncertam whether Il wOldc\ Will c1e,u Iv be(',ll1~e Ils ~t n'IlI!lh ,,~

an electoral machine was so far 1IIltcstcd.22 By <.onll,I:-.I, ,dl othe!' IMltll'~

execpt ParmllSI had partlcipated in the] <) r) 1) e!ectlOll, 111 wh" h tlH' NU ,111(1

the PNI had gamcd ma.Jor votmg blo(~" Parlllll~l, a< tlll!~ <l~ Il Il Wl'I'l' tlH'

"new Masjumt", hoped to gall1 al least Idly ~cat!'. out 01 ,~h() III tlle

Pal'liament. The PNI and the NU wcrc also qUlte opllllll:--.t IL IIH' PNI loI'

example, still cxpccted to have at Icast 78 scats, whde t hl' NlJ Ilad 1 ()O

seats as its target.23

Therefore, Golkar had to work very a('tJvc:~' towards wÎ IlIlJlII~ t hl'

eleetlOn. With full assistance l'rom the mllttary, Goi kar art a vatt'c\ It~)

affiliated orgal11zatlOns, establtshed a new ot'l~ant/.atlOn nalllt'd t IH' BA!'II tl

(the Body to Control the General l.IectlOn) 10 conduct ah C'illrlp(III~Il. ,md

revived the organizatlOn or the cU/amü> (alled the ClJPPI (Ihe /\~~(J( IdtlOI!

for the Improvcment of Islamlc LduC'ütion)24 to Will Wlt h Ille ~tlPP()1 t 01

21 Toriq Hadad, et aL, "Menanam Bonsal Jadl Berlllj(In," J empo Oak,,, t<l),

21 Septcmbcr 1991, 29.

22 Leo Suryadmata, 29.

23 Ibid., 39 .

24 The GUrPI (Gabunqan Usaha Perhmkan flendtdtkan '..,Iam t hl'

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54

~orne Mu~lJrn leader~. Il furthcl madc "accelerated mOdernilatlon" for

Indonesla In twenty-flvc years the major theme of Its electlOn campalgn.

(;olkar bec ume a symbol of rapld dcvelopment and modernlzation and

Il self a~ the only alternatIve seekmg Incl oneSIa'S

1II0d errlllélt lon.L j

J he ;~eneldl elec tIOIl was held on '3 July 1971 and was dlsputéd by ten

('()ntc~tallb, who < an bc classJflcd mto thrce groups the Islamlc group

(On:-'l~tllll~ 01 the l'~II, the NU, Pannll~l, and Pertl, the Non-Islamlc and/or

se( ul,lI 1~/{)lIP whi( h wa~ made li!) of Pa/lai Kalollk, Pariai Knsten

l/ldtHle~I", the PNI, Paltal M urba, and the IPKI, and lastly Golkar. 26 The

le~ult wa~ thal (,olk<lI, cl /lew partl<ïpant, won a landshde VICtOIY, ga1l1ing

hL_H pel' (ellt 01 the total voles, whereas the Islamlc group gallled 29.12

pel' ('{lllt.L7 ln tlll~ electlOn therc WdS a measure of pOSItive commltment

J\S~O( lallOIl for the IlIlprovement of Islanllc EducatIOn) IS a group of tladlllolldl hi(lInlc tcachcrs who co-opted mto Golkar pnor to the 1 <)71 l'lee tiOIl, :-.ee lIas~<.lIl, L5G.

2:' SlIl'yadlllata, ~7, AWdd Bah,lso<.\ll, "Golollgan Karya Mencari Format Pohllk Baru" U1 ;\11(/11)(1 Kekuatan Polluk, 281.

2G Such a da<islllCatloll can further be seen In the next pétrt of this thesis COllr(,IIJlIl!~ the 1I1l1ltcation of Islamic pmtles. As far as Golkar is COll< crncd, It is IIIlclcstmg tn note that cven though It cngaged in polItll'al rUllctlons, II~ leadcls, as wl'II as thc govcrnment, dld not Lait Colkar d pohtrcal party. 1 hcy made' a dcmarcatlOll between Golkar alld p':llitll'(11 partlcs. 1 hls can be seen in, Inter alta, Law No.3 of 1975, alld Law No.3 01 1985, (ollcernJl1g Pohtlcal Partlcs and Golkar. Sec "'[ he 1 aw NUlllber 3 of 1985", quoted m Alllan, "Ulam a, Umat Islam, d(11l Pl'llllhh(\Il UllIlIlll," Jumal J/mu Polillk 3 (1988) 42. As a pohtlcal ll1!-.t Il li t 1011, Colkal mllstltuted VallOUS ol'ganizatlOns wlth dlfferent b,\('k!~1 OUIH!S, Illtcresu" natlll es, and pro(psslo ns, see J\wad Bahasoan, 271)-281.

')~

... 1 1 he cl Ist IlbullO Il of the votc~ won by Islamlc partlcs was as follows Nli 18.(, -; pl'!' cent, l'anlluSI 7.36 pel' cent, PSI! 2.39 per ccnt, and Perti 0.70 pCI relit. -1 hls rcsuIted ln the followll1g dlstnbutioll of seats in the Pal hdllll'Ill Colkal' 227 seats, NU 58 scats, Parmusl 24 seats, PSII

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ta Golkar whlch brought thls p.lrtv to \'Irtnl\'. A11l01l1~ tlll' l'dll! .lied lIlh.lII

classes and the stud ents CIl t le.ll 0 f Col ka l' S mct hod still' 1 e \\"l~ .l l~l'Ill' I.d

approval of the govcllllllent's prOlllISCS of 'dl'\'l'loPIllCllt'. Bl'~ldt.'~, lhl'

coercivc aspects of thc call1pal~~n WCI c, IIldecd, Olll' ni thl' mmt IIlllHl! tdlll

determmants of Calkar's vlctory.2H

Thus, the Islmnic paltles expcriemecl dllotlll'r (lI~ap,)()lIltllll'lll III the

hlstory of general clectlOl1s IIllndoneslll. IIH' pl'ln'lIta!~(' ni thl' \'ole tl!l'v

obtained In the 1955 e!cction, III whlch the IslallH( ,>dltll'S .lIt()I~l'I"rl Il,,!!

gamed 44 per cent of the total votcs, WdS better 1 h.\II wl1.l1 thl'V ol!LIIIIl'd

ln the 1971 elcctlOn.29 The result 01 the }971 eil'('tloll :-.ho\\'l'd the

declinlllg posItIon of thc Islanllc partIes III the IIl<!OIW:-'I,Hl !loIJII< .. 1 :-.( {'Ill'

and also determmed the polllicai IOle they pldVl'd III II\(' lullIll' (II

Indonesla.

The PPP: A Unification of Islamic Parties

The idea of restructuring pohtu'(d pa'lle~ III Illdolle~Jd hdc! drlll,lIly

been planned slnce 1970 when Prcsldcnt SlIhaito nllsed tlll:-' Hie" !>l'IOII'

the nme parly leaders. Accordmg to ~lIharto, tlll~ 1~J'()lIl)1llg 01 1 hl'

10 seats, and Pertl two scats. Î he NOIl-hlanll( allel \l'( IIl,lI pdl 1 Il''. recclved the followmg seat c1istllbutlOll PNI ~o ~.!,,,t<>, l'dll.1I Killolll: and Partat Knsten Indonesla rc(clvcd tlllce '>l'al~> Cd( Il. 1 WO otlH'J' partl(~s (lPKI and Murba) rc('clved no scal~ III Ilw Pd,llatll('llt fOI 1 .. ( k of votes, src Dantel DhakJ(lae, "Penlllrhan lJl1Iutrl dl IJI!lO/H".JcI, \,d:',1 pa sang Nalk dan Surut Partai Polit 1 k," l'n\ma <) (')cpl ('1111)(' 1 1 IH) J )

32-33.

28 David Recvc, 298.

29 Sec Abdul Munir Mulkhan, Peruhahun l'enlul<u I)ol'Ilk "un IJo/urt\iJ\/ Ummat Islam 1965-1987 fJa/am l'ersfJek/lf S()')/Ololj/\ (Jakarld HdldW;1I1

Pers, 1989), 1 jO.

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56

polJtl< al partJ(~~ wa~ mtcneled only to make the campalgnmg m general

clcc tlons ea~ler, not to abollsh the eXistence of mdependent partles,3°

1 ven thOlI!~h thl~ Idea bael not yet been leallzeel ln the 19ï'1 electlon,

Ihe pdlllC Ipatlllg polltlC al partlcs hacl begun to be classlfied mto three

1~IOllp~ the ~pllituai 1~1 Ollp (also called "Kelampak Persatuan") which

('Ollslstl'd of the Islamie parties, the natlOnallst group (also called

.. KelomfJok f)emokra.\/ Pembangunan") whlch conslsted of the sendar and

non-I~lall1l( pallics. and Golkar. Alter the 1971 eJectlOn, the government

IInplClIlentcd the Icstrllrtlll'lng of the pohtlcal parties. The spintual

1~l'OlIP and the natlOnallst 1~l'OlIP were then ratlflecl by the Senate lInder

tll<' nllll)(.':-' 01 Ihe Pl'P (PariaI Persatuan Pembangunan the Development

limon 1'<llIy) «)ll1pll~JIl~~ the ~ptr1tllal group ancl the PDI (Partal Demakras/

IndonC'\1lI 1 he Indonesian Dcmocracy Party) compnsmg the natlOnallst

1~IOllp, l'e~pt'( Ilvely, wlth Colkal (Go/angan Karya the FlInctlOnal Group)

),ClllaIllIllJ~ lIndldnl~cd.31

/\s Idr a~ the Islal1llC partIes were concerned, the simllarity of their

basIc J(leolol~Y. 1~lam, Lonstltlltecl the common clenomlllator m theu

und ICat Ion, even thollgh not ail parties readily agreed to this policy of the

I!overnment. Pertl and ')anmlSI supportecl a qllick m~rger from the out set.

The NU was Il1Itlally not keen on mergmg. There was an mternal upheaval

30

31

Ibid., .n.

/\l'rol(linl~ :0 1 aehl)' /\1I's and/or Smmlma's mterview wlth Lukman liai lin, one 01 thl' fOllndcrs of Pannllsl, the name "Partal Persatuan" was the Ide" of tukman 1 tartan allned at .miting the lslamic parties, an Idca whlch he fJ\'Oposcd in a I1lCctlllg among the Islamic leaders ln the housc 01 Ahmad IJokroanllnoto. Accordmg to Fachry Ali and Sm mima, It rellhllllS uncel tam \Vhel e the word "Pembangunan" came from. See /\11 ,11 lei S,ulll'1I1a, '210.

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I~

) 1

within the party over whether or Ilot the NU shoulci !lll'i ge IIltn thl' ppp .. L~

This IS understandable because even " the NU chose Ilot tn lllergl', It

would, of course, have rcmamed a bl~~ p(\rty \VIth d Idl ge Illllllbei 01

members who constltllted the ma.lollty of 1 liraI sOCIety (\nc\ .. pOl t Ion 01

the urban populatIOn, espectally 111 Java. Neven hclcss. It eventu,\lIy IOllled

the ppp wlthollt further internaI connlet.

ln the case of the PSII, whlch was relatlvely smaller than the Nll, thls

party was up against internaI changes. At the tlllle 01 thl~ 11I~lon 01 the

Islamic parties, it held a conference whlch slIcceeded III app(}mtlll!~ a IlCW

central board of the party. II.M. Ch. IlJrallltll was apPollltl'd ",\Ity

President and H. Wartono DWldJOlllWOIlO It~ Sec retl\l y-CCIll'1 dl. 1 hl'~l' lIPW

leaders of PSII were reputedly cntlCal 01 the l~ovelnIlH'I1t. 1 hl'Y ,llso

refused to Join the PPP. ThiS cleated ail mtcmal ('ouillet IH~tWl'(,1I thl'

hard-liners (those who refused to jOlll the PPP) and t Ill' lH ( OIlIlIH)(ldt 1()III~t

group. The confltct brought about the fOllllalloll of a "lIval 1(',ldcl ~llIp" 01

the Central Board of PSII by tlle latter !~rollp Il'd by 1 J. ÂIIWéII'

TJokroaminoto. It was this "nval-board" 01 the l'Sil, whlCh was ~lIPPol'tcd

by the government, that eventually Jomed the PPP.:U

Another factor, whlch actually constltuted the 1)1 unaly laclOl III tll('

unificatIon of the political partlcs, was the ('hanl~e Hl the pollttc al sy~tclII

at the natlOnallevel. As has been illu~tlatcd m the plCVIOllS (hapter, tll('

Indonesian pohtlcal system m the ~lIkanlO pellOd wa~ li H1111t1-palty

32 See Syamsuddm Harns, "ppp and Polltlcs under thc Ncw Onl<'l'," III

Pnsma The Indoneswn Indlcator 49 (lune] 9(0). ·1H-

33 Ibid., 232.

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58

~y~tctrl. Ilowever, thl~ system was assocwted wlth pohtlCal instabllity

charactcnzed by frequent changes in the cabinet, polttical rupture,

crOflonm IIlstabJllty, protests and demonstratlOns which causeci

tholl~ands 01 ca~ualtle~ dunng the penod 1948-1967.34 Based on this

CXpCIICIIC P, Ihe )lIhalto government believed that the multl-party system

adoplecl hy Ihe olcl orcier reglflle was the cause of thls polltlcal mstabJlity.

III thell' thlllklllg, a l'estIU( tunng of the pohtlcal system was urgently

IIccded. Olle 1 CSlIlt of this policy was the amalgamation of polltlcal

pm II(,s out 01 whlC'h the ppp was born.3 5

1 Ill' lour pail ICS agrccd to merge Into the ppp at a meeting held on 5

lanuary 19n. Declaration of the establishment of the ppp wa0 annollnced

by the 1'1'1' l'resldlUm ancl signed by K.H. Dr. Idham Khahd and K.H.

Md~lktll (1 he NU leaders), '-I.M.S. MmtarcdJa (the Parmusi Chalrman), H.

Ânwar l.lokl'Oan1l110to (the PSII ChaJrman) and Rusli Halll (the Pertl

Chamnall). Id hdll1 Khalld was then elected Party President and Mmtaredja

the Challlllan 01 the Central CounCll.36 On thls occasIOn they did not

cl l'al t the stat utes and bylaws of the party. Bath were made after the

rncq~cl' and were only 1 mahzed two years later at the ppp ConventIOn held

111 lakarta III Novcmbci 1975.3 7

]·1 10 1I1ldCrstalld thc situatIOn of thls penod, se ,\ furth~r Syafl'I Ma'arif, "Islam (II M.lSd /)cmokrasl LiberaI clan Demokrasl Terplmpm," Pnsma 5 (19HH), 2 S-.Hi, Ilerbert I-Cltll, "Indonesla," in Government and Polities of .\'oIl1l1CII.\1 /hlll. sccond cditlon, cd. George McTurn~n Kahin (Ithaca. New' or" (olllell UnIversity Press, 1964), part three passIm.

35 Ait .\Ild S.\Il1l1llla. 229

3h Scc lJmdldl Radl, Strategl ppp 1973-1982 Study Tentang Kekuatal1 Pollllk Islam Imokal NaslOnal (Jakarta, lntegntas Pers, 1984), 82-85.

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The Islamlc Identlty of thc ppp was 11l,1I111,1II1Cd 111 the s\'lllhol Il lI~l'd

and In the statutes of the palty. 1 he symbol was the ()J('lule 01 tlll'

Ka'bah. 38 Islam. as was IllclltlOned III ItS slalutcs. W,IS Ihl' h.t~\(·

foundatlOn of the party 111 additIOn ta the Pal/u/lldo and thl' ConstltutlOIl

of 1945. The pPP's pohtlCians. therefore, cOl1tlllllcd USI\l!~ "lsl,\IJ}" ,IS ail

instrument of lImty to attract the Muslllll~' v()ter~ III thl' dl'( tlOl1. III thel!'

campmgn 1 he ppp leaders aitcn cmpha!->I/ed tlMt thl' ppp was tlll' olll)'

party for the MlIslims. In thc 1977 Ilc<'llOll, for eXdlllpll', KIl. BlsI'I

SjanSlll1, Genclal Chall'lnan 01 the SïlÎ1n1 C'olll1nl 01 l'l'l', allllllll'd thdt

"votmg for the ppp was an obligation 01 the MlI~IIllIS to IIphold thl' ldw 01

God and that those who Ignored Il 101 thl' ~ake 01 thell' (dll'l'I 01 IIVIIII'.

would bc desertll1g the law or Cod".·~C) 1 he 1'1'1' polit \( I .. II~ ,Ibo 1I~l'd

Qur>amc verscs and hadïths (tra(lJtl()l1~ 01 thl' l'l'Op!J{'t) lOI tlll~ plll !>O!'.l' .

Even the plCture of thc Ka'bah, the ~Ylllboi 01 Ihe l'l'l', Wd!'. III lat 1 dll

effective instrument 10 gain voters for the 1'1'1'. Il I~ave th(' MII!'.lllll 1I1i1~.!'.e!'.

a rellglOlIs emotlOnal Irnk to Ihl~ party.

As a matter of fact, sllch appeals weIl' so ell('( tlve alrlOIlI~ the

traditional MlIslims voters, that the rampal1~n proved to hl' qlllte

impresslve. The ppp was sllcce~sllli Hl aIOU~IIlI! Ihe rellnHHI'> ('It\OI\(III of

the MlIsllms. This campaign tactic, III la( t, I~av(' tilt' !!OVClfllllt'1I1 <'l'IIOU\

concern, so rnllch so that It askcd the ppp flot to u\e 1(,''!~1011 fOI

campalgn purposes. Sorne Golkar sllpporter~ had even I~OJlt' !'.() f dl ,,~, t CI

38 A cllblcle shnne of the MuslHn~ loc ated III the (,H'at Mo~qlle of Ml'C (" representing the directIOn to wh\{ t, Musllrrls tUln III praylllj~ to Cod.

39 Ohakldae, 36, quotrng the (\lcula f 01111 of the pp!' 011 LH )dllllili Y 1977.

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(1('( lI~e the ppp 01 rcr clvmg matcnal assistance From Llbya, of forgmg the

vote-Iorm~, and of bClllg mvolvcd ln the Komaf1do Jlhad.40 On the other

hand, the ppp ar cu~ed Golkal, the Army, and government of havlng

(an Icd out mtlnlldatlon, violence, and detention. The campalgn for the

1 <J 77 eler t 1011 was ther cfore ngorous. The mel'e process of IdentifIcation

oltell lesulted 111 vlOlLnce, thus, It l'alsed the question of whether the

pro("e~s of IdcntlllCatlOn coulcl become a process of polanzatlOn, and

whelher tlll~ polall/atlOn wOlild create a sOCIety given over to

(IJ~( IlIIlJllat Ion and cllst rust.41

1 he pcriod 01 ~{l'Owth of the ppp itself was colourcd by the up-and-

clown 1l'lal101lSIHP amOIl!~ ItS SUPPOl'tll1g orgamzatlOns, wlth other parties,

the govellllllcnt, and thc army. As far as internai condItIOns were

rOll< Cl'IIl'd, III the lirst years of the pPP's gl'owth, its founders were

ext 1 cllIely enthll~lastlc and opttnllStlC about the future of the party. From

tlH~ tllll. 01 ItS establishment untll the 1977 Election thel'e was a feeling of

tlnlty wltlJlIl the l'PI' over Its role as the politieal vOlee for the Muslims. Its

membel's were 01 one mlnd III deahng with the government programs

and the IIltel'csts of the ummah (community of behevel's). Naturally they

had COlJlll1on sOCIal and politleal interests. 5ueh a haImony was proven

Ilot ollly by the slIccess of the pPP's struggle III the establishment of the

Marriage 1 HW 01 1974,42 but also by the emergenee of the PeUta

40 Iiterally mcans Iioly War Commando ThIS was a 'radical' movemcnt JI1vol\'('(/ III ,\ Illlmbcr of 1 ebclhons, terronsm VIOlence, and coereion, ail pel'folmed III the name 01 Islam, dlll'lng the second half of the 1970's. Set' Ra(h, 172.

·11 Dhakld,w 37, <lllotlllg Kompas (Jakarta), 14 April 1977, n.p.

·12 IUl'thel (IJ~( 1I~~1()11 on the Marnage Law of 1974 IS plovided on the

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newspaper, a ppp publicatIon, 111 Apnl 197·1. and tht' suC( css 01 the

National Convention of the Central Board of the pp\, 011 () - H NovcmlJcl

1975 in Jakarta. ThIS conventIOn was slgmlIcdnt \Il th"t It lll'lrH'd the p,ut\,

to face the 1977 ElectIOn. Internai consolldatloll 01 the IMn\, W,\~

strengthened, ItS statut es and bylaws were pcrlcctl'd, and ~o Wl'I'l' Ils

programs and strategy for the electlon. l'he convcntlon also ~lJ( ( l'l'dt'd 111

establishing the Badan Penllllhan Umum Umat Islam, (1 he COlllllllttl'l' 01

the Election for the Musllms),43 a body sllllliar to the B!\l'lIl1 01 Colkal. tn

consohdate the campalgn. roI' the 1977 electlOll plOgl\UlI the 1'1'1' I~SlIl'd

a declaratlo n callcd "" he ppp Declarat Ion C:ollre\'ll1ll1~ t he B,,~ IS 1 () l'

Political and Devclopment ConVIctIOn" 1 he pJ'OI~ralll (ourhcd IIpOIl III Ill'

44 tOpICS, I.e.

1. constltlltlOnal pnnciples 2. the political party 3. the general clectlOn 4. the common welfare 5. international cooperation 6. seclInty and defense 7. youth 8. development 9. the roll' of relIgIOn.

The role of relIgIOn (Islam) in thls context was very Slf~11I1 Irant. Ill'St,

it became a basls of self-IdentIfIcatIOn for the l'l'l', SC( ollel, a~ ,III

instrument of li nit y, Islam was effectIve III fllnrtlOIlInJ~ as a (ellt \'~t1 , !:~'lI)('

of the ppp strllggle; and thlrd, In the general e1ertlOll, It ~ervcd Ilot ollly a~

an emotionally relIgious bond for the MuslIm masses but abo a:-. illI

next part of thls chapter.

43 See AlI and Salmlma, 249 .

44 Sel' Radl, 136-139.

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Ill~trument for obtaJn1l1g a rciiglOus legltlmatlOn for the vlctory of the

ppp.1S As a re~ult, the votes recelved by the ppp m thls election were

beyond expectatIOn. [ven though they were stIll far below the votes

rcrclved by Golkar, It increased its percentage by 2.1 per cent over the

total votes rc('elved by IslamIC partIes m the 1971 ElectIOn, an increase

~>I~~ntll('alll \0 the new party, whlch was consldered mexpenenced

(orn\Jmcd to Golkar. l hls was IIldeed sigmficant because Golkar was the

"party" whlch was supported by strong elements such as the army,

IIltellc( tuais, and the rulmg group.

l'rolonged hardshlp was suffered by the ppp soon after the 1977

cle( lIon under thc lcadershlp of John Naro from the MI (Musllmin

Intlone.\Iu forrncrly Parmusl) group, who had recelved the leadership of

t he l'PI' Ilom M1I1tarcdJa wlthout a party meetmg, let alone a congress.46

1 hc hardshlp was caused not only by internai problems but also by

extcrnal (hallellges, such as its nvalry wlth other parties, partlcularly

wlth Colkar, and the prestIge of the ppp m the eyes of its supporters and

of the Indollcstan Musltms m general, whlch declined because of the

internai rupture. John Naro, a "controversml" leader who was known to

bc c10scr to the government than to hls party's leadershIp, was one of the

factors causlIlg the hardshlp suffcred by thls party. Compared to the

leadershIp ni M1I1taredJa, III whlch the ppp seemed Idatively coheslve and

1Ill1ted, Nam's leadershIp tended tn be oligarchie. I-Ie, for example, often

(hose !lIS supportcrs from those III the MI group who were loyal to him,

-------------

45 IbId., 249.

·lh IlalTls, 41. see fmther Ah and Sallnima, 251.

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designatmg them to occupy Important positions both III the p.\lI\' .tIlt! III

the parhament. This tendency created an IIlhallllOlllouS lel.\tloll~llIP

among supporting clements of the PPP.

Unlike MmtaredJa, who saw the .)flîlra COtlllnl tthe 1 eglsl.ltl\:e (OltIU II)

as reflecting the rellglous allthority over tlH' palty, Nalo le!~"ldl'd :-'IH Il

dominance on the part of rehglOus authonty as an obstade to hlllldllll~ .1

modern party. However, with K.l1. BI:-'II :-.tlll .lcIIVl' III IlIS po~t ,,~ the

Chairman of the Sl1üra CoullC/l, Nam could Ilot do Illlll'h towtll'ds

"modernizing" the party. Soon after K.l1. BISII IJ.\:-.:-.ed (lway 011 2 Il I\plll

1980, open conflicts among the PPP clements, espcnally thl' Nll alld the

MI broke out and reached thelr peak m 1982. 1 he (ol1l!trt:-. !>rok(' ouI

when Naro, wlthout consultlllg wlth the othel clelll(,l\t~ 01 1 hl' l'l'l', d Il'W

up a IIst of parliamcntary candidates whJ('h W<l~ lIotable 101 Il S l,II k 01

prominent figures from the NU. This actIOn 0\ NdI'o wa:-. ~lIpport('d hy

Sudardji, a new figure from the MI l~rouP, who was apPolllIl'd ~l'( rl'ti.\ly­

General of the PPP. The attitude of the MI l~rollP lllvlted ~I J'()I\I~ 1 ('il!'t 1011

and protest from the NU agamst the ppp as weil as Ihe l'.OVl'llIllIelll.

Idham Chalid, for examplc, threatened to Icave the ppp JI the 1111 l' l'II a 1

dispute was not ended. Sarfuddm Zuhn evell 1 e~lnllt'd 1 roll 1 1 Il('

chairmanship of the ppp,47 whlle some cUlami/ 01 Madlll<l (J a~1 J"Vd)

threatened not to partlClpate m the votml~ III Ihe l(m~ c1e(ttoll JI 1/1(''''

candidate was not offlcially recognized as such. "' 'lcse wcre am{)lIl~ lIIally

other pro tests which were directed agamst the piuly.

47 See Tamara, 16. lIarrls, 42, 1 or a "~t 01 the names 01 NU (,(IIHltdall'~) pushcd aside by Nam, sec Mahru~ fr~yam, Ulama dan ParlU/ /Jo/,"k (Jakarta Yayasan Perkhldmatan, 1984),64-05.

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1 he NU demandcd the government that it return the list of candIdates

dellvered by Naro clalmlllg that It had been a unilateral action on the part

of the MI group and that there had been no consultatIOn wlth and

af~lecment from othel' groups m the PPP. However, the government

n'Jerlcd thls demand and l'egarded the IIst of the parliamentary

candidates dellvered by Nara as valId.48 It seems that the government

al~leed wlth and ~upported the action of the MI (in the person of Naro) In

I~ammg an equal dIstribution of power between the MI group and the NU

J~J'OlIp wllhm the ppp in the ParlJament.

l he IIlternal confhcts suflcred by the ppp following Naro's

assumptlon of Its leadershIp and espeeially up to the 1982 election were

so senous that they wcakcned the party for the electlOn and caused It to

eampat!~n IIlcffertlvely. Governmcnt IIltervention in the PPP's internai

affalrs, whilc It admlttedly exacerbated the eonfliets, dld less to

dcstabJlIi'c the party than dld the IIlabihty of ItS members to manage

properly the party's buslIlcss. In additIOn, certain Issues were always

bl'Oll!~ht to the surfacc by othcr partlcs to attaek the ppp when there was a

gcneral cleetlOn or another large cvent the Issue of an (slamie state, of

thc J)arul Islwn revoit, of the Holy Command (Komando Jihad) movement,

ail of whlCh WCI e ronducted by 'radIcal' (slamic movements. Thus, even

th()Ul~h thosc ISSUCS dld not dll'cctly deal with the PPP, they happened to

bc a psychologlCal obstacle for thls party III gaming the people's

sllp(Jort,49 bcci.\lIsC thosc movements had bllrdcned Islam wlth the

48 Scc Irsyam, 65, Ali and Smmima, 254-255.

49 d Ra 1. 172.

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images of a radical, coel"CIVC, and thrcatetllllg IOlce. As a (,ollM'quem e 01

ail these problems, the ppp cou Id galll only 27.78 pt.~r ccnt 01 thl' tot,,1

votes in the 1982 election, 1.51 pel' CC nt less \ han that wlllch It had

obtamed m the 1977 electlOn.

ln the meantlme, Naro's actIOn to expel Nli Ilglllt'~ ltolll ImpOitant

positIons m the ppp peaked artel' the c1ectlon. In the PPI' ('Olll~ll'~~ 1H'ld 111

1984 in Jakarta, the NU II1lttally IIlslsted UpOIl the l hallllldll~hlp 01 Ihl' 1'1'1'

after It had been held by the MI group lor two pcnods (MlIlt'lIf'd,.1 .IIHI

Naro). However, owing to the perception tlMt Il WdS Nam who \'V,I~ 11IOIl'

pleasing, and thus agreeabl~ tn the govell1llH.'nl, tlll' NU evelltually

demanded the posItion of Sccretary·CclleJ'al. /\( (OJ'(IJIl!~ \0 Mahbllb

Djunaedi, an important fIgure of the ppp irom the NU 1~1()\Ip, Il h,HI heell

decided by a "gentleman's agreement" betwl'('J) hllll~('11 (1)11111;\('111) and

Naro on the night before the plenary seS~ton WdS hcld, t hdt t he ~l'('t t'tilt y-

General would be chosen l'rom the NU membershlp, and tlt,lt It wOllld he

Zamroni. Howevel', at the time the plenary session was bem!" "{'Id, the

terms of the "agreement" were not yet met, and Naro, IIlstead of

appomting Zarnroni, chose another person l'rom the M l, Mal ri JIl:~ yah. :)0

From then on, there was l'very mclicdtICHl that Ihl' NIl wO\lld 110 longer

remain associated wlth the PPP. The cleep polit H al dJ~apPOJlJt"lellt 011 the

part of the NU towards the ppp leadership wa~ enolll~h to fOJ(" the fOllner

to reconslder Hs affiliation to thts pal ty. In lb (OIl!~1 C~~ III ~llIJhOfldo (J a~)1

Java) in 1984, the NU, wlthout any (on~iclctable OppO~ltlf)Il, took tilt'

50 See Mahbub DJunacdl, "Nahdlatul Ulama ~eJarélh dan Pollllk," III KontroverSI Pemlloran Islam dl Indone\/{/ (BalldIlJl1~ J{crllél)a Rosdakarya, 1990), 180.

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dc( ISlon 10 qUit pohtlcal actlvltles and end Its membership m the PPP.

lIowcvcr, NU mernber~ WCIC not personally dlscouraged From bemg active

ln thc pohtHal palll(~~ whcther m the PPP, Colkar, or the POl, but were no

lonJ~er to do so as rcpresentatlvcs of the NU. Therefore, many NU

rnembel~ alc 1l0W personally reglstered and actIve m the pohtical parties,

1101 ollly III the l'pp but 111 Colkar as weil. l he NU CUlamll) no longer

oblJJ{ed thcl!' f ollowers ta vote for the PPP as was made clear m the fatwll

01 K.l1. Ahmad Shlddlq, the Rê/,s cAm (PresIdent of LegislatIve Council) of

the NU, the text 01 whICh states that "members of the NU are not obliged

tn vote for l'PI' and Il is Ilot forbidden ('l1dak haram') ta vote for Golkar

or PDI".:.ï 1

J'hus, the lInd lIallOn of the Islamlc parties 1I1to one party did not, m

lact, ~~lIarantc(' that the latter became stronger. Supporting factors which

lavoured the fUSion nevertheless gave way to dlfferences m the vlews and

J~oals of eac!l J~roup whlCh had eXlsted since the time they were still

mdcpclldcnt. Altcr the fUSIOn, these dlfferences often turned into

mtemal ronllJet. Such an expenence had twice been suffered by Islamlc

politlCal parties III IndonesIa. The fll'st was when the MasJuml Party was

estabhshcd 111 1945 ta providc a political institutIOn for Islamic

01 galll/atiolls in IndonesIa. '] he second was the expenence of the PPP

ItSeif.

As far as thc ppp IS concerned, there were many causes creating

ronfhrt wlthll1 thc body of the party, one of which was the msincerity of

51 A. Zuhdl Mukhdar, NU dall Penlllu (Yogyakarta, n.p.,1986), quoted 111 liai J'ls. 31.

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its supportmg elements m deahng \\'Ith ItS IIltel'll,ll pl'Ohlelll~; aller the

merger. It IS obvlOus. espeCIally under the leadershIp ni 10h11 Nam. that

the ppp was, as It were. nothtn!~ but ail arelll\ 01 dlSPlltl':-' l\mOIlI~ Ils

supporting clements. Aftcr l'ardul study 01 thc c\'olutloll 01 thl' l'l'l'. Ah

and Samllma have dlscovcrcd SIX factors Illlhtatllll! l\l!all1:-.t Ils :-'1II ces:-. III

the pcnod lcadmg up to thc 1982 electlon II/'st. Ihe (O,HI,IIOII 01 the

party was fragile, as shown by the absence 01 uIlIty 01 Blind III It:-.

membership, and the intelvclltlOll 01 the HOVCJ'llIllCllt 111 Il:-. IIltel'llill

affairs, second. smce the bcginll1l1g thc ppp had bren lIlldhle 10 CIl'atl' a

kmd ot mcchanism to rcstratn conlhet cillIsed by the la('tlonahslll wlthlll

It, thlrd. It showed that thcrc was obvlOlI:-.ly \lO kl~lt IIlldlt' ,uHI <.,1 J'01J1~

leadcrshlp tn the body 01 the paIty, IOl1Jth. e,H h t'klllt'Ill 01 tht' pcll'ly Wd~

concerned more wlth Its ~ell-mlcll'~t l.lth(,1 thdll Wllh Ihl' IlItl'Il'~1 01 thl'

party, flfth. ail the abovc lIldlcatlon~ ~howed Ihat Ih(' IIltl'II~lty 01 1I1tl'1I1<11

dialogue was low, and slxth. the pal t y w,,~ 110 1I101l~ Illall d ! l'!Il'1 dt IV('

organizatlOn, thus the patron-( Ilcnt relalJOnslllp ~IIOI\Hly III/IIIC/II l'cl Ihl'

mechal11sm of the party.52

The character of the ppp as an Islamle politlcal party WII h "J:-.larn" as

its basic foundatlOn became blurred alter the P,II hd/lll'Ilt l'al ri I{'d il

stipulation that ail politlcal partIes, and mass-()I!~al1l1all()II~. hild to

change thelr respectIve toundatlOns, whlch wcre IIl1tlally dtfle(('111 110111

one another. mto the Pancas/la, the state's Ideolo!~y. 1 l'Ont thal day 011,

there is only onc foundatlOn valld for ail poli tH al pail/cs and H1d~,()

organizatlons in IncloncslU the Panc.asilu. J Luther dl~('U~~IOII 011 tlte

52 Ah and Saimlma. 253-254.

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ploblern 01 the Pum.a~"a as the sole foundatlon for politlcal parties and

rna~~ 01 J~allll.atlOn~ WIll dppear ln the next rhapter of thls study.

Government Polides Towards Islam in Sodal, Educational, clnd Legal Affairs

Olle 01 the ('hdnHtcII~ti('s 0/ Indoncslan govcrnmcnt whlCh mlhtates

dJ~alll~t thc rhum that Indoncsla ~hould be considcred as a secular state IS

It~ IIIvolvclllcnt JI1 relt!~IOUS affalrs. Rcll!~J(ln IS a matter wlth whl(~h the

lJ]d()J]l'~lall I~OVCI nrncnt IS partH'lrlarly cOl1cerned. As carly as 1946 a

~Cpdl ale IlIl1llSt 1 y wa~ c~tabltshed to deal wlth J'ehglous matteJ's. This

$~()ve/'l1rncJ]t IIlstltullOn Ines to accommodate the people's aspiratIOns in

the dOlllaltl 01 lell!~ioll and to convey the government's programs In a

rcllr~IOliS lal1l~l1ar~c.:)3

SI/l< C lb !lldIl1 tdsk IS to perform part of the general tasks of

ddllllllistiatioll and dcvclopment 111 the fIeld of religIOn, the Department

01 RchglOll~ /\llal),~ hds thc followlI1g funcllOns

1. 1 () fOllllltlate operdtlondl and techl11cal pohCIes, to glve !~llldal1(,c and cllrectIOn as weil as to grant approval on l1l,lttCIS wllh rC!~(Hd to leltglOl1, III accoJ'dance wlth the gCl1cral poltcy of the PresIdent and on the basis of pl'(,\'(\l1111!~ rC!~lllatlon~.

2. 10 CXCI ('ISC ll1ana!~cmcnt of the government property clltll1~ted 10 the I)cp.lI tlllcnt of RclrglOu~ /\ffalJ's.

3. 10 excrnsc managcmcnt 111 accordance wlth its mam task ba~cd on plc\'drlm?, rC1-~l1latlons.

'1. 10 CXCI ClSC !-'uperVISIOn over the management of ItS mam t,isk III accol dancc wlth thc general pohcy of the Plcsldcllt plHl on the basls of the prevaiimg l'cgulatlo/ls. )·t

~)3 SCC Ikp<ll tlllcnt of RcltglQUS Affans RI, The Orgamzatron of the J)Cj1ll1l1I1Cnl 01 RellljlOliS Ar/airs (Jakarta Badan Penehtran dan 1\~lll~emb(lI1!~ul1 /\gama, Provck Pcnehtran Keagamaan, 1984-1985), 7, hCIH ciO! th ('lIed as 1l1e Orqu111LatlOn.

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Even though It was /!1ltially establlshcd d~ ,1 "roIlIIH'm.lllOn" 101' Iht'

Mushms who demanded the lIlc1uslon of as many 01 bl,umc elenll'lll S III

the admlnIstwtIOtl 01 the state as posslblc,);) thls dCp,utllH'1l1 I~, 11\ 1.1l t.

responslble not only 111 the doma\ll of Islanllc atlalls but .tI~() 111 th.ll 01

other religIons 111 Indonesla. For these pUlposes tl1l' IIlll1lstly I~ IOlllll'cI 01

seven componcnts

1. The Dlrectorate Genera: 101' Islarml' and Il.111 1\1 l,II J'S.

2. The Dlrectorate General for the \)eVl'IOpllll'nl ni hLu\I\{ InstitutIOns,

3. The Dlrectorate General/or Plotestdnt I\lfa!l~. 4. The Dlrectorate Cenerallor Catho\tc I\lIdll~. 5. '1 he D\I cetol ate Gener,ll 101' 111I1du and Buelelhl:-.t 1\11.111:-'. 6. The OffIce of Rcll!~loll:-' Re~eal('h .\\lel lh'velOJ)IlH''\t( 7. The Center for Per~ol1nel I.cluratlon ,\!lei 1 1 dlllIII n:) )

Nevertheless, the \)epaJ tmcnt 01 Rell!~I()II'" I\.llall~, Il.1:-', gl'IH'I.tlly

speaking, mostly been 1I1volved ln the hldllllC ,tll.III:-'. 111I~ 1:-' l'vlIl('lIt Ilot

only III the orgamzatlOnal structure of the Illllll<,tly will< h 1:-' dOl1ll1ldll'd hy

the posts whlch cleal wlth Islamlc <1llall:-', Ill( 11Idllll~ litt' ,\{llllllll"II"IIOII 01

the Haj} (pllgl'IIl: II!C). but abo III the n()VI~lIlllJent polll 1(';-' whl( h hdv('

bencftued the Muslrm~. ThIS IS only plOpel', 111 the 111~1l1 01 IIH' l,II 1 1 Il il 1

the great maJOl'lty of the Inclonestan people IS MlISlltll, wh\( Il, il! (Oldllll~

tD statlstlcs, makes up of 87.1 pel' «('nt of 11\l' lolal PO(J1II,tlIOIl.'17

However, It sometlmes crcates a leelinn of Jeal()lI~Y 011 1 II(' paIl of 1 III'

adherents of other religIOns who demand equdl treiltrn(~111 d~ '1)('

54 Ibid., translatIOn IS mrne.

55 Sec Kanm, J)mamlka, 47.

56 The OrgamzatlOn, 9.

57 Blro Pusat Statl~tlk, .')'tall.\tlk /ndones/a 1985 (Jakéllta IW~, 1 (HH»), ~.), 150-151, quotecl III I\.lt lan, "Ulama, Umat Islam, dan PenlllItldll (Jrrllllll,"

Jurna/ J/mu PO/illk '~ (1988), 'i9.

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70

( ()fl~C(1lJ('fH e of t he re(,of~llItlOn of thelr exist('nce,

I\'>Jdt' Ilom the MJllI~tly 01 Rcltgious /\rraH~ another attempt by the

'N('w OrdeJ' f~()Vetnment 10 mobJ/lze the Muslims in the national

elevelopltlent ~tratcEY and Hl the admInIstratIOn of Islam was the

establJ~IHl1elll III 1975 01 the M UI (the Counnl of the Indonesmn

('U/liml/).SH 1\ slI1l1lal or~~(\I1ll.allOn had in faet been estabhshed m 1958 at

t he re!~lonal level (only 111 West Java) and m 1962 at the national level

when Ihe .sukarno !~ovel'llment t'elt that Il was neeessary for seeunty

J'casons 10 deal Wllh Ihe Ihl'cats from the Islarmc radICal movernents. In

Il s ~ubseq\lcnl dcvelopmcnt, Ils funetion cxpanded to mclude nOI only

scnmty lIIatteJ's hut al~o Islumir mlssional'y work (dacwah) and Islamie

cclucatH)11 as weil.

I\t Ihls stage, Ils functlon as a 'quasi·offlcml' government organ

relllamcd cVldent as a result of the faet that the guidelines of the eouneil

were arrlved at thlOugh mmlstenal decrce, the members of the council

were mé.llllly l~ovellll11cnt offICiais and leaders of vanous Islamie

01 gdnin\tlOlls who slipported Sukarno wlthollf reservations. Its

lelaliollshlp 10 the !~overnment ean also be seen Il' îhe far' that the only

IIlstructlOn ({(I~Wil) Il Issucd during its lifetimc stakd that ;.>artiClpatlOn 111

the stlllmdc 10 Cl'lIsh MalaYSia was an mdividual obligatIOn (farc! a/-Cayn)

1'01 earh Muslllll.59 SlIlec the counell functioned more as an organ of the

SX

Cl l)

l lIlomit' Itterally Il1CilllS IIltelllgcntsJa or schulars. In the Indoneslan l'ontext It Ielcrs to thusc who rnaster the tradltionallslarnie sciences, and lI~lI<\lly benE"" rchgiolls advisers. Only recently sllch a l Ol1l1ot,\tIOI1 bel~<lIl luose and the mcaning of the cU/amâ> becomes r1oSl'r 10 ItS \ttcml 1 ... \I1 \11 g.

It wou Id IH' nc( esslHy Iloting that l'rom 1963 to 1966 Indonesia and

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7" 1

government rather thall as li lIIedlator or a contart uodr Ul'l\\'<.'<.'11 t IH'

Mushm eommulllty and the l~ovel nmcn!, Its role \Vas lIlsl!~llIlll,\Ilt ,llle! 111

faet not popular among the sonety.

The 'New Older' govcl'llmcnt lelt tllat the cstablr~hnll'nl 01 l\ Ill'\V-~lyll'

counnl of Incloneslan cU/ami!> WdS nccded. 1 !lIS Pl'I'('l\I\'l\d lll'l'lI W<l~

viviclly exprcssed by PresIdent Suhalto III llIany l1Il'l\IIIlI~~ \\'Ilh tlH\

cUlama>. The presIdent was so dctclIl1l1lcd 011 thl~ p01ll1 Ihal 011 2·\ M'l\'

1975 he emphaslzed thls deslre belor<~ the delpfWIl'S 01 Ille IlId()Ill'~ldll

COllncil of Mosques. '1 wo l'casons were ment 101ll'd hy t hl' JlIl'~1(1l'1I1 (1 )

the government's deslre that the Indoncslan MlI~IIIIIS Iw 1I1111l'd. alld en <lll

awareness that many problcms of the nat 1011 ( oule! Ilot IJe ~olvl'cI WII hOlll

the participation of the cU((/ma>.()O ln ('espollsc to IIII~ III>Pl'III, 1 Ill'

Mimstcr of Internai AfTairs encolllaged the f~ovelllors 10 l'~lcllJlt:-,h t h('

COllncaJ of Indonesaan C U/amü> al the 1'l~!~lollal level. 11lt' ('OUIl( II~ Wl'Il'

qUlckly establlshed III that vcry Illonth, May 197'). 011 L 1-'27 11IIy 11)7',. cl

National Conference of Indone~ran ('U(ami/ took pla('(~, wlllc\) 1l'~IIIIl'd III

the declaration of the establlshmcnt of thc MUI (tlll' ( OlllH ri of IIIc\OIH''>ld''

cUlaml/) with Dr. lIamka (IIa./1 Abdul Malik Abellli KilllIIl 1\11111111(111)

elected as It flrst gencrat chalrl1lan. In the mCélnlllllC, 1 he (0111 ('1 ('1)( (' abo

sllcceeded in drafting the Pedoman f)u.'luy (the 1'\'11)( Ipal (,1I1(1l'11IH'~,) of t hl'

MUI, which. mter alla, derived Ilom Ihe specch 01 J>le~ld(,1I1 )lIhélllo al t h('

MalaYSia were advcrsanes, <,ee MolJaHlllltld /\1110 Mwl/llill, "1 alwa~, 01 the COllnClt of Indone~léIn Ulama 1\ Study 01 hlilTIIIf' 1 ('f~dl J !JOIIHllt III

Indonesia 1975-1988", (P1I.J).I)I~~ertat\OIl, lJlllvel~lty 01 (alrloJ'J\ltl. 1 w, Angele~, 1990), 97, scc aho Dehar Noer, /\ÛI11111/\tratwn of h/am ln

/ndones/U (Ithan\, Ncw YOlk Cornell Modelll l"dolll",I,1 11101('( l, Southeast Asaa Proglam, Cornc" IJnavel~lty, 1 C)l~), hL .

60 Muclzhar.95.

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72

()IH'nltl!~ seS~)I()11 or Ihe ('onferencc. !\ccording to these gUldelmes the MUI

ha~ the mandatc to

Is~u(' ratwcH (flom Arablc fatwa) and advlcc on matters of rellf~lon (l1Ic! <'(J( Icly 10 thc ·1~ovcrnmcnt and thc people Wlt 11111 the Il arnewol k 01 amar ma'rur nahl munkar (from Aldl)l( u/-amr hl al-ma(rüf wa al-nahy (an al-munkar elljolllltl!~ t he II!~ht, ~hllnlllll!~ the wlonR). Str{>nnthen MII~llIn brotherhood and mamtarn pcaccful rcl(llloll~tllPs Wltl! olhel relq~lOlIs COllllllunltlCS. Reple~ellt the Musltlll community 111 any meeting wlth othcr IClJgl()lI~ (Omllllll1ltles. (tet as a lIal~()1I betwcen ulama and government offIciais tlllet IIlterpret govellllnent development pollues 111 such a way Ihel' they 11lInht be caslly understood by the common people. ) 1

ln hls !-.pCl'( h, Suhal to é1lso set down gUlclclines which later became

the basl~ for the d(\(,\slon of the conference that the MUI should not

partlnpate 111 pOlttlCS, as tbls was rescrvcd for the eXlstmg pohtical

IMl'tICS, a/ld Ihdt Il should not engage in practlcal programs slich as

nllllllll!~ ~eh()()b, mwlrasahs, and hospltals, as these were reserved for the

CXlstll\~~ Islallll( oq~"llJlatiolls.G2

Il was eVldent that the 1I11ttative to create the cOllncil of cU/amâ> in

buth thc SUk,trl1O and Suharto penods, and even its program~) and

gllldcllllCS, ca/llc fI om and was stcercd by the governmcnt. In slIch a case,

It IS IO!~lcal that olle should assume that thcre were polttical motivations

SllITOl"ldIllJ~ the 1I11twtlves bchmd Ils creatIOn. Such an aSSlImptlOn is

1(\I~cd by Mud/har, 101 cxample, who POlllts out three major polttlcal

(lI

62

NON, Ad/llll1lstrallotl, 74.

M'\lclJs lildllld Indoncsia, 15 rahl.ll1 Ma)ells Ulama lndonesta. Wadah MlI'i}'llWIIWII f7ill a LI/a ma, Lu'ama, da n Cendekwwa n Musllm (Jakarta Se kl't.'t <1 1 l,II 1\1,1/t'IIS Ulam.! Inc!oncsJa, 1990), 52, henceforth cited as: 15 1 tI/1l1l1 MiI,H'/" U/tll11a Indones/{/.

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events takmg place priol' to th~ establish/llent 01 the MUIIIl 197~) to silo\\'

the political c1imate surrounding the estabhshtlll'Il1 01 the MUt

1. The 1971 General FJectlOll, wlth the l'Ille 1 gellll' ot the Sl'( tllar Colkar

and the dlminlshmg Iole of the Islamle politll'al(h\l tll'S.

2. The reduction of the Isiamie pailles by llletï~IIl!~ thl'Ill mIn olle whll'h

no longer had 'slamie symbols.

3. The introduction of the origmally sentlal' dralt of tlll' 1Il(\lTh',~1' hlll.(i]

Sorne cUlama> saw these events as IIldlcatlOl1S ni the attltlldl' 01 thl'

government towards Islam. They saw the e~tabllshl1H'llt 01 tlw Mill a~ tl\('

emasculatlOn of the c Ulaml/ power on the polltl(,," S( l'Ill'. Bd~('d on thl~

perceptIOn they were II1lttally scepticul of dCCl'plllll~ thl' Idl'" of tlll'

establishment of the MU!. Muddmr argues th"t Il w,,~ wlthlll ~lJ(" il

polttical eontext that the govemmcnt Ileedcd <lpploxllliately Ilv(' y l'a J'S,

From 1970 when the idea for establtshJllI~ the MUI was hl o (le Ill' d , li 11111

1975, when this cOllncil was estabhshed, to (OIlVlIlre tlle ( lfltll1w> 01 II~

good intentions 111 the creatIon of the MUI.h1 Nev(,rthl.'/{'!->!->, tlw, I~,

precisely the opposite of what dld happcn, bl'CélUSe Il was wlIIIIl1 tlH'!->t

five years that the government, m fact, g-radudlly allellated IIIl' MIISIHII

society as a result of the three l'vents mcnllollcd abovl', 1II~,tead 01

convincing It of the good mtentlOns of the govcllIlllent. 1 01 JlII~) J'('a~()II.

the idea was put off untll 1975 . ., hat Ihe Mill wa<, ollly e~tabll~hed III

1975 may be attl'lbuted to the fact that it fOI Bled part of t"(~ I~OVl'IIHnellt'~

strategy to win over the support of the MusJuw> III the J ()77 ('ll'l'tIOIl. J he

63 See Mudzhar, 110 .

64 Ibid.

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74

':>i:HlIt ril<;C hdDPclled ln 1970 when for the frrst tlme the Iclea of

c~tabll~hJnH the MUI was broéJched for the purpose of winnmg the

MIISIIIJI~' ':>upport III the 1971 elcctlOn.

ln view 01 the (Ulama>'~ suspICIOn wlth respect ta the MUI,65 It

~hould ( orlle {\<; no surpllse that It was only on the mitlatlve of the ruler,

not Ihe ruled, thal Ihe Idea WélS cver l'cali/cd. Under these conditIOns, the

MUI llad to :-.crve a dual-Iunction. As a sCllll-governmental body whose

establlshmcnl was Imtwted by the governmcnt, It had ta function as the

medium 01 the J~overnmcnt to convey its programs ta the Muslim society,

ail Ihe more so because the governrncnt constantly demonstrated Its high

ref~ard of the MUI and exlended Il much fmancial support. On the other

h<llld, a~ the ()q~al1lzatlOn 01 the cU/amil>, the leaders the the Muslim

COlllllllllllty, Il was cxpected to reprcsent the ummah.

I.ven I/Jough the MUI was pl'Obably not able ta claim ta be

reprcsentallve 01 Ihe Indonesian Musll/TIS' aspirations, Its ideas were

nonetheless experted to rellcct thel!' aspiratIOns. There was no dlfficulty

III thls insofar as the lattcr wcrc m line wlth the government's policy.

l'loblcms ollly alo:-.e when the aspirations of one Sicle were different 01'

cvrn III contradiction ta those of the othel'. Su ch a situation was ta arise

in lIIany cases dlll'lng the f ifteen years of Its existence. MlIdzhar

eXtllnllles 22 out 01 ]9 r{l~wils issued by the MU), 111 the course of 1975 ta

1 ~)HH, the l'esults 01 whlrh l'ail inlo thlee catcgones eleven (50 pel' cent)

represent a Heulral deCIslOn, cight (36 pel' cent) represent the

G5 St'C Ibid l 10, see also, "MUI, MuhammadlYah, dan NU," panJI Mas}'(//(/kat (lakarta), Il May 1985. 9.

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government Influence, and tluce (14 pCI ccnt) l'Cp J'CSC·.lt le~s III 1 hH'IH'P 01

even Opposition to the govclnment pOSItIOIl. Mud/h(\J sllIIpl\' l'ollrludl'S

that the MUI seemcd ta be trylllg hard to tlwnti.\11l It~ IIHlepl'ndclH l'Ill tlll'

exerclse of Islamie legal thlllkmg, altholll~h III .\ 101 01 l,lses It slillply

could not resist govcrnmcnt's inllllcl1cc.()(; 1 lOWCVl'l, ri Olll' ,\II,tly/l'!'>

further the results of Mud/hal's ObSl'lvdtIOIlS. It I~ ObVIOllS th .. t the ~)O

per cent of thc fa!was issucd by MUI IcprcSCl1tlnl~ (\ ncutral pOSltlOIl arl'

those which did not mllch ml/lICl1CC Ihe poht(('.11 pol\( y 01 t hc

government. Thus, It IS only to be cxpe( tcd Ihat 111 tlw~l' ('''~c~ tlll' Ml li

would adopt a neutral positIOn.

Hltherto, there had been three pcople who had CH CUPICc! thc ollll'e 01

the charrman of the MU!. lhe fll'st (1975-19Hl) was lJamka, thl' .... c(()lld

(1981-1985) was Syukri Ghozali, and the thlnt (19W>-I<J()O) was Ild~dll

Basn.G7 ln the course of thcse thrcc pcnods, the MIll was ('III~al~l'd III ail

exammation of its position and roll'. 10 a ccrtaill l'xlcllt, It StH (('('cll'cI III

representing the Muslims' aSpiratIOns, howevcr, III fIlost ('(\~es It 011 ('II

acted LInder pressurc to jLlsttly the g()vel1lntellt'~ polJ('(e~ illld Prol~«"IIS

from the re!JgIOus point of Vlew, and only ln a few ('ase~ C'Ould Il ~tand

firmly in opposition to thc govcrnment's po!Jncs If till'Y weil' ()hvlolI~ly

in contradiction to IslamIC tcachmg and JI 110 (' lJ/amü> «()IIIr>I'OHlI~lt'd 011

them.

66 Mudzhar, 255.

67 Accordingly, Hamka was rc-clcclcd a~ the General ChaI/mali loI' the 1980-1985 penod at the MUI Conferen('c ln l <)HO, bul a year Idl(" hl' rcsigned, sec 15 Tahun May!l/') U/ama Indonc\/U, 1 1 ().

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1 wo exarnples may be surtlC/ent to "Iustrate how great the pressure

was that the J~oveJnmcnt exernscd on the MUI in Its issuance of fa~was.

1 he ('a~('~ o( il MuslJm attendJnJ~ Christmas celebratIOns, and of the Porkas

((ore( <lst) lottcry, prov)(lc us wlth thcse examples. When the counnl

Is~.lIed the {alwu on the fll'<,t ('a~e, whlch took place under the leadership

of "wlIka, f~lear pressure from the govcrnmcnt was brought to bear on

the MUI a~ a result. Consequently, the MUI could not help but withdraw

the {a~wil, although It dld not ablogate Its valtdity. Several months later

lIalllka then 1 eSlgned (rom the chatrmanshlp of the M UI. In the case of

tht' ['mh/' lotte. y, the MUI never Issued a fa~wa, notwlthstandmg the

dernalld .... 0/ t/lO~e who bC/lcvcd the lottery was prohlbited 111 Islam.

ln a nutshell, the relatlOllshlP between the MUI and the government

was a {'oll1pltcated one. In VICW of ItS position the MU' has to represent

and bndge two dillelent sldes, the ruler and the ruled, who are not always

01 the .... all1e opmioll. l'he MUI, to sOllle extent, could play ils role as an

advlsory body and, at the same tlme, act as a liaison between the

I~OVellll1lellt and the M lIsllln society, even though not ail of its "advice"

could hc an cptcd by the government. However, as far as political

stablltty and nat JOllal programs were concerned, the MUl's policy was

01 ten Hilde .. great pressure lrom the government. This IS evident III the

{atwiL\ It Issued 111 the coursc of Its flfteen years of existence, as Mudzhar

ob.sel yeso

Other domams with whlch the Indonesmn government has been

rOlH'l'IIlCd al e Islunllc educatIOn and Islamic law. In the field of Islamic

l'ducatlOll, then' arc tlHee d,,'crtorates In the body of the Department of

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Religiolls Affarrs in charge 01 thls mattel the Dllel lOfaIt,' lOI tlH'

Development of Islanllc InstItutIons of ~"gher 1 e(lIll1nl~, wllll h IS dll ert Iy

in charge of the implemcntatlOn of Islarlllc cducdtlon at tlH' 1I111ver~lty

level. the Dlrectorate for the Developmcnt of Isldll1ll Srhoob, whll h IS III

charge of the Implementation ot Isiamic educatlOll 10/ tlH' prlllhlly,

secondary, and hlgh sehool levels, and Ihe I)II't~ctorate 101 bldlllH'

EducatIOn in Public 5chools, whirh IS III (hal1~c of provldll1!~ 1~laml(,

education III public schools l'un by the Dcpartmcnt of 1 cl\!( ,111011 lIl1d

Culture. These bodIes are very SIRntfICant and stratel~1C 11\ the lll'.hl 01 thl'

future of Islam III Indoncsla. Ihe I111plemenldllon oll~IUlllI(, edll<illl()1I III

the fonn of the establIshmcnt of IslaulIe ~(I100Is alld Ih(' 1111 11I~101l 01

Islamlc educatIon 111 thc public srhoob l\l e attelllpt~ 10 !l,II,II\( e 1 hl'

sCCldal' educatIOn, whlCh have hacl greater l'Ole III the plIhl\( ~rll()()b lIlId

UnIversltles.

The IslamlC sehool operated by the MlIlIstry 01 RelW/OlIs alfalls IS

called the mf1drasah negen (the state Islamll ~chool) and I~ i\rl'/ edlll'd al

the same level as the public schools supcrvlsed hy tltl' MIIIISIIY of

EducatIOn and Culture. l'he madrasah is a type of srllool 1I11l'III1Cclldll'

between the pesantren, a traditlOnal Islamle' ~(hool wll Il tI 1111(11

concentration of attention on tradltlOnal rcllglOu~ ~>('Icn('es, <111(1 t Ill' l'11h11(

school run by the Ministry Dt EducatIOn and Cultllll', wllcl (' I('III~J()II~.

educatIOn is only a subJect taught two hours a wcek.(JH It~ dl<ll'<lC Il'' tI~) an

intermediate stage bctween pe~antren and publH' ~(/1001 I~ obvJ()lI~ f rom

the subJects glvcn III the madrasah, where, evcn tllOul~h 1~.ldflll( ~(I('IIC (" .

68 Sec "Academie LIre In 14 IAIN s," INIS Newç/ctter S (1991) l 'J.

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78

~tlll have pnonty over gcneral SCIences, the latter play a role whlCh IS

more than that of ('omplemcntary subJccts. Thus, even though graduates

f rom the hlghest level 0 f the madrasah system are expected to contmue

Illclr edu('atlOll al Islaml(' facultles, they are also allowed to enroll at

olher facultlcs III publH UnIversltles.

ln dddltlOn, Ihe system of academlc levels and years of madrasah are

made the ~)arne as those of public schools. The MIN (Madrasah Ibudaïyah

Nef/en 1 he State Isiarme pnmary School) IS simllar to that of the

elelllelltary Icvel III the public school, the MTsN (Madrasah Tsanawwah

NeÇJen "1 he Stale Islarme Sccondary School) ta that of the secondary

level, and thc MAN (Madrasah Afiyah Negeri the State Islamlc High

Sehool) to that of thc prc-unlverslty level. Aside from the madrasah

Icvcls, the Dcpal tlllcnt of RellglOlIs Ai fall's also estabhshed the IAIN

(Il1slitut ÂflWl1Cl Islam Negeri the State Instltute for Islamic Studles) to

c(\J'ry OUl educatIOn and research on Islam at the university level. Smce

the madra~alllcvei is supervlsed by the Directorate for the Development

of Islanllc 5('hools, the IAIN IS supervised by the Dlrectorate for Islamic

Institutions of I-Ilgher Learning.

Whlle thc stat istlcs for the madrasahs are not available, figures for

thc IAINs arc, Iodate. thel e have been established 14 IAINs spread

throu!~hollt the country, three of whlch have set up post-graduate

Pl'Of~ral1ls.G9 Theil' studcllts consist of graduates not only From the MAN

levcl but nlso those fi 0111 other general high schools, who are mcreasing

l'rom ycal' to YC,\L l his has brought the IAIN face to face wlth the

hl) Ibid., 1 S-20.

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pl'Oblem of the stlldent's basIc knowll'dl~e 111 the IIcld 01 Isl,\I111< ~tlldll'S.

There IS a wlde dev13tion In this field betwccn tilt' ~~raduatcs lrolll I~cncral

hlgh schools and those from the MAN or other Islarmc hll~h ~rhools.

Graduates From the latter arc consldel'ed as havlll~~ sultïClcllt b,ISle

knowledge m Islamic studles ta contInUC thelr stlldies 111 tht, IAIN.

whereas graduates lrom general hlgh schoob. wlth the ('XcCptloll 01 those

who also stlldled Islam at certalll Islam\(' SdlOOls, oltell IMk haslc

knowledge of Islam because formai Islanue education III thl' !~l'IlI'I.tI hl!~h

schaols IS a subJcct which IS only tauI~ht for two hOlll'S <1 WCl'k. II1IS IS

considered as far From sufflclcnt to cmo\l at the IAIN.

On the other hand, evcry expectatlon has been t Illust lIpOIl t he IAIN.

Since It was establtshed to carry out educaltoll ,lI1d 1 e~ed\( Il 01\ hl,llll at a

university level, ItS purposc IS not only to CllSlllC the av,lIlablllty 01

specialists to meet the legal, educatlOnal, and srmltual Ilceds 01 t Il('

community70 but also to pl'Oduce scholars and mtelll'ctllab III Islanl1C'

studies who are perceptive and capable 01 partlnpat1l11~ III the IlIdolle~1ll11

national development and, at the same tlmc, to antJ('lpate it:-. 1I1l1>'\( t:-,.

Accordmgly, as Alamsyah Ratu Perwlranegara, the formel' MIIII,>tt'1 01

Reltgious Affall's, has stated, the IAIN was c'(p('( tet! to be an IlIstltutlCHI

whose graduates would have the capaClty to

- mterpret religiou~ norms and values III th(' soc lai ('ontext, - give opllllons, propositIOns, and critiques rel~.tJ'dlll!~ tlle

ideas and practlccs relatcd to the dcvclopmcnt IS~lIC~, - support and l~ulde the sOCIety and ('''PCC lally rel~l()u~

people, to pat tlclpate III the plOC e~~ 01 devc!oplll(,llt.

70 Cf. Anthony /-l, Johns, "Islam and Cultlllai PllllalJ~.rn," III I\/am ln /h/U, ed. John L. Esposito (New YOIk Oxford IJllIvel~lty Pre~s. 1 c)~7), L04 .

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Wilde hlf~h expee tatlons are hcld of the IAIN, many factors do not

f ave)/ 1 he m~tll ute III Its capaClty as a university. Fmancial support for Its

cstabll~hrncnt wa~ very low compared to that for other umverSltles under

tlle Departlllcnt of LduratlOn and Culture; therefore, ItS facIlities,

('~P('( lally IIbranes, whl< h ale the backbone of a university, are pOOl'.

Above ail, lb r~l('al weakness IS the lack of sClentlflc method in teaching

Islam and the maslery 01 forcign languages especially AublC and

11I1~lIsh.72 A('('ordllll{ly, the I~oals set for the IAIN have proven hard to

allalli. Many critiques have becll dlrected to the IAIN as weil as to its

J~l'adlltltes. OCllIar Samsun and Sudll man Tebba, for example, have

(l'III( lied the IAIN for belnR III crIel! httle morc than modern pesantrens

~et lIf) III urlhlll al'eas. Its 1~l'adudles rcmalll able only to thtnk normatlvely

dS pl'Oper pesantrenl~ladllales, but lack the reasonmg ablhlles 10 cxplain

~()( lai rl'ahtles.7:~ III ~uch conciliions, the Ideal expectatlons as stated

aIJovl' will plobably only be Illet aftcr a considerable tlme and with

l OIlSlderabll' el forts.

ln Islarmc Icgal allairs, the Indonesian government has also Issued a

numbcr of natIOnal laws and regulatlons, two of whlch are directly

COIlCCl'lll'd wlth 1~lall1lc institutions the Marnage Law of 1974 and the Law

------------- ---

71 K(1I1111, J)lI1ll1111kll. 56, quoting Hlmpunan Pldato Menten Agama RI 9 (n.p .. 11.(1.), 192.

~')

1 ~ Sec OCnh\r SdlllSlIri and Sudlllnan Tebba, "The Responslbilitles of the Muslim Intcllertuals," II1l1onesIll Report Culture and SOCIety ,'Ù/pp/clllcnt 20 (1 cbnhllY 1987) 5, Sec also Kanl11, Dmamlka, 54.

73 lebba. h, (1. (0.. a 1 im. "Responsi Cendekwwan Muslrm terhadap IUlllul.lI1 1\1(\~Ydlah.dt Modeln dl Indonesla," 111 Islam dl IndonesIa. \lItllU Ik/wlII !\1CI1UilUI DlrI. cd. M. AillI1l RaiS (Jakarta CV Rajawalr, 1 qH(;). ( hapll\1 J() p.t~SIll1.

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('{I

of RehglOus Court of 1989.1"1 Ille gOVt'll1l1ll'llt'~ eXpl'lt.ltlllll III

estabhshing these regulatlOns IS to have IUleS whlch arc li III 1 01'111 101 11ll'

whole Indonestan society. 1 he desi re tn cre.lte a l1larrl,ll~l' I,nv ,1Ild ,\ I,\\v

on Rehglous Court on a llatlOll-\Vlcte basis h.HI \lctudllv Ill'l'Il Il'It ~IIH l' Iltl'

colomal penod. EffOlts to rl'all/e tilis desll'e h.ul bl'l'Il IIlHkl \\'dy l'\'l'I

smce. However, It was 100llld tllat to leach.lll dp,leeIlH~1l1 Oll 11H'~e 11I<lttl'l,>

would constltute a very dtlllcuh tdS!..., becau~e (lI the dlflell'IH l' ni

religlOus and po!ttlcal thll1king professed by the people,

Wlth regard~ to thc marndge law, It was Ille case Ihat uIIIII 1 Q7'\ 111l'

IndonesIan people still adhcred to difrcrcllt re!~tdallons 01 1\1"llldl~l'

registratlOn accordmg to the classification 01 persolls hVlllg III Illdolll'SI.I,

I.e ..

74

(a) for native Indonesl<lns pl'Ofe~sin!~ Muslllll lellf~101l 1 aw NO.22 of 1946 and Regl~t ration 01 M(IITlaf~('s, RepudiatlOns, and Recom IhatlOm, RC!~lIldll()ll, No. ~l 01 1954,

(b) for Europeans Law NO.2 r) of 184<),

(c) for Chinesc rorel!~11 Orientab 1 dW NO.130 01 , <) 1 7, and (d) for native Indone~IlHls of (hl'l~tlall 1 a~tlt 1{(~!~ttldtlOlI~ 011

CivIl Rc(onclllations NO.17) of 1<)~~/)

The term "RelIglOus Court" JO the Indoneslan ('ontcxt lefeJ'~. 10 the "Islamlc Court". It ha~ been III eXI~lelH c ~II\( e It~ t'sl"I>"~""I(,ld 111 1111' Dutch cololllai pCl'lod, and answers the Mu~IIIIl~' d('IIIi111<1 lOI .III institution for the Illlplcll1entdtlOIl of Islanll( I<lw. Il I~ (Ollllllollly W,('C\

for cases relatlll!~ tu mallla~~c, dIVOI( c, 1I111l'lItall( l' elr. 1 tIC' h('~)1 II1formatlon on the 11I~;t oly 01 the Re"J~loll~ (0111'1 (1<;1<111111 (ClIII 1) III Indonesia IS glvcn by ))al1lcl S. Lev \JI 11I~ hook t",J(lm/( (uurt /t1

Indonesla A Study In u jJoflllulf Uu\es of 1 eouf fmI/lu/lOti (BpI k(,/('y UllIverslty of Callforllla Ple~s, 19n).

75 ln this classificatIOn ~chellle, the 1 ulopean~ 1Il( luded tlH' Ullle" Iltlwl Europeans or people of Western (HI!~Itl<" and the lapdne~,('. 1 h(' IldIIV(", Illcludcd ail the native population 01 Ihl' eOlllllly, wllll(' IOI(·I!,.I. onentals \Vere tho~e othcr Ihan Ihe III ~t Iwo, <'IJ(" (l'. ( 11111<"-,(', !rl<lldll'" Paklstam~, and Arab~. seC' flirt her ). Ilallda, "1 he 1 dW of Mail 1,11:(' rllHI Divorce III IndonesJa," f\fomlC und Lomparallve 1 uw ()uur/er!y ~ (983) 17.

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82

1\( tually, ~)nl( e 19b8 the 'New Orcier' govcrnmcnt had submltted two

marnal~e blll~ to the Parliament bccuuse the old regulatlons were

('()n~idercd /l0 longcr sUitablc. However thcse two bills fmled to be

latlflcd OWlIlf! to the objectIOns from the non-Islamlc faction In the

Parltamcnt. In 1973 tlle f~OVCI nment tnce! once more to submlt a new

IlIdllldl~(' bdl wllile at thc samc tlmc wlthdrawIIlg- the two prevlous ones.

I\s a matter 01 fart, the process of ratification of the bdl was very slow

and fa('cd Illdny ddlJ( ultles. l'lm tlme obJcctlOns came not from the non­

blatrllC' lac tlOIl but IJOrn the Islanllc ~Ide. rhe problem was that the bIll

was seen a~ 1)(,J111~ ~e( ulal Jn Sim IL Wlth the except 1011 of t he [\l'st artIcle,

thc ovcr,t11 ~tlPllldtlon h,\(1 llcldccted the rehglolls aspect of marriagc, 111

splte 01 the Id( t Ihat the laq~est segment of the Inclonesian populatIOn

was made IIp 01 Mushms, who consldered marnage an institutIOn who se

proccdure WdS lel~lIlated by 1~lamlc law.

SOIllC cxa\J1plcs will be sulflClcnt ta illustrate how the bIll neglected

the r('\Ij~I()t1~ (I~lall1ic) pnllciptes of marnage to su ch an extent that It

Ollll"ll~ed tlle Mushms. On the validlty Dt marnagc the bill stated that a

marnage was valld Il It was performed beforc the marriage reglstrars

apPoll1tl'd by the !~overnmcnt, but It smcl nothlllg of the reltglOus aspects

01 ItS vahdlty. 1 he bIll also stated that ddferences III religIOn or belief

were not ballicrs to Li Illarriage, while III Islam therc are deflnlte l'utes on

thls lll<lttel. IUllhellllolc, it (bd not admit the eXIstence of the ReIJglOus

(mil t, whcreas III 1970 the ParlIament had .Just passcd a law on the BaSIC

ProvIsIons 01 ludlClal Authonty whlch 1I1e!lcatcd that the status of the

Isl.lIlllc COllrt was consldered .ln lIltcgral part of the JuclIcml systems

oper<ltIl11~ III IndolleSI,\. In thl~ Itrdlt, the ppp r1aulled that thclc \Vcre at

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\-' . n)

least Il palllts whlch were III contladl('llOll to blalllJ( 1""1< Ipk~.

"Tempo", a famaus Indoncslan ma~tallne III the ~tyh' of "1 tIlll'" IIh\g.l/llll"

found at Icast nme pomts which cou Id be ~ollrces 01 dISPUll'. \\"1<"1'l'''~

researchcrs at IAIN Sunan KalIJaga (Yogyakt\lta) round 14 POllll~ \\'llIIh

were in contradictIon to Islam. 76

ln thls regard, Ismall Suny, li prole~~()1' 01 Il\W dl Ihl' lllllVl'l Slly 01

IndonesIa, conrlucles that the bill was dt<llllettHally 111 (,olltradl<'llOIl 10

Islamlc pnnciples and, thll~, was raI' flOlll the MtI:-.IIIlIS' ('xpe! Idll()II~. Il

dld not reflect the legdl ('onsCJou~ne~s 01 the lllil,lOrhy of IIlc!OI11':-'ldll

society whlCh was lormccl by t h(' bl"nll(' (Olllllllllllly. Accord IlIldy, 1 Ill' hill

was regarded as lallmg to lullill Ihe pl'tllC Ipal condilloll (JI Id\\! d:--' l'.llldt'd

by the 1945 Conslltution.77 1 he btll's prOVISIOIlS wO\lld abo IIU'''II t Ile ('lId

of the RchglOliS Court wlllch hac! been III eXI:-.ten! e l'VPI :-.11)( l' 1 III- 1 )111, Il

76 Radi, 119-127, the PPP, lor example, claboraled the Il J)(lIIlIS, whl'Il' there was conrlict \VIth IsJaml(' vdlue:-., III 1 Ill' dlSI \1:-'\10/1:-' III 1 J)(' Parhament, I.C. 1. The validny 01 nJaJ'lla~~e loncluded beloll' Ille 1l1ilnll\l~l' olllliab

appointed by the I~overnmcnt 2. The absccn( (; 01 <Illy ~)tatcment lel~ardllll~ the 11I1II1l" J( ,II 1111111 011

wlves in a polygamous marnaf~e 3. !\ge limtt 01 d tnall'l(\~~e party 4. ProhibitIon of mall'lal~e betwecn a f()~ter parent allcl 11I~/1H'1 f ()~.\('I

child 5. ProhIbitIon of ma"la~~e belweCl1 twwc-c1lvolcecl (Ollpl<". 6. Marna!~(' between the rJt..lIlle~ of cid fen'nl rl'lI1~JOn~ 7. Wmtmg pCIIOel loI' a woman-ellvoJ( el' 01 30b df'V~ 8. engagement 9. JOlllt-property allcllts con~eqllen('e~ HI CdS(' of dIVOI('(' 10. Rcqlllrcmcnt 01 ail cx-hu"ballcllo ~lIpport 111:--' t'x wtfe Il. !\c1optlOn and Its con~eqlleJlr l'S.

See Dant<:l S. Lev. and /.atnl !\htndd Nodl, /Jerudllcm ;\qumu 1\lllln rli IndoneslCl, (Jakarta Intclmasa, 1 ()HhJ, :~ ~5.

77 Ismall Suny, "Islam a Pembaharuan Ilukum Indonesia, 19H 1 J, 20.

System 01 I.dW III Islam dl Indone\/ll

IfldOIll'~,I(I," III IrI('II),

(!;lkdl ta lJIIlV(~1 ',11.1'.

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XI

colomal penod and wlm Il W,IS (,()Il~ldC'l'd l'(jlldl 10 tlJ()~t.' 01 tlll' tllll'l'

other JlIdlclal systems 111 IndoIlCSIi:l. IMlllel\' thl' CI\'tl (OUI t. thl' 1\11IIt'lI\'

Court. and the Court of Public i\dnlilllstl\\tIOlI.

These problcllls lIlvltecl stl0l11~ 'Cil( tlOl1~ ",11I( 11 \\,('1 l' \ OH cd 1101 Olll\'

by membels of Parhamcllt. lI1c1l1dl\l1~ tho~l' Ilom Ihl' ColL\l dlHI IIH' ABRI

factions, but also by IIlcllvlcluals. IslallllC ()1'l~alll/"tIOll~. ,lIld l'Vl'Il :-..tlldl'Ilh

of hlgh schools who attendcd ,\Il open Sl':-"~101l of thl' 1'.t,lldllll'lll al thl'

time the chaft WdS (lJs(,lI~sed. SOIl1C stlldl'Ilts Wl'It' "1'Il'~tl'd hy ~)l'( Il lit \'

offlcers for the dlsturban< e till'Y made III tlll~ Ihll'halllt.'llt,\( y (\t,lIl1lll'l.

whi\( others demanded tlhll t hl'II' IllCIHls 1)(' \'l'Il'a~ed. IIH' ~lIl1at 1011 111 IIH'

parliament butldlllg wa~ in sllch (lI~ill'lay thal ddY 11H11 t hl' Sl'~SIOIl w,,~

adjourned.

bill:

Hamka, a plOll11ncnl Illdnne~I(HI ( /J/lII11Ü>, vOI<'l'd Ihl' O\JIIIIOII alHlll1 111(,

The Marnage Bill had bccn plOposed III the 101111 Ih<ll Il took in arder to fllrthcl' we<lken a Mushlll ronlllllllllly Ihal Wil~ already pcrrelved as growlIlr~ IIlC leaslIlgly Impotellt. If tht' bill was passcd, the MlIsllm~ should llcllhel dC (Cpt 1101

irnplemcnl It. II {\ Musllm adrl1ltled the othel IdW Oll 11\(11 1 1tIl',('

rather than IsJanllc J9{{' a('cordIl11~ly, thl~ d( tlOIl WiI~ <Ill (1( t 01 religlOus mflclchty".

ln the Parhament, the ppp faction dlle( tcd ItS (nll( I~rn a!~alll<.1 III{'

government for havini~ proposed a bill (ontalll\n!~ ~tlJ)ltlat ion.., Wllll h W(" ('

in contradiction not only to the f'anw\lla and the 1 <Jt1') (OIl..,tllllll(JlI IJIII

also to the Prcsldent's speech of ] b Âugu:-,t 197'1. 101' t IIl''''l' 1 ('(\"Olt.." il

ppp parliamentary rncmbcrs aq~ucd, It should not (orne a~ ~1I r PW,l' t IIdt

78 Sel' Radl, 122-125.

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85

tlll' bill bcctHT,1' the oblcrt of rcmtlOn and protcsts [rom most Mushms ln

tht' (OllJllry.7~J

(ke d\l~(, t Ile delJatc had not yet come to a conclusIOn, and whereas the

plOlJlt'H1!-> !->l!IIOlllldIllJ~ the dcbate wcr(' mU'easmg, the discussion of the

IIlatt ('1 WéI'-. pllt off for 1l1() rc than two months. In the meantlme, all

fac IIOIJ~ h('f~dll 10 eIlJ~aJ~e III lobbymg and consultation wlth the cUJama>

alld will! rllally 1~,lanlH ()Iganl/allon~ 111 orclcr to accumulate input fOI the

l'('VI'>lom '0 tht' br//. 1 hc f~ovclnmcnt a/so seemcd to relax Its posItIOn and

sl!owecl It!-> wrlllllgllcSS to «)n~lcler chanJ~es proposecl by the Muslirns.80

Â!-> éI Il'SIIII, Bldlly Important amcndmcnts 10 the draft were made, sorne of

tlll' 1I1()~t !->IJ~nl(1( HIll 'llles being

1. 1 aw 111111 H dl 1011 (SIC.) ln the general matters and law dlllel'cntidtloll (.\IC.) III the special mattcrs (religion),

2. III dC (old,Illec Wlt:l tlrtrcle 29 paragraph 2 of the 1945 (on~)lltlitlon. the matter m contradiction wlth the religion !->hould be ehmlllatcd.

3. 1 XC( lItlon <\lleI admll1l~tratlOll of Islanllc cog~mlll1lty Illan I(\J~{' shall be Cal ned out by RehglOtls Court.

Mo~t o( the plOblcms objected to by the ppp and by Mushm society at

large vvl'l'C lotally Icvl~ed to Stllt the pnnClplcs of Islamlc law. The

StIlHlltlIIO'! 011 the RcIlf~IOW) COlllt and lts role rn implementrng the Lay.

wa~ abo CXplH Itly Illcntloncd. A few of the problematic pornts were

l't'VISPcI 10 li ~lIldll extcllt by <ldding certain exceptIOns relatmg to the

rel~lrllltIOIl~ 01 thc Il'lIglOll or bellef of the parties concerned. Finally, the

reVISl'c1 hlll Wl\~ latlllcd by acclamation 111 the plenary session held on 22

79 Ibid.

KO I\tud/hal, 109.

KI SUllY, ~().

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Decembcl 1973. nlls sesSIOn \\'dS (lttcnded bv ~bl) 01 tht' ·lhO f1H'IlIIH'/:- 01

the Parhamcnt. Thc bIll was prol11l1l~!.\ted bv the PleSldellt 011 .~ 1.llltl.!l\'

1974 undcr the tltlc "1 he Law 01 the Repuhltl' 01 Illdol1l'~I.1 NutlllJl'j 1 \ l'dl

1974 on Marnage" and IS IJopularly "l1o\lln Il, the tllk "thl' 1\1.llll,I!~t.' Id\\'

of 1974".

As for the case (lI the I.aw 01 the RCIt!~IOll~ Cotill. wll\( h \\'.\~ 1,lttlll'd III

December 1989. Il was a lollow-up 01 thl' 1\1.11 Ilal~l' 1<1'" 01 ! q/·I .\11<1. III

facto helped II~ (i~e tllrtller nnpll'ml'ntdtlOll 0/ tltl' M(III'1"I~(' J dW DI 1 lJ7·1

ln adchtlOn. the 1 aw of thc Rcll!~IOUS COlllt 1l'.dIIlIlH~d thl' l'XI:-.\l'IH C' dlltl

the raie of the ReltgIOus (OUII III In(\olle:-'I.I. SIIHl' the M,IIII.!I~l' I.lW 01

1974 was Implemented, tl.L positIon 01 tltl' Rl'ItI~I()II:-' (Olllt 1'.J('W \I/()\lI~('1

and Its roll' bl'camc 1ll0ll' (onsldcwbk_ Mud/Ildl 1II\I~tldll',> IIH' 1',1 ()WIIIl~

roll' of the ReltglOlls COlllt by ShOWlllf~ ~latl,>tJ('(tI !I .. td ()J) Ihl' J1ll111lw! (JI

RelIgious Courts IIllndonCslil wltlJln Ihe pellOd Il)XO-II)XX. III IQX() thell'

were 258 Religious Courts with 571 .ItHI1~e:-., whe/cc\:-. by jl)Kk thl' 1Il11l11H'/

X') had increased to 301 Rcllglous Courts wlth l LL { Illd,~('S. L. III(' III< l('d~I'

in the number 01 thesc bodies was, of ('OUI Sl', be( all~(, 01 tlw Il]( 1 (,d"1I11~

nllmber of cases It had to deal wlth, espeClally altcl the Mal 1 lal~{' 1 aw 01

1974 was Inlplemcnted.

Be that as it may, untr! 1989 the Rellf~lOus ( OLIII Ibell dlel Ilot ycl have

a separate law whlch regulatcd the structure, authoJ\ty alld ItHllilill

procedure of the ReltglOlIs Court, nor dld il hdve cl (oddle(\ /elt,~lo\l~

(Islamic) law whlch rould be used as a ~Iandaldlled Iele/l'IH l' III IIHllf'wl

decisions. RegulatIOns and gUldame 10/ tho"c llIattl'/~ Wt'II' III lai 1

82 Mudzhar, 77.

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87

:-,c alt('f(~d III ~evelëtl ~ollr('es whlch were far 1 rom umform. l he authonty

DI Ihe J{ehl~IOu<, Court was sometlmes incompatible wlth that of the

J~elll'rai «()urt.~n Con~equelltly, the H~liglOu~ COUlt was often faced with

(Ollfll~lO/l 111 the (lrca of Icndel'lllg judgments, partrcularly aher the

M<II'lIaf~e (lIW of 1 974 wa~ pllt Iflto practlce.

(he lH'cd to pl'Oduc e li IdW on the (~lamJ( jlldlclal procedure and to

COllllHle the (SI,UllIC law was thu':; Idt to be so imperatlve that the MlnJstry

of ({e1WlOw, I\ffarrs took the neeessary steps III thls direction. 1\ joint

pl()f~rdm hetWl't'Il the MIIlIStly of RehglOm Allairs and the Sllprellle Court

Wd~ l'stdhll~,hcd III 1985 ta ()V~lcome the problc:m. Thr airn was to

pl OeilH e d (OlllpddtlOll of Is(a/lllC laws on man iage, mhentallee, and waq(,

and il dl,lft on 1II(IIClai plOcedure 101' the ("!amle Court. Ihe task WdS

COlllpll'tl·d III 198H a\ld resulted III a dralt bIll whlch was then subnlltted

to tlle l',tllr,lIl1cnt on 28 I,Hluary 1989 by the MJI1lster of of Reltgious

I\ffalrs, 011 I>l'hall of the government.

Reactlolls to the bdl came l'rom vanolls quarters of sOCIety. The

Musllll1~. l~ellerally welcomed the bill of Rcltglous Court, but a few of them

weil' very (l'Itl(,(\1. Suprapto. for cxamplc, a vICe-chairman of Parlrament.

sent an oillnal lettcr to the Charrman of Parhament obJccting to the

stipulations o( the bIll 01 RclIgious Court, c1aimlllg that It discnmmated

a~!i:\lnst non-Musluns and was in contradictIOn to the Pancaslla, the 1945

Con~tltutlOn, and the ~V(/\V(lWI1 Nusantara (the NatIOnal Orientation). Hc

H3 Sec ROlhan 1\. RasYld, Ilulwl1l Acara Peradllan Agama (Jakarta Ra)dwa!1 l'crs. 19(1). 1. I-or further mfornlatlOll about the sC<lttered legulatlolls on IUdlCldl plocedure, sec Za.ni Ahmad Noeh and Abdul BdSIt .t\dlldll. SCjurllh .'';'nukat pengadllan Agama Islam dl IndonesIa (~lIrdlhl)'d BIlld 1I1ll1l. 1Q!))). 84.

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furthcr demanded that the law on the BdSiC ludH 1.11 l\utlWlllll'~ 01 1970,

which contalllcd a provision on thc leCO!~llItloll 01 Ihc Isl,lIll\( <.. Olllt, hl'

revoked. Amll'lnachmud, the fOlll1el MlIllstcr 0\ Ilolllc 1\1\,\11:- ,1Ild 101111('1'

Cha\l'll1an of thc Pdl hamel1t. shal ed SUpl apto\ \'Il'W ,lIld S,lld t Ih\t hl.1Il1I!

law could Ih)t he IIlC<HPOl<ltC(\ 11110 the natlOl1,1l Id\\' whJ('\t ~h(}llid Ill'

basee! solcly 011 the j JllIl LtISJ!lI,g'l

Strong l'eactlOns agamst the bIll alsn camc \10111 lIon-l\1u:,llIllS,

especlally From Chnstwn orgamzatlOlls and IIIdlVHltltlb, BaSlIll! 1 hl'II Vil'\\!

on the pnnClple ot the separatIOn b(~twct'n ~t,\Il' and 1t"I!~I()Il, t hl'Y

objected to lurther governrncnt lI1yolvenlt'llt III the ml('IIl.II ,dldll~ 01 ..

certam relIgIOn, ln thclI OpllJIOP, on the bd~IS 01 'Ill' WlIWII\l/l1 N/I\lll/llil Il,

lndonesia needed only 011(' unit Icd IdW Wl)h Il wa~ 11.'\ 1011.,1 III Il'" III l',

Accordmgly. sorne amued. Ihe (iraft WdS (!J~( IIJlJllldtlhl! iJl Il,,t 1\\(', III\I~,

threatening the national Idcol()~~y of thl' j'{/f1(l/\/lll. Olla'i ~ ~ .. w "

connection bctween thls Issue and the "Jakarta (haller", III will( Il

partlcular statcments about the obligatIOn 01 pell o.'milli! t hl' 1~lélnlJ(

duties were to be found.85

ln responsc to thls reactlon, the MlIlIstCI 01 Rt'III!I()lI~ J\f:éllrs "~~\lI('r1

everyone that the prcsence of the Law or Rclll!IOllS COllrl was a hl~t()rJ( al

necessity and would not Jeopardlzc the JJ1tcre~ls 01 11011 Mw,11I1I

sOClcty.86 President Suharto hlmsdl ~~avc rl'a~~uralJ(e~ tlwt Ihe hdl wOllld

84 See MudLhar, 89, Dm Syarn~uddlJ), "Mull(tnl/J1.ICIIYilh drill 1\l'kaYrl:)(I Politik Orele Baru," III MuhammuclIyah Kin/ dan 1 \Ok, ('d, DIli Syamsuddlll (Jakarta Pu~taka Pan)lmas. 1 ()90), 20L

85 Ibid., 87·90.

86 Mudzhar. H6.

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89

not {IJ~( nrnlflütc a!~amst non-Mushms. He further afllrmeo that reltglOus

dutll~s c1ld not ('()nSI~t merely ln ~alah (praymg to Goc!), fasting, and

paytnf~ alm'). 1 he gov('rrmH.:nt had to proteet an entlre senes of rellglOus

dut le~ a~ delllandcd by the 1945 ConstitutIOn. ] he government also

claulled 1 hat the bill wa~ (omtltutlOna' and ln Ime ,vith the Ideal of

lI( hlCVll1f~ il llllliled Judie lai system In Indonesla.87

1 he debate Inslde the P(}fllament was also heated, although less sa

théll1 wlth that of the Marriage Law of 1974. fhe PPP, Golkar, and thp.

MllitéllY lac tlOIlS !~ave thelr support for the bill, whlle the POl, even

thoul~h Il clic! not expllcltly re)Cct the bill, questlOned the need for the bill

on the nlOlllld~ 01 dlSCl1mlllatlon agamst non-Mushms and its

uncomtlttltlonalrty. In vlew of thls attitude on the part of the POl,

l.ukll1an lIalllll 01 the Muhammadlyah cautlOned Mushm~ that the cntical

attitude 01 the 1'/)1 to the bill should persuade Musltms not ta vote for th;s

party III the lorthcomtn~~ e1ections.88 However, smce members of the

ABRI and Colkar fartions constltuted the maJonty m the parhament, there

was 1~1 edt optlllllsm that It wou Id be passed by the Parhament. ThiS was

III faet the \{~~1I1t, wlth the bill becomll1g law on 14 December 1989.89

ln thls lespect, the l'Ole of Islamlc organlzatlOns could not be

neglected. SOOIl aftr~r the bill of Rehgious Court was submltted ta the

Parhall1cnt, the MUI, for exampl~, held an orientatIOn forum ta discuss the

bill. 1 hc forum WdS attcnded by leaders of Islamic organizatlOns,

87 See Syamsuddlll, 203.

8S IlHd., 204.

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wn:.,.i' ;:

tt> forml!la~\ . 'Ille SPlf!lî': amcndments lOI IIllprO\'llll! thL' bill. tht.' Il'sull

uf wh~ch w"'s ('lU' sulHlHtted ln the 1\\1 haIllCIlt.l)()

Il one rt

La,;:, of " ; '\< .,,·t of "thc 1 aw of Rl'Il!!loll\ ( OUI t", <lIHI hdw pl'ople

re.ac1'.n J' ". , .' ,~ ,/ ','.1" /" 'S, It IS obvlOu~ thdt thl'J(' dlC SOIl1(' dIllell'lH l':-- III

both 1 • partlculal (h.II(\( tCII~tH S 01 thl' bills wltt'Il Ihev

up and proposee! by Ihe MIIlI~try of lustH C on Iwll.III 01 11ll' I!OVl'III1I11'Il1.

It was rumored that nelther Wd~ the MlIlI:-.lly 01 l{ell)!IOll\ !dl.\lr~ IIlvolvpd

In the formlilauon 01 the bill, no .. Wl'Ie 1 he ( U/omu' dlHI t h(' il'dd('I!'l of

Islanllc ol1~allIzatlOns. The dral t pald !Jttle attelltloll tn 1l'11I!IOll!'l

principles. on the contrary, Il Icllccted a ~c(,l1ial :-'plllt wlll('1J wOllld IH'

applied ta alllndoneslans Il'J'egardless 01 the lac t that the tlIdJOJ'lty of thl'

population was Mushm, It was al~'o clcar that /l)(\lIy 01 tlte dldlt IIIII's

articles were merely translatIOns of the ()lItch oldlllanc es 01\ IlIdlllal~e III

the colonial penod. Thus, If the bill had becn pa~sed WltlJolit any e lJal\l~(',

It would have meant a setback for the Jllche lai ~y~lelll III IndolH.".Jd. ~tlolll~

l'eactlOn against the bill predictably carne Ir om .he Mllsllln';, wliel ('d!'l t h('

non-Islamic factIOns as weil as many non·Mll~l!m leaders and nOIi-hlarnJ('

organizations supported the bIll.

ln contrast, the process of the establIshment of "the 1 aw 01 Relll~lOlIs

Court" involved the Islamlc orgamzatlons, the Mu~"tlI IlIlelle( tuais, and

90 15 7 ahun Majell.'> Ulama IndonesJa, ·~34.

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91

the (Ulamù> and was ~upervlsed ciircctly by the Mmlster of ReltglOus

Affairs. 1 he role of the MUI as a consultatIve body of Islamie

()1'J~ant/atlon~ wa~ very mf !uentldl as was also the rase wlth other Islamle

ol'J~ant/i.Jtloll~. 1 ffort~ to formulate the bIll were actlvcly undertaken In an

opcrt (IIm()~ph(>1 c, so that people coulcl observe ItS development. As a

Icsult, tht' Illput !tom Mushm SOClcty was IIlvaJuatle ln the process of

pellce tllll~ Ill(' bill. One e the bIll was completed and submltted to the

!'alllcllllent, til(> cll~( IISSIOtl on Its e ontents bar<~ly even generated a lengthy

delMtc, ('vell thO\lI~h Il wa.s rather heated. The Mushms factIon reacted

favorably, wlllie the lIon-MlI~ltm fartlOn opposed the bIll, ev~nthough the

,>ubJ('( t (lI the bIll dcalt partlcularly wlth the Mushms. In thls context,

Illstory Olle e 1lI0le ~hows that the two main-stleams of polItlcal thollght in

Indollc~J{\, the ",ccl/lar and the Islan1lc, stIll eXlst.

l'herc werc a Humber of governmental decislOns in the penod

bctwccn the two laws (1974-1989) which concerned direetly or indirectly

the posItIOn G~ Islam m IndonesIa. In 1976 PresIdent Suharto presented

hls idea 01 isstlJll~~ a I~t1idc to thc understandmg and ImplementatiOn of

Pancu.\lla. 1 hls Idea of Suharto was then reali'Led and was stlpu]atecl by a

dcrislon 01 Parltdrnenl In 1978 entltled "the DeCISIOn of the MPR Number

1I/197H COlllelnlllg thc "(>4" (Pedoman Penghayatan dan Pengamalan

PanulslllI the CUldc to the Understanding and ImplementatIon of the

['ancaslla), wlllch 1 eplcsented the offICiai InterpretatIOn of the Pancaslla.

BelllI~ a p.tIIde for the whole Indonesian people, sorne Indonestan Muslims

strongly opposed It for devlatmg From IslamlC pnnclples on the grounds

that accol'dlllf~ to thelr OpInIOn, the only glIldance for a Mushm was Islam.

1 hls Issue II1vlted a lcngthy dIscussion espeClally outslde the Parliament,

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even after it was promliigated 111 1978.91

ln 1984 the Dlrectol Genelal of PnnhllY ,1I1d ~l'l'()Il(II\lY 1 dUl'diIOIl 01

the Department of Ldllcatlon (\Ild Culture I .... ~ut'd .1 l'ep.ul<ltloll, OJll' 01

whlCh was concerned wlth s'uden( tllHloll1l~. llll' ~tudl'Ilb ,Illet tht'II'

parents were oblIged to sign .Ill a!~lee1llent thdt thev wOllld dlmk h).' the

reglilation. By thls re!~lIlatlOn a l'l'male MlISllll1 stuelclIl W(I~ 110 IOIl!~t'l'

permltted to wear the JI/bah (MlIslim women's c1olllll1!~). ~()()II "Itel tht'

regulation was Implemented, many woman stlldenb who ~t III WOIt' tht'

JI/bab were dismlssed. ReactIOns rame not only lrolll thl' studl'Ill~ hui

From the IslamlC orgamnltlOns a~ weil. the MUt 01 1 hl' Wl\~t I<lv" ll\t~I()1I

issued a fa~wa concermng the Jllbah that )t WdS ()blll~"t()l'y (Willlh) 101'.1

c -, female Musltm ta wear thls dothlflg.·h. the (entrai BO<lld of tht' MUt "bo

sent a letter to the Mlmster of Lducatloll dl1d (ulttlle ~t"tllll~ th". tht'

wearing of the JI/hah netther mtetfel'ed wlth the hannolly 01 thl' ~( Iwol

nor hindered learning activltles. l he ban on weal'lll!~ tlle JI/hal) loI' tl)('

Muslinl students would, in fact, bnng about psycholol~l('al cl I~I l'e~~ III 1 II('

students who wanted ta obey the rules of thelr relI!~lon.9 3 1 hl~ IS~lIC was

resolved only recently, with the cancellatlOn of thls f'(~J~lIl"tl()1I aller

severa} years of implemcntatlon. Now Musltrn wornan ~tlldellt:--. art'

allowed to wear the JI/bab.

91 For further JiscussJOn on thls Issue, sec Z.S. Nainm~olan, Pundungun Cendekl!4wan MUS/lm terhadap P4 (Jakarta Gema Isra lJtama, 1 <J<)()). chaNel' 3 passim.

92 Yunan Nasution, Islam dan Prob/ema-Problema Kema\yarukalUn (Jakarta Bulan Btnlan~, 1988), 135 .

93 Ibid., 136.

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93

Anot her I~,>ue wa~ that of "the 1 aw of National Education System"

wtlH h wa~ pr ornulJ~ated ln Decembcr 1988 to replace the 1-.ducatIO!lal Law

of 19')0. ~lII('e It wa~ a bill, It provICled no (Iear explanatlOn of the status

of r('h!~lou~ I~duc allon. , lowevel, Il beromc rncreaslI1gly c1car Ihat bill

l'clel~aled 1 clIJl.IOll~ l'dlH atlOn to "lIlformdl education" ln the hausehoid.

1 he ~lattJ.., of (he l1111dyosah (blanlH school) and II\IN was Icft unclear.

One 01 It~ altH le,> ~tdted that (l«eptance of a ~tllclcnt ln an cducatlOnal

1I111t rnl1~ht Ilot d('pcnd on se}, lellglOn, racc, social statu s, and cconomic

(élp,\( Ity. Â':. l,li .1';, the I~sues of scx and relrglan weiC concerned, it

unpllClt Iy ail ('( t('(\ ~()Ille blamlc schools, espeually pesantrens, same of

whlclJ wei (' PlO\! Ided only for Musllm women or only for Mushm men.

1 he bill .. l';,() stdted that the all11 01 rlatlonal edu(atlon was ta develop the

natlollal Irle oi the whole Indonesml1 people who were "devoted ta the

011(" SlIpn,'!lIl' (,od". 1 hl';, stipulation drffelcd (Iom that appcanng 111 the

CBIIN (the B/Oad C;llIdchnes of the State's Po\;cy) whlCh placecl the word

"falthflll" (bl'nman) belore the wonl "dcvoted to the One, Supreme

C;od".~H I\s a mattel of fact, the bill scerned to try to elimmate gradually

word by word any statcment related to rclrglOus matters.

Reactions to the bill were of course very strong. lhe MUI, for

example, snon invltcd a number of Muslim experts on educatIOn and the

leadt'Is of Islamlc organllatlOr1S to dlscuss the matter. The result was a

nUlllbcr of Sll~n~cstlons for the unprovement of the bIll, whlch were

sublllltted to the P<uliament on bchalf of the Muslims. The

~).t "Natlolldl 1 ducatlOn BIll (RUU) Dlknas Roused Wldespread Suspicion Wlthin J)CVOlit Mllslrm Commumty Leading EstablIshment Muslim ()1T~\ll1/dtl()ns Co on Offenslvc to Modify It," IndonesIa Reports 36 (No vl'lIIber 1988) 11.

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l) ·1

Muhammadiyah. an Isldllll( orgdlll7dtlon whlCh 'Vd:- V('I\ 111\ 01\ cc! wlth

education in Indonesla and whlrh !lad de\'l~lopccl hundll'ds 01 ~l hoo!:- and

umverSltlcs throughollt the COlllltlV. also 1Il1ll1l'dl.ltt'lv 1 l',\( kt! iO thl'

issue. A Muhammadlyah Icaclcr. 11Iklll.1I\ IIdlul1. dlllll1ll'd th.lt the hlll \\'.1 ....

very secular-ollcntcd .\Ilr\ thdt It wouicl advl'I ~('I\' .11 Ict t hltllllll ~(ho()I~.

1)[ sorne of whICh welc :'cserved onlv loI' Illen 01 ollly loI' WO/lH'II. ) 1\\ I/~lIdl

sorne MlIhamllli.\cllyah ICddcl s lobbll~d the l~O\ l'IIlIlH'llt (II cll'\. l'~pl'l 1,IlIv

the M1l11~ter of RehglOus Affdlrs, the (oo/dlllatl!1g 1\1 III 1 !-.tl'I ni SOII,,1

Welfarl', the MlnIster ot Lducatlon dlHI Culture .• lIld IIH~IIII)('\'~ ot

Parliaml'nt for sa me amendmcnts to the bill.

The Minlstel' of [dllc.ltlon and Culture Icspondl'd to tlH' IntI< 1\111 hy

assunng the Ml1slim rOlllnlu\1Ity that rel~glou!-. l'dw i111011 wOllld Ilot IH'

neglected and that ItS ClIl'l'Iculutl1 would 1('ll/dlll 1111,1( t. \o/nc ("<lIII~(''-,

were then made in clccordanc e wlth Ihe allH'lIdllll'lllS pl ()po~('d hy tllC'

Mushm factIOn. As a rl'sult. the bdl nn lon!~el thrcatcllt'c! IIH' l'XI~,tl'IlC (' 01

religlOlIs edllcatlo~ III the clIrllcullim ,'li tl1(' eXI~tl'IlC t' 01 hl,lIllI( ~c "oob

themselves. It cven af(mllcd thclI pO~ltlOn Irl tlle natIOnal ('C!tll <ltlOI)

systèm. The bill was passed by the Parllal1lcnt to the :-,atl:-,I,I( 1 JOli 01 tll('

Mushm side.

Fmally, what is Important to note l'rom these ('a~e:.. IS t hdl l'ven IlJo1l1~h

the governrnent often tncd III evcry way possible \0 IIHlIt t IH' ml hlPl1I (' 0 f

religion in the state's al l'airs, It has, however, bC((HTlC mOI (' 1(,ll/l' nt

towards Islam than It had been III the (lfst year:.. of the 'New Orcier'

95 Ibid., sel' also SyamsuddIll, 199, quotim! 1 ur 1 U'itern J.wnomf( J<evww, 28 July 1988.

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rH'IIOc!. ')Ol!lP {JIJ\('lvel~ ~('C 1111~ as li (OfHC~~lon on the part of the

1~()V('III"J('lJt to th(: 1~I{\frll(, l~l()llP~ but only msofar as non-polltlcal

111.111('/\ dl!~ {OIH('/I1Cd ()()

(H; Sec 1 co Suryadll1ata. "PolrtlGlI ContestatIOn in IndonesJa," in Po/Itlcal COIl(cslalT(I/1' Ca\'c .\twilcs I-rom IÎS/{l, ed. Norma Mahmood and Zakaria Ildlll\hlll<\d (Silll~<lpon' Ilclllcmann I\sla. 1990).25-26.

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CIIAPl ER .~

TOWARDS A HARMONIOUS RI LA nONSlliP

PancasHa as tltt' Sole rounlle.lion for Parties and Mas~ Or~anil,.tion~

which obtainccl ()4.3,t pel( l'lit 01 1 Ill' vol l'. Il "Ill (l'l'dcd III dl'Il'dllll!~ li~,

nvals III ail the IJrGVlIlces 01 Illd()I1l'~I<l l''\( l'pt Â( l'h, Wltl'Il' tlll' "l'l' \\d',

stIll the choirc of the Ilhllollty, !~dIllIlJj( [il).OX 1)('1 (t'III (JI IIH' 1()llt! \ot('.

l'rom thê way the ppp 1<l1l ItS ('<ll1lpal!~lI, thl' IlJX.! l'Il'( tlOIl 111<1" dkd tll,ll

Islam stIll served dS a rallYlllf~ pOlllt (lnd, III I,IC t, '-.1 dl Il,ul P()lltH ,II .1\)(lI',d.

lherc was COlleel1l Oll the plul 01 tlll' )~()Vl'llIlllI'll! Ih,lt IIH' (Jl'1~,1',I('I\( (' 01

the Islarlllc appcal in polltlCs would 1)(' (dpdblt' ()I l'('()dlll!~ tilt' l}dllOlldl

politlcal systcm. Thus,lt IS not SlIlpll~IIlI~. dS )IIlYddllldid .,.ty'" Ih,,1 tlll'

govcrnmcnt should have dc( Ided !o dt' hldllll/l' Indolll'''ldll j)o\Jtl( " III tll('

1987 clection.1

IndIcations that the !~ovcrnlllcllt 1I11l'I1<1('d to plll~)ll(.' d poil< y 01 dl'

IslamlZlng Indonesian pollti(~ appe(\lcd III the PIl'~ldcllt'~ ~)p('('( Il hl'lo/('

Parliament on 16 August 19~2, soon alt(,1 tlJ(' cle( tlOl1. ()II till', ()( (a~,I()1I

he mcntlOned the PO~Slblllty 01 ~)lJbstlllltlll!~ the <l1I1t'1('lIt Hll'olol',I('" 01

the polrtlcal partlcs wlth one and tht, ~,l!ll(' Id('()lo!~y, 1.('., !Jll/)( U\lftl III<'

plan constitllted part of the "pa('kal~(''' de~I!~ned hy tire !~()Y('I /llII('lIt to

enhance "natIOnal polrtlcal slablllty" by ~t'Itlllp, d~"cI(' tll<' "ldl'lIt"YJlll~

charactenstic" possessed by the two partlc'--" Ill<' ppp wltlr Il:, "hlatll\("

Leo Suryadmata, MII/tury !I\cendunLY und IJO/IUlUl (allUr/' !\ \wrJy 0/ Indonesla's Golkur (Athcn~, OhIO OhIO !JtlIY('I\lly, (('111('1 lOI International StuclJcs, 1989),100.

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97

Idelltlt y alld t h(' P[)I Wlt h It ~ ~Io~~dn of "nat IOnahsm". 511Ch dlstmctlveness

wa~ (On~ldeled as plomotJnl~ polallzatlOn whlch contnbllted to group

lalldtlC 1~1l1 at the cxpen:-.c of natIOnal lInlty ln paltlcular the spectre of

pa~t /1I~t()IY Wd~ lé!l:-.cd whcn thc multl-palty sy~tem of the 1955's was

1 II('d d~ PIOdllllllf~ fanatH 1~1ll and clc( toral deadlock.2

1 () dVOld IIdl m/u/ Idc()lol~l( al compctltlon, thc govcmmcnt proposcd

that ail pOIlIICd/ paltle~, a:) weil as mass-orgamzatlOns, subscnbe to the

saille Id('ol{)!~y, thc !'lIl1UJ.\I1a, and (ocus thclr strugglc on advdncmg

/lilllOIl,d </(oveloplllcnt. ln othcl words, ail POlttH al partlcs should become

Illort' "PI()!~ldlll o/lcllted" lathcl thdn "Ideology-ollcntcd". Jt was explarned

that IIH' two polrlu ,d pdltlCS, as weil as C.olkat, should entlrely desert

tlH'1I Idt\ol()!~I( ,II Ollclltat Ion, ancl glvc economlc developmcnt thelr pnme,

01' at It'a:-. •. equ,lI dttcntlOn. Wlth rcgéHd to thlS, A/flan, an Indoneslan

SI holdl' of /lollt Il <II ~( ICl1re, states (hat the "~ole foundatlOn" was mtended

10 elld Id{'()i()i~1C ail ol1tlovcrsy among thc polItical parties m Indonesia.3

111 the 1 calrty 01 the Indollcstan pohtlcal system, once the government

pJ'Opose~ a plan, the Parlrament can do httle cise but discuss the proposai

and mlopt II. IllIs htlppells In most cases. Thc sanlc can be sald In the

('ase of the dlOH e 01 the Pancas/la as the sole foundatlon for polttlcal

(hll'tles .lIlcl lI1ass-oq~a(\17atlons. In Its plenary sessIon held III 1983, the

Senatc made d st Ipulatlon, narnely MPR DeCISIOn No.II/MPRIl983

('OIH l'll1l11l~ the CBIIN (CencI dl Outlines of thc State': !Jm:~ctlOn). The

, )

~ SeL ~,L :{1I~11 ".HII11. j'Cljll!l1IWI1 ParlaI Pol/lIk dl Indollcsta Sebuah PoO'et l'IISlIl1O SlÏllIl tl.Ü,dlt .. RaJ.\wali l'crs, 1983),219-220.

3 I\lfl<ll1. "lllal1l<1. llllldt Isl<llll. dan Permlu," jurnal ilmu Polillk 3 (988)' ~l.

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stIpulatIon states. mtcr allll. that to enhalH l' polttl! ,II :-.t,lbdlt\' ,IIH\

constltutlOnal and democratlc hie based on the 1 ~H~l ConstltutlOll.

national lItl1ty must be strell~thel1ed. 101' tl1l:-' IHIIJ)(}~l' ,1Il(\ 101 thl'

pUl'pose of the perpetuitv and applt( atHHl nI the /'lIllu/.\,ltI. tlll' :-.O( 10

polttlcal forces. espeClally pohtlcdl pdl t IC:-' ,\lHI ColI,"I. would Il.I\'l' 10 hd~l'

themselves solely UpOIl the 1'(/11((/.\11(/:1 III ol'dl'J' to 1l',t1I/l' tlm 1I1.lIlddll'.

the government in 1984 Sllbtllltted Ilvl' bIll:-. to thl' 1'.\lIt.\IIH'llt. I.l' .. thl'

Election Bill, the Politlcal Partlcs and Colkal' ÂIl1l'IHIIIIl'1I1 Bill. IIH' 1\1.1:-'-;

Orgamzatlon Bill, the Referendulll BIll. alld the I>I'R/MI'R Bill 1 () ()1!~"l1l/l'

discussions of these bills, the l'allldtllent IOlllll'd cl SPl'( 1.11 ( 0111111111 ('l' \l'cl

by Dr. Suhard Iman, a mcmber 01 Pdlhalllcnt IlolllIIJl' (,olk"l I(H 11011.

Smcc the latter two bIlls. I.e .• the Referendulll BIll dllel the I>I'IUMI'R

Bill, were adopted without prolonged dcbatl's. the IlIsl tlll(,(" whll'IJ weil'

directly connected to the problem 01 the J)aflu/"lll\ pOSltlOIl as thl' ha~l!'>

for party constItutIOns, were progress1ll1~ slowly. 1 hl' 1 1('( 11011 BIll. will! Il

required the polttlcal partIes and Colkal to ('olllollll 10 thl' Pl/nul"lll III

the use of electlOll symbols, wm; IrIltlally oPP()~l'd by lIlally l'PP IIll'IIIIH'1 <,

for the l'eason that the eltmmatlOn 01 the palty'!'> (III relit 11l!'>1J~11I", d

plctul'e of the "Ka'bah", wOlild mean blllrrllll~ tlll' I<.lallll( Id('1l111y 01 Iht'

PPP, so that It would be cllfflCllIt 101' thls party to altlac! tlle Mll<,IIIW.'

support. However, havlIlg no (hol( e the PPP lac t Ion evenlllally 1 dt du'c1 r

this bIll befol'e the deadltne for ItS dl~(,us~lOn.·)

4 See "ClarifIcation of the Law of the RepublH 01 IndonesI3 No. ~ 01 1 ()H'J

Concerning Polltical PartIes and Golkar," quoted III Ibl(J. 4:) .

5 Suryadinata. 103 - 104.

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99

III d( eptlnl~ thl~ bill a~ the natlonallaw, the ppp coutd no longer use

fhe Pl( turc of Ihe "Ka'bah" a~ the emblem of the party but had ta change

Il mlo one 01 Ihe symbols of Ihe live pnnClples of Pancaslla. 1 h( "star"

Wrnbol 01 the Pun(u\/Ia, whlch symbollzes Bellef ln the One, Supreme

(Jod, eVl'lItually bec atlle the rholce ta replace the symbol ot the "Ka'broh".

111I~ emblern (Ihe "~Iar") was u~ed ln the 1987 Election. Al the same tlme,

the "~till" I~ aho popular In Indonesia as the emblem used to market a

iJialld 01 ale 0110111' beVef<lge, namely "BIr l3intang" (Star Beer), whlch IS

lIalurally a dllllk prohlbitcd (~uram) ta J\.illslims. The antagonIsm

mllelellt III the ~yrnbot created a dllemma for the ppp and the Mushms. On

the one hamf. BelIer III Cod In the concept of J aW~1Ïd (God's Umty and

)OVCI l'II!/lty) 1:' f Llllclamcntdi to Islam. On the other hand, alcoholic

hCVl'1 al~l'~ al e ~olllet hmg to be avolded by ail Muslnns. Ilow thls sItuatIOn

ail ccll'd Ind()/Ie~ldll MlI~hm~ was Joklllgly descnbed hy A.bdurrahman

Walllcl t the NU Ccnclal Challmant alter thls orgamzJtion deCided to quit

the 1'1'1' "1 am rcally III a dlffllllit posItion. 1 am Just IIke a drunk. after 1

I!ulped dowll "B,,· Bllltang" (star beer), 1 leancd aga1l1st "Benngin" (banyan

tree) III~ht away and then 1 was attacked by "Banteng" (wild bull).6

COIlSCfltll'ntly, the chOlre of a "star" as an emblem was not beneflclal, in

tenus of attractlllg the Musilln voters to the PPP. Besides glvmg the

impression tlMt the ppp had abandoned its "Islamlc id~ntlty", It also

G IlllS t'XIHCSSlO1l or J\bdul1'ahman Wahid IS slgniflcant III the context of the NlJ's QUlttmg the PPP, Wahld's subsequent appomtment to the SCIl,lte 011 bchalf of the Golkar factIOn, and a senes of events whlch lalscd Sll~pJ('lons dbout hls closeness wlth sorne POl and Chnstlan Illeles. sce Bddll YatJrn, "') anpa Rekonslliasl NU akan Pecah," Pan); MaSVWllka( (ldkdrta), 21 Apnl 1987, 24. In the Indonesmn polltlcal (ontext, "Blllt<lIlg" (star) IS the emblem of the PPP, "Benngm" (banyan tll'C) i~ the cmblem or Golkar and "Banteng" (wild bull) IS the emblem 01 t hl' PD\.

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100

became the obJect of attack III the call1palgll~ ni otl1(.'1 conlesl,Hlls. who

msmuated that the ppp was a party of dlunkaJ'ds. \ hese IIllpl't'~~I()IlS. 01

course, dlscoulaged some electoJ's lrom votlll!~ 101 the PP\'.

The Polttlcal 1\IJ'ty and Col"al Âlllelldlllelll Bdl, \VIl\( Il Il()\\ Ill'( .Hlll'

law, also genelated heated debate,:;. !\{Cl)rdllll~ to Ilw, bIll, .. II polrllt.II

parties and Golkar were hencefolth obltged to h.tve /'O"(t/\I/U"~ Ihell ~(llt'

foundatlOn. Golkar Itself had, III fact, Ilom the ollbt't ~\Ib~( ItlH'd 10 1 Ill'

Pancaslla in full. '\ he bill was, thus, dlJ'l'ctec! at the olht'I Iwo polll\( ,II

parties, whrch subscl'lbed to both the Plll1ClI.,llli .tIHI 10 1 ht'II \('~IH'( IIVl'

Ideologies for thelr raIson d'ètre. III th~ (a~e 01 tht' 1'1'1' Il w .. ~ litt'

Pancaslla and "Islam", whdl' thc J>Dl's baSIC IOlllldtll101l Wtl~ /'(1/'1 I/\I/li ,\lHI

"nationahsm". l hls was In Ime wlth I.aw No. '~ol 1(7 1) (,Olln'IIIIII,~ l'ohl Il ,II

Parties and Golkar? Now, arcordlll~r to the bdl, polltl! ;,! Jl .. IIIl'~ would

have to subscnbe solely to the PanccIslla. Ide()lol~)(\~ othl'I tll"ll tht'

Pancaslla cspoused by the ppp and thc l'DI, whl! Il c!cnol('d "1!1{'III"YIII,~

charactcnstlcs" and which c1lfferentlUtl'd cm Il pa:'cy, weil' 10 IH' ilhl)lr~lll'cI

Nevertheless, thls regulatlon, acroldin!~ lO !\Illan, dlc! 1101 l'IlIlIlIltllt' III('

distinctiveness of each party. Their spcCifle chara( tellsll( <, wOllld dPIH'ill

ln their programs and 111 thelr apploa('hc~ to l'XaI1lIlIIl11~ ,llld :-.()Ivlllf~ t I:l'

broad problems of natIOnal devl'loprnellt.8

ln additIOn, thc bdl abo stlpulated that memlJer~llIp III t he pal t Il'~, ,lI1d

Golkar was open to ail Indoneslalls a~ long a~ t!ley !JJ('! tire flH'trlIJCI',IIIP

conditions as stlpulated III the thapter 8 of the bdl, lel~aldle~~ of the

7 See Alftan, 50 .

8 Ibid., 45.

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101

/ cill~IO" 1 hey pl(}f('~<,ecl. 1 hcrel 0/ c, as far as t he ppp was concerned, thls

pa/ly wa~ ohllf~ed abo to wel( ome non-Mushms Into their membershlp

bcc au<,c fonnally wOllld no IOrlJ.~er be an exclllsively MlIsllm party. The

PI'P Ilkc' the PDI h"cI 110 (hol( c but to accept the bill wlth aIl ItS

(O"'>CqlH~"('(·~. 1 co ~u/yadlt1atd a~sllmcs that thelr acqlllescence ta the

Iwo bills, I.C., Ihc lice lIOn Bill and the Polltlcal Parties and Golkar

AllIelldlJ1t'1I1 Bil l, w,,:-. probably acJlIeved under great pressure from those

III powc/.9

\Vllh ti1c~c ('hallf~es, the Islamlc pohtlCal force, In t('rms of an Islamic

pohtH'al p<\lly, has now dlsappeél/ed. The new Cllcumstances, m additIon

10 tlH' l'l'l''s mteillai dIspute and the wlthdrawal of the NU from the l'PP,

dlcl III 'lHI aflect the performance of the lattel ln the 1987 electlOn.

Although Iht' l'l'P 1:-' no IOIl~~cr an Islarme party and IS open ta non·

MlI~lun:-., nevel thele~s, SII1( e therc has been no slgntflcant improvement

III Ihls party, it IS llndclstandable that non-Mllshms would not want to

vole loI' It.lnstead, the NU, the malll ol'gamzation supportmg the PPP, quit

tlll~ party when Nam still held power. '1 hose who formerly voted for the

1'1'1' lH'ht've t hat the party is no longer a channel for accommodating

Ml/sIIIIlS' a~pllatIOl1s. 1 hls 111Ight be an exaggeration, but the PPP could

Ilot cvcn JlI(lIlal~t' Ilself and never sllcceeded in wmnmg any power on the

InclOlH'SI.m polit/{ al scclle. Most of ItS hretlme, espeClally llnder Naro's

il'adcr~h,p, WtlS pa~sect III mternal lupture and III vymg for a posItIOn m

th'~ 1'.lrIJalllellt. 1 hc 19H7 e1eClIOIl wltnessed the flrst performance of the

1'1'1' llltcr SUbSfl'lblllR to l'ancas/la as ItS sole fOllndatlOn. In thls electlOn

9 ~l'e Sun'ddmata. lOS.

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1 () ~

the ppp could only obtalll 15.97 pel' cent 01 tlll' \ otl'. whll Il Illl',lll:- 1 I.l'\l)

per cent less than that It obtamcd \Il the 19H2 l'lertlOn. 10 New hupe 1ll,1\'

be ,~ntrustcd to the ncw leadership of the l'Pl' lllHler h III ,II 1 Il.t:-,lll

Metarcum, who was clected the new Cenel<ll { h.lll'l11tll\ 01 thl' PI'!' \Il Its

conventIOn on 28-31 August 19H9 111 lakat ta. 1 1 110\\,l'v('I, It I~ ,IS yl'I

untested.

The longest dcbatc was that on t he M,lss-()I!~alll/,lt toll Bill. 1 hl'

contents of the bdl were very controvcrslal but qlllte :-11.lII~htl()lw(lId. Il

requircd mass-orgamzatlOns to subs(,l'lbc to t he l'WH li \1 III tlS 1 hl' ol1ly

foundation of thelr orgamzatlons. In addltloll. tht.' bill :-,t.ttt.'d th.lt Ihl'

government would ?lllde these orgal11l'atlolls bul thdt, lOI (l'Itdlll It'd:-'()ll~ ..

it could also l'l'ceze and evcn dissolve ally oq~anl/<ltloll Wl't (' It 10 violait'

one of the followlng l'Ules

(a) to engage m i:lctlvltles whlch dlsturb sccllnty dml puhlIC (Jldel

(b) to recelve forelgn asslstanle wlthout !~Ovetllll1el1t appl ov,t1. alld

(c) to receive foreign assIstance whlch could héltrl1 the Il)t('tl'~ls (JI Ihl'

nation and the state.12

10 Ibid., 139.

Il Ismall Hasan Metarcum was born ln Pidle (J\rch) Oll Ij J\pl il 1 (JL<). Ill' graduated From the Faculty of 1 aw 01 thc IJnlvel<,lly 01 Il\d()Il(,~.Ia. From 1971 untll the present he ha~ Iwcll a rncmlH'1 01 ""1'11<111)('111 From the PP[-, factiOn. m 197}-}CJ77 he Wd~ \('( I('t,tly 01 tlll' l'l'l' factIOn, ln 1977/1978 Chatrtnan COmtllls:-'lolI 1 01 the 1'''111''1\(('111 "Ile! VICe Chmrman of the ppp lactlOn. and :-'lIlC C 1 ()X') IId'> <'C'I veel il:,

General Chalrman 01 the PPP, !>cc o.e. Roed(,1 dlHI M,!llIdlll M,!lIIIIIICI, eds. Who's Who ln Indone~/U 8/O(lruph/(~\ 01 IlrnnlJ11l'tll Indolll'\/uf1 Persona/lUes ln ail IICld!), !>ccond (,(lttliH) ()IIl!~dJ)(lIt' (,lll\lllll~ J\1'.11I11~. ] 980), 172, Syamsuddm Ilaltls. "PI'" dlHI Polit ((', IIIHIC'I Il)(' N('w 'Jrder," Pn",ma J he fndonc\/Un fndl(u(or -1() (JIIII(, 1 C)IJ(» 1·11'). Nd',l1 Tamara, "Islam Under the 'New Ordcl' J\ 1101111( id 1II',UlIY," III JlJI(!. 1 K .

12 See Suryadtnata. lOS, ~ee aho Ihc "1 dW 01 the l{c'rJlJblIC 01 IlIdOIl("""

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103

IIOUI It~ tltle to ItS rlOSJn~~ ~tatements, the bIll presented no end of

problern.., lor ParlJament. Arcordmg to the "Inventory List of Problems"

rcc ordee! by the ~pe( léd COnllmttee and Wo/' i,mg Commlttee, there were

H() ploblern~ dl~(ov('red lelatmg to the prerogative nght of mass-

01 galll/al Ions, en~lJt 01 wha h were consldered as cruCial and WhICh

thetelole 1('( elvcd Ihe bllik 01 the discusslOn.1 3 DISCUSSIon of these

H1attel~ Id~ted one mOllth and a hall. OppositIOn came not only from the

l'l'l'and Il (Jill 1 Ile PDI rnembers III the Parltament, but also to a large or

l'ven 1~J'(\atcl l'xt l'Ill Iiont r elIglOlIs organizatlOns, whlch were concemed

that the Il Il 1 would mtelvelle In thcl!' mtclnal affalrs. ThiS attitude on the

part 01 1l'11I~lOlIS ()1I~dll1/.dt Ions Wd~ pl edlctable because It was the fIrst

tmH' Ihl' 1~()Vl'nllllcnt IIltcrvened 111 slIch lundamental affalls. Some of

thcllI wei e appl clJen~lvc t hdt thc PancasJ/a woule! eventllally became a

Ilew "1l'III~I()Il" III Inc!ollesla 01 t hat reh~~lon wou Id be "PancasIIa-lzed". It

was chllf( ult 101' thelll to (ln cpt this reality.

Alter one and a hal( months of dISCUSSIOn, the bIll was eventually put

to a vote. Morc than 1 If ty per cent of the members of Parltament

reprl'sentll1I~ the lour factIons of that body votect for the bIll.14 ThiS

important l'vent took placc on ] l May 1985, but the bIll itself was

1]

No.H 01 1 <JHS ConccllllnI~ Mass-Orgamzatlolls," In Alfran, 50.

1 hosl' nllClal problell1s were the tltle, the gllldance of the mass-OII~i.HlJ/lltlons, thc relation bctwecn Pancaslla and relIglOus lIre, the 1 rcclIllg 01 thc board and dissolution of the organizatlOns, the HClicral rC!~lJldtlOll and ItS c1anflcatlOn, the c1anfIcatlOn of the term "loundatlOn" (mas), the c1anfICatlOn of the transitlOnal regulatlOns, .me! the COIlSldcldtlO1l of the bIll, see U'" (Iqbal Abdllrrauf) Smmlma, "RlJlIK, ~rtlllll (II Bulan SUCl," Plll1Jl Masyarakat (Jakarta), Il Jum 1985, 1 S.

1-' Sct' SlIIVi.H!l1ll\td, 107.

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\ () 1

ofhCIally promulgrlted on 17 IUlle 19W1. In ,\l'Cl'ptllll~ tll(' 1\1,\~s

Orgamzatlon BIll as law. debate arnong the I"ctlons 111 the \'.\rllament 01\

the flve "packages" plOposed by the i~o\'eIl1ll1l'nt weIl' ~lIn l's~llIlI\'

concluded. ~Jow ail mass-olgall17atlons 1I\ Indoncsl,\ lMd to \lIh:-.( llile to

the Pancas/la as thelr IOllndatloll. 1 hls lel~1I1,\tt()1l W.I~ to .tpp\y 10

orgamzatlOns all'cady establtshed, d~ weil .I~ to th()~c l'st.dlll:-.lH'd .lItl'l

1985. All had to accommodatc thcll1~e1ve~ 10 thl' Ill'W :-'llu.ltlotl III ntdl'I

to survIve. It was nonethcless apparent that t 11l' gOVl'rnllll'nt w.t:-. Il'~l'Ilt('d

for ItS lIlSlstence on cndlllg Ide()lol~IU\1 (OIll\H't It 1011 and Jll\pO~lIll'.

uniformity.

Responses to the Concept of the Sole Foundation of Pancasila

ReactIOns to the concept 01 the ['lIl1U}si/a as the ~()Ic 100Jlld(It10Il 01

thp pohtlcal parties and mass-on~afll/cltlon~ (aille Ilot ollly 11'0111 t Ill'

politlca! partIe') themsclves but also flolll almost evely Sel~lHellt 01 tilt'

sOClety.15 ln this palt, the dISCUSSIon w"l lonl~ only 011 tl.e Il',\( tlon 10

the law of flve mass-orgamzatlons whtch l'l'present V,1I101l~ I~I Ollp~ III

society and/or dlffrrcnt trends 01 1~larrJ\( tllOul~ht tlll' Nil, the

Muhammadlyah, the M UI, the IIMI, (the IslatrJlc Unlvelc."ty \t IIdellt

ASSOCiation) and the Pli (the Islamlc Student I\~:-.O( lat JOli). 1 he 1 e~p{)II~(,

of most of thesc orgamzatlOns, many 01 whom were \llIt wlly Ilot very

keen on changrng their orgamzatlOnal 1 ou ndat IOn, wa~ ('vent lIally t 0

15 Strong cntlcism IS explcsscd, fOI cxample, by I)('IIal NO('1 III tlJ', book Islam Pancas/la dan I\)a~ 1 unÇlÇlul (Jabn ta Yayac.,'H! l'el killdmatan, 1983), chapter 2 passIm.

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105

(orllply wlth Ihe law tri order to aVOJd be;ng banned. 1he NU, the

MllharnrniHllyah, the MUI and the HMI are examples of Islamlc

OI!~alll/aIIOIl~ whlC'h took thts path ln order to survive. The NU JO fart

C)lIIte easlly a( ('l'pIed the Pancas/la é\S ItS orgamzatlOnal foundatlOn.

Itowev('[, there weIl' al~o ()q~amzatJOns whlch maintamed thelr former

I(feolo!~y un( han!~l'd. Consequent/y, those organll:atlOns were banned. The

Pli I~ a r a~e Jll p01l1t. Rather than havlIlg Pancas/la as its orgamzational

1 oundat 1011 t he Pli 1 emallled based on Islam. 1 G

ln {'Oll1plJ(trlc(' wlth the l'l'solution 01 the "NU Convention" of 1979 to

"letuIII to the KlllllalJ (sptrtt) of 1926", when the NU was actIve as a

1l'llgI()lI~ lI1a~s-orgdl1l:1atloll (jamCïyah), the polItlcal Ideology for the NU

Wd~ [lO lonf~(,1 sel'n <\<; 1 devant because It was no longer a polttlcal

{JI gillll/iltlOII. 11l1~ I~ one of the [casons why the NU caslly acccpted the

concept 01 I1dVlIlg the Pancas/la as Its sole foundatlOn wlthout much

dPl)att'. 1 hls dl'Cl~lon was made at the "NU Ulama Congress" held at

SltU!JOlldo, 1 ;\~t Java, 111 19S3, a declsJOn whlch was confirmed and ratlfled

hy the "NU ( onvcntlOn" hcld a year later. What caused thls decislOn to be

so eastly a('('cpled was the attitude of the leading ciAama> of the NU, who

hac! l',\llter madt.' .\ pohtlCal statement that the maJonty of Indonesmn

Mushms and l lJl1l11111) we! e 01 the opllllOn that acccptlng the Pancaslla

was .\Il oblIgatlOll. r11ls declaratlOn was reported by K.H. Asad Syamsul

i\nlm. il prOllllllent NU LAllln to the president.

IG Sel' "Pli and CPM Banncd By Government For Not Complying Wlth S<lChll OI1~al1l/at Ions I.aw," IndonesIa Reports 30, (May 1988) 27, <1l1011l11! J..OI11f1l1S ()dkarta), 2G )anuary 1988.

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lOb

ThIS deClslOn ot K.H. Asad was. III facto pt clllatul'l' hel dl1~l' 1 hl' 'NU

Ulama Congress". not to mentIOn "N lJ ConventIOn". had not )'et 1H'l'1I I\l'Id.

and the meetmg wlth the presIdent was, III tact, Illtl'nded d~ ,1 Illl'an~

toward smoothmg the procedure 01 the l ongtl'S~. II00vl'"el. IH'( "1I~e Il

came from the l Ulamâ '. the deClslon bec,lIne SI~~lltl Kdnt and hllHllIlg. In

this regard. l:.mar Martahan Sltompul IllcntlOm thll'e ll'd~On~ wh)' the

CUlama)'s statement became bmdlllg on the "NU Ulalll<l ( on!~le~s" ,'~ wl'II

as on the "NU ConventIOn". Ill'st. the lUlamü'. wlth tltt'II 1'(,\UI1I1I'/I

(tradltlOnallslanllc sehool) basl~. hac! stl'On~~ chansllIa III lite l'yl':-' 01 thPl1'

followers. The cUlamü ' h. ) weIl' the IIl1lldtOtS 01 the dp( I~I()II~ tll,HIe III

the "NU Ulama (onl~less" III Sltllbondo (1 l'., K.II. Ali Mtlk:-'lIll1. 1,.11. M,Il 111,,:-'

Ali, K.H. Asad Syam~lIl t\lIfm. and K.II. Ahmad ~I\ld(ltq) Wl'Il' (1I,1I1:-'III.ltll

cUlama> and leaders of lal1~e pcsantrem'. \e( ol1d, tl)(.' Nil (lIftlll/o' ,\1(,

tradltlOnal I~latnl( \cadel~, wh()~e deI 1~IOIl~ ale (OIl:-'I(\('Il'd Ilot t () 1)('

based mercly on politlCal «()Il~ldelatlOns but l\lt1tl'1 011 Idll~IOll~ ()1Il'~.

Third. thell' follower~ belleve t hdt a~ leadl'r~ 01 1 he u111/1/(/I1. t ht' ( lfltlfllt/)

are aware of the clevclopmellt and the needs of tlH' u11111l{/h. 1 7

As was expected. the "NU Ulama Conf~r('ss" (ontmned K.II. Asad's

statement m the form of a deriaratlOn as lollow~

1. The Pancas/la. as the basls 01 the ReplIblH 01 Illdollt'~)la and the state'~ phJlosophy, IS not a r('II!~IOII, IH'IIlIel (.III Il replace religIOn nor bc referrcd to a~ repla< Jnl~ r(,"!~IOII.

2. The pnnClple of the "Belle! III One, )lIplenll' Cod" d~, II\(· foundatlOll of the Repllbll( 01 Indont'~I(l, (I~ "tdl('cI ln Chapter 29 artICle 1 01 the 1 94'; COII~tltutJ()1I will( fi 1~1Vl'~ IIfe to other pl'ln(Jple~, rcflee t~ "rnon(}thel~llI" Uawhuj). accordltlg ta the mearlln!~ of belle! (iman) JrI bldtll.

3. For the NU, 1~lam IS (Aqïdah and ')had-{/h, W/lI< h (OVt'I~)

17 Emar Martahan Sltomplll, NU dan J)anunIlu, wlth IOlcword IJY Abdllrrahman Wahld (Jakal ta Pust aka )lfIdl Iidi dpan, 19W)), 1 ()') J (,f>.

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a~p('( t\ 01 the leiatlOnshlp of a human bemg ta hls or IlI'r (,ut! and t Ile rlltel l 'Iatron"hrp between hllman bcmgs.

4. IIIl' ,1( (eptanc c and unplementatron of the Panca~lla (OIl<,tJtlltC:--' d redh/'atroll of the Inclonesliln MlislIms' attcrnph to Implemcnt theH 1~lamlC Shari-uh.

IL Â':-. d e ()l\';-.eqllcrH C ,)f thr':-. (onvlC tron, the NU has an ()blr!~atJOn to marntarn corrcct understandmg about the !J(/f1uJ\I/{{Strid rt~ leal and (onsl~tcnt ImplementatIon by ail ':-.Idc~.

10?

Â':. a matter of fact, thc NU ante more showed the same

de {'()rnmodatItlI~ attitude to govcrnment pollCles that It had shown during

t hl' IH' 1 IOd of "ClIIded Democrary", when It accepted several rolJcies

wlllc h wcrc (ontrovci sial 111 the cycs of Mushms. Howcvcr, the

ae (cpt.lIlce Dt PlInu/\lla a~ It';, sole (oundatlOn by the NU orgalllzation was

Ilot mCll'ly d lI1t1tter of adoptmg an accomodatlvc attitude but was a

t 1l()J'(Hq~hly {'oll';,loered dCClslOn based on rcllglOlls Judgments put forth

hy thclr (UhHl1i1>. 1 hc baSIC leaSOtl for the a(ccptancc of the Pancaslla as

tilt' ';,ole (olllldatlOrl o( the NU was that the Pancas/la contamed baSIC

valuc';, will( Il alc not contwdlCtory ta Islam. 1 his rehgious consideration

was (onnulatcd as lollows

1 hc N lJ IS of the OpmlOtl that Islam IS a naturally good relll~J()1l (aÇ/uma fltr) whlch has a natural characteIlstlc for perlectmR the goodncss of human beings. The reltgious ( Olle l'pt of the NU IS that whatcver has a charactenstic of Pl'llL'ctlllg l~ood values bdangs to human bemgs and bl'(()Illl'S the (har(\ltcll~tH o( any glOup of people slIch as a natIOll. Il (tly~C)NU) docs not have any IIltentlOn ta remove t hc~c vailles ..

lurhh'I1110Ie, NlIleaclers arguecl that thls consideratIOn was supported

hy the hlstol/(\\I (acts of the Mushms' struggle agamst colomahsm and

l~ Sec "Keplltll~<lll IlasIl Musyawarah NaslOnal J\lim Ulama NU No 1I/l\1J\lINUIl4(H/1983," in Ibid., 211 (appendlx 2), translatIOn IS minè.

llJ 1 1 1)J( ., lb~-lb9.

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lOS

thelr efforts at defendlilg the IIldcpl'ndellll' 01 Ind()llc~I". 111I~ 11I~1(l11r.1I

consideratIOn \Vas meant to allirm that Indollcsl,Hl l\1ushm ",onet\ \""~ "Il

mtegral part of the whole Indone~lall SO( Icty WlllCh h,HI ~ttll\~l~kd tu

reach polttlCal tIldependencr and hdc! ,ll~l'l'cd to l'~t(!bll~1I (\ Rl'pllhlll 01

Indonesta.lhts agleement was v(llrd i\({()ldlll!~ 10 Isl(lIl! ,IIUI, tll\l~, \\',,~

naturally bmdlllg upon ail Indone~ltlll Pl'Ople. Ill< 11Idll\l~ 1 hl' 1\11l~llIm. t\

fllrther consequence of thls bmdlllg (!I~I l'l'llH'nt WdS t h"t Illd()lll'~1,1I1

Muslrms would havc thc oblIgation tn Illilllltdill tlll' Idt.'()I()I~y dlHI hd~IC

pnnClples of the stdte, tn Implemellt the pl'lllnpl{'~ and thl' ('OIl\tIIIlIIOIJ

of the state. to obey the l'ulel d~ lar as 1)()~~lhk wllhout Il Ill'llll'. ",~.tIIl~1

the law of Cod. and to (\ctlvely (Illd «()n~lllH Ilvl'ly pdltll l(ldl(' III l'\l'IV

effort to realtze the ~tate'~ pl OI~1 arns.20 1 hl' (H 1 {'(ltdlu l' ni 111(' 1'11111/1\1/11

as the sole foundatlon 01 the NU by thl'II' Il'adllll~ «(flomil' w(\~ Idldll'cl hy

the "NU ConventIOn" !wld III 1984 dl\(l Wtl~ pll'~l'nll'd III thl' !lI t'dl Il b'" ,II ICI

m artIcle 2, whcleas Its IslamI< Idelltlty emclgeci III Ille PI (',1111 IJh' dnd III

Chapter 3 of the NU Statutes.

Unltke the NU, whlCh had changed ItS olï~atli/dt l<lllai 1 oundill 1011

before the Law of Mass-Orgalllzatlllll was l'vell 1 dt "I{'d, 1 1 J('

MlIhammadlyah took the very carelul step of addptllW Ils OIj~dlll/dll()ll(d

foundation to the polttlral c1emand~ and pllt 011 II~ 011 Il lai dl'( 1\1011 1111111

the law was ratlflcd. ïhl~ pn~tp()nelll('nt cIlcI Ilot IIll'all Iltdl Il)('

Muhammadlyah was sccptlcal of adnpt 1I1!~ t he Pu ncu\lIa a~ It~ IOllllddllOIl,

but, as a large organl7atloll whose mechamsrn I~ mOle open (orIlpal'ecl ln

that of the NU, the Muharnrnacltyah bad to IIndellak!' ('Xll'IJ"IVI'

20 Sel' the statcment 01 K.Il. Ahmad )hld(lIq ln lIu\/1 Muklumar Nil /«' LI (Semarang Sumber Balokah, Il d.), Wj-Hb, quotN! tri IbId., 1 H~.

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109

(OII',lIltalioll', wlth It~ hranc he~ ~plead ail over the country.

1 () deill Wltlt the plOblern of the "~olc foundatlOn", thls organ/LallOn

"c!opl('d d IlIlIubei 01 med~lIle~ whl( h c an be c1assed under two headmgs

"1111('1 n,II (on<,olld"l 10/1", by holdmg ~everal meetIl1gs among Its leaders ta

(II~( li',,> the plOhlcflI and hy IIltell~lve communi( atlOn \VIth ItS branches,

and "{'xtel/ldl (OIllIllUIlH allon" wlth the government and other

()11~(ItIl/atlO/I~. I\~ IdI' as "cxtel nal cornmul1JcatlOn" \Vas concernecl, thls

l'/I 01 t ('(In ,d~o be '>l'('11 as 1 ()IIIWlf~ t wo ~tages. 1 he fil st stage bemg "pre-

1{'1~1~ldtlve nel~()tlatlOn", wllH Il was clone throllgh IIlforrnal and formai

t(dks. 1 h{' ~e( olld ~ta!~e was "~Ublllhsion o( proposais" to the factIOns of

l'dl "tllllen\. O/ICC t hl' Issue of the "~olc (oundat 1011 of l'ancus/la" surfaced,

the Muhd/llllJiHlly,lll foc ll~ecl ItS dttentlon on re~olvm1! thls Immecltate

plohlcllI II~ Ictldcl ~ Ihld held IIltll1y (oonal and IIlformal talk~ \VIth the

1~()VelnnH\llt dS wcll as wlth the Illembers of the Pa!llament,21 and

dlsctlssed thl' lIldtter wlthm the mller Clrcle of the Muhammadlyah Itself.

ln May l ~HU, tlw., ol!~anl/atlon hcld a mectlllg to ChSCllSS subsequent

developllll'llt ~ «(l1J( l'rnllll~ 1 he "sole lounclatlOn". This meetlllg reached

the 1 ollowlll!~ tl!~1 cement

21

1 hdt the [Jlll1c(/~/la be put mto its Statutes wlthout ('halll~IIl!~ lb hl,\IllH lounddtlon. 1 hat the IS~lIe W,IS a natIOnal problem faced by the Central Bo,lJ'(l 01 Muhdllllll,ld IVelh, thel cIo 1 e, plOvmClal and leglOllal bl,lI1('he~ were not lllstIflcd III glvmg opInIOns or t,ü .. mg a('tlon~ (,OI1('elll1ll!~ the Issue of the "sole 1 OlllHiat IOn". 1 h,lt dl~( lI~~IOn on the mattel would be helcl at the 41st Mllhamll1,uhY\lh ConventIOn whlch would be held III the nedl Itltllle ~'-

1 Ukllhlll Il,\11111, Mu J1llt1Il1111cflya11 dan Pancas/la (Jakarta Pustaka l\lI1JIII"I~. 19Hb), 3H.

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1 1 ()

Thesc pomts scrved as gllldelllle~ lOI 1 hl' 1\ III il,llllIlldd1\ ,III tu plll SIIl'

further talks wlth government nrc1l's. ln Ihl'~e l,lib tlH' I\luh,IIlIl11,HI!\ ,Ih

stressed the hlstory of the relatlOllshl\J bl'twcl'n tlle l\.111h,\Il11l1,HIt\'dh .Illd

Islam and that betwecn thl' MlIhal1111ladlY,lh ,md thl' 1"111' (l,do Il \\',,~

atflrmcd that the jJoncas/la \Vas Hot d problelll 101' I\hlhd:lIl\1ddl\'dh.

because its earill'I leadcls such liS KI Bal~ll~ Ilddd,lI~lIll1(). "'dh"l I\hl/d"I-II.

;md Kasman SmgoclImed.lo had hc\ped 10 IOlllllllale dlHI d('( t'pIed IIH'

Pancas/la as the statc's baSIC (Olllid,ltlon Oll 1 H /\lIl~IISt 1 1)·1'.. 111I~

argument would rnl'an that Pll11Cll'l/lli was Ilot 111 (Olltl"(\1< tlOIl 10 hl,lIl1

and thus coulcl be adopted and he Ill< Illded mIn 1 Ill' ~I"tllll'~ 01 IIH'

organtl.atloll. Neverthelcss. Iw( ,\lISe the MlIh<llllllldcllv,,1t w,,-; !J()III d~ "II

IsJamIC organllatlOn. It coulel Hot slIllply e1I1llllldtc tlH' 1'.1"11111 IOllllcl,ltlOII

subsc.nbed to at the tmle.23

Talks bctween A.R. rachl'llddm and 1 altllli ( 11<11 Il) ((,(~Ill'I ,,1 ( Iléllllllclll

and Chairman of the Forl'I~~n !\flall~ BlIlCtll1 (JI Ihe Mllhilllllll,,<lIy,tll.

respectively) and President Suharto h .. d made It ( kal thdt thl' !~()V('lllllll'llt

expected acccptancc of the Panca.\liu wlthout eqllIVO( "11011 ,lIul 1 Il''1 Illl'll'

was no room for compronllse on the pOIIlt. N('v('\'II\('ll'~<;, the

Muhammadlyah ('oulcl rnamtalllits 1~lanl\( Idclltlty lJy ,dllllllllll~ Il III otltel

chapters of Its ~tatlltcs, even tholll~h the fOllllddllOIl 01 tlte OII~"IlIl"II()11

had to be thr I)ancas/la, whlch wa~ to he 1/)( Illdeel III Ill<' (hdptl'I

concerning the foundatlOn of the organl/atlon.

22 Ibid.

23 See Dm ~yamsllddlll "MuharnmaclIyah c!<111 Rekilya~)d l'o!JIIK 01 de' B,lIl)," III MuhammadIYah Kml dan 1 ~()k, l'd. 1)111 \yarnc,lIdrlllJ (l,d/al 1 Il Pustaka PanJlmas, 1990), 1 (H.

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Ihe ~e(olld fmm whHh the MuhammaclJyah's efforts took regardIng

the law Wél~ the ~ubmlssJ(Hl of Ideas and suggestions In a wntten

amclldrnetlt to the J~ovel nment. 1 he sUJme~tlons covered almost every

stnJ~le (I~pe(t of the bill. from the ctefmltlon to the chapter concernIng

"Ill'e/llll~ (Jf the BOdid of Mds~-Organl/.atlOn", rhapter elght of the nme

') 1 (haplt'I~ 01 the blll:-' /\s legalds the channel through whlch the

Muham/lladlyah fUJ1neled ItS Ideas and suggestIOns, the MlIhammacllyah

prcfl'l1('d tltat Colkal woulcl be the one, however, Suhardlman, the

Chall1lldll of the ~peClal Commlttee of the rive Bills, suggested that It

~lIhllllt It~ Sllm~l'<;tl()IlS to the PPP, and GolkaJ would support. When the

deadhne iJl'llvl'd the Muhamllladiyah hac! ~lIcceeded III mcllldmg ail ItS

propo~dh 111 the "Invent(uy Iist of Problems" of the PPP. In the meantlme,

IteJ~ottatl()n~ wlth <.'vely fac tlOI1 III the Palhament and \VIth the government

went 011 111 older to Will ~lIPP()1 t for the amenclment It submltted to the

l'aritalllent.

l he 1ll.\l1l problems undetlymg the MlIhammadlyah's struggle m the

pohttral dOlllatll \Vele twofold (1) the relationshlp between religIOn and

masS-011~i.mllé\tlon. and (~) tlle relatlOnshlp between religIOn and the

fJul1ul'iilLi. Wlth re~~dJ'd tn the Ilrst problem, the Muhammadlyah asslimed

t hat 1 ehl!IOllS mass-ol g.lIll/'atlons had the prerogative to undertake

,,('tIVltICS III d( (ord<lJlec \\Ilth thc tcachmgs of their respective rehglOns.

As lor the SC( ()nd ploblclll. the 1\1uhammadlyah wanted an affirmatIOn by

thl~ l~ovclllIl1ent th<lt the Pal1U1sila would not be the fOCLIS of an attempt

to 1 cp l ,\l'l' religion 1101 would 1 e1tglOn be "pancaslla-Ized". On thls la st

2·' l'or Illore detdtls. scc Illkman lIarun. 45-52.

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point President Suharto gdve assllran('e.~·)

Many of the Ideas contnbutcd by the I\I1Ih,IIlHlI,HII\'tlh. III «(}I1( l'It \\.'Ith

other orgal1l/.atlons, welc IIHOIJ.)()Jdtcd III thl' 11Il,,1 \t'ISIOIl 01 thl' I,H\'.

Lukman Harun ch\lllls that dbout hO pCI( ellt 01 the I\ll1hdlllllld(hVtlll':-­

proposais \Vere 1I1(ludcd.2() 1111:-- cllolt ~1'1'1lI11l1dv IIlfllll'IHt.'d the ·II:--t

Muhammadlyah Conv,~ntion he1d III l)c( l'I1IIJl'1 1 <)K'J, :--L\. Illollth:-- ,tltl'I thl'

promulgatIOn of the 1 aw of I\1dSS-OI g,lIll/,ltIOll. IIH' (OIlVl'llt 1011 l'dslly

accepted the "l-oundatlOn 01 l'c/Ilu/sllo'' III pl,,( l' 01 the hl,lIllH 1 OllIHI .. t IOIl

of the orgamzatlOn, but, at the ~,lInl' tlllle, 1Il~I~t('d Oll Il'dllllllllllg It!> ')"7

Islamlc Identlty, whlCh appe<.lIs III the III~t (h"pll'l 01 It~ !>tdtlltl,~.d

As a matter of fact, there IS a slIllllanty lH'twct'1l tlH' PIO( l'!-.~ 01

acceptance of the Pancas/la as the solc IOUIHI,ltIOIl 01 tlwlI ()1,~,IIlI/atlOm,

by both the NU and MlIhammddlYdh. 1\11 l'<lIly c1l'('(\IOIl w,,~ Il'd( lied by

the cU/ama' and the leadershIp cllde~ III both (dSl'!>. Both tlll' Nil dllcl thl'

MlIhammadlyah also slI('(~eded IIlllli.lllltallllllg thell hlallll( Idl'lItltl(,~. IIH'

NU included It ln the Prcamble and (Ihlptel ~ of It~ ..,tatutl'~, will'Il'd'~ thl'

Muhammachyah Illcludecl Il Hl Chapter 1 of It~ statut('~. IlIlI:', thl' I\lalllll

Identity of bath orgalllzatloll::' rcmalllcd, llotwlth::,t,Hldlllg thelr d(,ll~lIOIl to

change thelr orgal1lzatlOnal founclatlOrI.

25 Sel' "Inclonesia to the ~ame DlLunmel'," / ur / u\lern / uJI10mu Uevww, 26 December 1985, as repllbllshecl In 1I1t1un, 100.

26 For a dctalled IIst of the pOlllts propo:-.cd by the MuharlltrliHlJy,t!1 ,wd whlch, as LlIkman lIarlln say~, ale Il'(olded Hl the 1 <lW, ',('(' Jlml., 58-65 .

27 Sec the "Statute~; of MlIhammadlyah" altI( Ic:-. l ~,In 11)1(1., 7(J.

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113

1\ dllemma WdS fac cd by the MUI m dccidmg how It should respond to

Ihe ,~slle of the ~oJc foundatlOn of Ihe Pancas/la. Smce the MUI found

hot h 1 ehl~ICHl and natIOn to be Important, :t (lld not want to promote

PunLo\llu wltllollt an equal acknowledgement of religIOn. With other

a~~oc latJ()fJ~ It met ln 19H2 m thf! "Consultative Body for the RehglOus

1 ollowl'r~" (Wa:!ah MU'îyawarah Antar Ummat Beraqama) to discuss the

r)/obl~m. At the mectlll~~, the MUI (Mushms), the MAWI (Catholics), the

I)GI (l'rote~t(\lIts), the WAI.UBI (Buclclhists), and the PHDP (Hinclus)

dc('l;.u ed t lIat ''l'hc 1 ehglOlis councils and orgamzatlOns, each of whlCh

has a loundatloll iH C'orclmg to Its respective religIOn, mge thelr followers

10 hc obecllclIl followers of thell' own religIOn and at the same time be

f~ood JJl ll1({/.'lfhm/\·,,,28

1 1 Ils dc( Idratloll (l'led to reaffirm religIOn as the foundatlOn of their

respective 01 !~(lIl1/cltJOns, whde at the same tlme it stated their layait y to

tlw Illdone~lan natIOnal cause. Yunan Nasutlon, an MUI leader, expresses

thc appeal 111 thls lashlOll

28

l'hey plead to the government "Let us use our own fOllllddllons III OUI' respective statutes as It has been formulated sll1ce we were born m the land of Indonesta, that IS OUI l'e~pectlvc religIOn, This IS our way of IIfe m the world and the gUIdance (or the Ilfc in the Hereafter." Our IOlllld,ltlOIlS do Ilot at ail threaten the Pancas/la. On the rOlltrtll'Y, whlle wc arc. building IIp the Ummah accordmg to 0111 1l'ltgI(HI~ foundatlOn, wc are alsa gUldtng them ta IInplemcllt the live prmclples of the Pancas,la 10 arder te be Pli/Jul.\/Ilmt'\. sn tlMt. m bulldmg IIp the Indoneslan nation, as wc an' ctolllg 1I0W, 2<U1r rellglOus foundatlOn can be a "IMI t Ill'I" 0 r l'a ncasila.

YlIll,m NaslitlOll. Isla 111 dan Problema,Problema Kemasyarakata n (Jakalt,l Bul,\I1 Bintang, 1988),132.

29 1 1 1)\( ... 133,

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11·1

The posItIOn of the MUI, the M!\WI. the Del, the WJ\LUBI. dml the l'IID\'

was reaffmned in the ConsultatIve Body's IllcctJlll! hcld J11 NOVl'llIlJl'r 1 q!U

through a dedalatlOn WhlCh, ,mer alta. statcd "RclIl~HHlS OI!~alll/.\tJ(lJ,~

and rellglOlIs mass-orgallJzattol~s contJl1ue sllbs('JII}lIl,~ tn tlwl!' 1'l'~Pl'( tl\,(,

relIgions as thelr orgalll/atlonai fOlilldatlon".·Hl IllIs pOSlt IOIl Il'llldJlll'd

unchanged lIntil the ~_aw was lattllcd 111 19H5. Alter thc mtdl( "tlon 01 Ihl'

law. the MUI, Iike the Muharnma(hyah. eventually took tlH' ~lIll'St (l.\11t 01

survival by adoptmg the Pal1(fl.~lla as Its OI1~(\ll1/atlOllal loulldallOll. II\{'

decision ta adopt the "sole t oundat IOn of the P(/nulslla" wa~ takcll dt t hl'

MUI NatIOnal Congress held 1 n luly 198).

Another organtl.atlOlI who la( cd the plOblelll o( Icpla( 1I1!~ II~ bl,1I111C

fOllndatlOn wlth the PanuL~lllI wa~ the !lMI (tlll' hlallll(' IIlllVl'lSlty \tudl'IJI

AssociatIOn). DIScussion on the "sole IOlllldattoll" (01 Ih(' IIMI Il,1<1 IH'l'1J

takmg place SIllCC the HMI Corwress at Medall III 19~n. 1 hl' palll( IPilllt~

eventually split mto two groups which reflccted Ihc Iwo OpHlIOII~ pH'sellt

m the HMI towards the Pancu.'l,la. -1 hc flr~t glOllp wc.lllted thl' (OIl,~I('~S to

accept the Pancas/la as the foundallon of the IIMI urHlledl.tlply. Iltl'

second group demanded that the Con,~ress po~lpone Its deci~lolI 1I11tJl the

law was ratlfied. The second J~rollp won, tllll~, the qlle~II()11 01 Iht'

Pancasila was dlscussed at a later time. 1 hc rcason (or thl~ delay w".., litaI

it was premature to declde on the Pancaslla as the fOlilldatloll of 111(, !lMI

when its constitutlOnal base had not yet been ratlfled.

It turned out that thls dcclslon ( l'eated mally probl<'l11~ (01 1 he IIMI 111

organizmg its artlvitles. l hese problems carne partIClllady fioUl Ilu'

30 IbId.

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allthontJ(~~, wtm h l'cgétldcd the IIMI as refusmg to accept the natIOnal

Ideolo~~y, the jJunw\/lu. It was complicated bl' the ract that the HMI had

t 0 make Its dl~( 1~lOn at a tlme whcn the law was still bemg debated m the

l'allléllll('1l1. 1 he IIMl's dCClsion was fmally made by the Workmg

c.ommltter of the (ongress at Its meetmg hcld on 1-7 Apnl 1985 and was

r atlfled by the IIMI COIlJ~re~s in 1986.31 Not ail of the participants,

Iwwever, ('ould ae ('cpt the dCClsion. Protests came 'rom several branches

of the IIMI who then formed a new body wlthin the HMI, namely the MPO

(the Coullnl to <:lave the OrgamzatlOn). They dcscribed themselves as

havUlJ~ t,lken ove .. the eXécutive Board Offlcc in Jakarta. The MPO held an

ell'cllon for Ihe excrutlve board, whlch was separate From the "officiai"

one. l his "lIval" !lMI Ictamee! Islam rather than Pancaslla as its

olJ\amnltlOnal (oundatloll. By adopting tlllS attitude ~hey c1aimed ta be

1 elllalJllJlt\ cOllsistent with the IIMl's origll1al ideals, sa that they called

t hClllselvc~ the "t l'lie" IIMI.32 1 ~owever, thls body was not recognized

olllClally by the <1l1tholltles.

I\.s for the Pli, this organizatlon ftrmly reJected Pancaslla as its

foundatlOn, lIlsistml!, that ItS foundation was "Islam" only. Subsequently,

the l'II har! to acccpt the bItter consequence of ItS firm position. In a

dcnslon datcd 10 Decembcl' 1987 the Mmlster of Home Affairs banned

the l'II becallse it had not comphed wlth basic provisions of the Law of

Ma~s Orgalllzation. l he lise of slgnboards bearing its name was also

31 Sec Sa III Il 111 a , "SetllJu dl 13ulan Suci," 17.

]2 "Inside Story 011 OffiCIal Mal1lpulatlOn, Spllts tri Islamic University St Udl'tlts 01 ~!tllll/at ion (J lM n," Indonesw Reports 36 (November 1988)' ~ and ]()-17.

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banned. The tonnai declslOll was flot conveyed to the l'II IlCI ,\lISl' Il\' thl'

time of the deadline the assoClatlO1l had Ilot ICpOl tl'd ItS CXI~telH l' to Ihl'

government. As far as the govl'rnlllcnt \Vas COll( l'merl. tlH'rd OH" IIll'rl'

was no longer any associatIOn to repott tn. oU

Islam as a Participatory For~e in the National Development 4

"National Devl'lopml'nt" has been the lJade Illark 01 Ihl' 'New Old,','

government smce the carly 1970's. 1 he WOI cl "dl'velopllll'Ilt"

(pembangurwn) IS not a new tl'lm III the IlId()lll'~lall Idl1l(II"I~l', hlll ~11l( l'

the 197()'s It has olten connoted "socin-eIOIlOIlIH' dl'vl'lopllll'Ill" IIII~

coïnCIdes wlth the deveJopment poil( Y. whlch I~ aplMIt.'llt III d ~,l'IIl.·~ 01

five year dcvelopmcnt prolects ('(lllt'cI the PIIIIA (till' IIVl' Yetll

Devclopment P[.:m) adapted by the SuhaIto I~OVelllltll'llt. {rI 1 ;r,:t'IOPIllt'lIt

33 "PII and GPM Banned By Governrnent 101 Not (olllpIYI1I1~ Will! '-lOI lai OrgantzatlOns Law" 27.

34 There arc two Issues wlth whu:h the 'New OI<ler' gOVl'IIUI\('1I1 h" ... pnmanly concclned Itself sincc the fll'st yeals 01 II~ alltlHlllty (1)

political stabiltty; and (2) national devclopment. 1 () 1 the plll P()~(' 01 politlcal stabllity the govcrnmcnt hac! dlc( t IVPly t,II:('1I ,tli 11('( ('~~,,11 Y measurcs, from the dissolution of the l'KI and II~ all"I(lt{'~" dllel till' amalgamatIOn of polltl(al paltle~, to the ~lalld,lIdl/dtl()1l 01 Ihl' c,ok foundatlOn of Pancas/lu tor the polit J( al 1),11 1 J('~ ,lIld IIld~,', orgamzatlOns. 1 he<;e poil( ics ~eern to have 1)('('11 ~IJ( «· ... <,1111. WII Il t II(' dissolutIOn of the PKI, the vely scn()l1~ thll'at to thl' !~()VI'IIIIrH'III, espeually to the armcd lotces, has bcen de~troy('d, tlte <,11 li plll Il dtlOIl of pohtlcal parties had not only l'nded the (OlltllHllly of the IIIlIltl party system adhcrcd by the 'Old Order', but hdc! aho 11I"c!(' Il ('d',I('1

for the government to c.ontrol the polltJ(,t! pdrtll"" dll(l Ille standardlzatlon of the foundatloll 01 !Jumll\fla (ow,tlllll('(, 111(' rdeologlcal IrltegratlOn of ail polttïcal and ~()( Idl 01 !~dlll/"1 1011', Il Wd~, expected that therc wOlllcl no lonl~er be Idl'olol~1C al Ilv"II y ,lIId confltcts among politiral and sonal for('c~ Ir Indolle'>ld,

35 Sec A. Rlfa'i Ilasan and '/\mllillah Ahmad, "l'>lalll, 1'{'fIIlJall!~l1l1dll, d,III

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III t he cc onolnJ( ~. or ha~ been the pnmary pnollty ln the long term

natIOnal plan (L~).'H) years) on the grounds that the natlOn's standard of

IJVHlI~ wa~ lIJ~ufflClent a~ a ('on~equence of the economlc mstablllty

dllnlll~ Ihe 'Old Order' pellod)G

IOUI Pli Il /\'-. (J <Hl<) 1 ()H7) have fllllShcd, whde the flfth (1987-1993) 1S

:-,t Il 1 ullderwdY. 1 he re:-,t11t of these development programs remains

«()lltlov('r~laL Il I~ adlllltte(\ by rnost observers that the Suharto

I~OVl'llIIlIellt Il,,:-, ~uc (eeded III rehablittatlllg the economy from the

coll<Ip:-,l' lJl'qul'dthed by the old regnne.3 7 Smce the first PELITA was

IIllpll'lIll'llted III 19<>~), Illdonc~1ü ha~; achieved rcmarkable progress, not

ollly III the l'( OIlOIllIC ~e('tor, but aj<:.'o III the social, lelrglous, and cultural

(Hle~. ~H 1 he PIOf~ll'~S of these plans has always been a central concern of

Ihe l'ICSldl'llt's Imll'pemlcllce Day and R/\PBN (the National Budget)

]G

Kaulll ( 1'1Idckrawan" \Il Pcrspeku{ Islam dalam Pembangunan Banqsa }Jertenwol1 Ccndcklllwan M~lsllm Pertama Lembaga Study Aqama dan } Iisalat, l'do /\. Rlla'l Ila~an and I\mrullah Ahmad (Yogyakarta PL2PM, 19H7), l, hCIH ('Iol'lh (Ited a~ Perspektl{ Islam dalam Pembangunan HlIflU'lI·

Sel' liai 11111, ed., 1I111tV In D/versily RegIOnal Economie Development In Indot1c'lUl (SIl1!~aporc. New Yo rk Oxford UnIversity Press, 1989), 3, Il1dolle~ldl1 d('vcloPllll'llt pohcy has rclrcd on the state's expansIOn of ItS IldtlOllal eCOIIOllllC 1I11rastructure, a polrcy whlch was much IIllllll'lH ed by Wl'~te1'll eXpanSlOnIst economlcs and tled ta Watt Rostow'~ t.lkl' otl theor·y. But m contrast to Rostow's economlc appl O(\{ h, wll\( Il ('all~ (01 adcquate capital formatIOn and economlc IIllld~tllll tUI (' as csselltlal to sustamed polItlcal development and sl.\bl(' or viable delllorr dey, the Indonesran strategy, as stated above, ~cell1s tn glvc preccdcm c ta polttlcal stabiltty as a more necessary lartol 1!l.1Il the pUlely l'conorlllc one. See Iloward M. Federsplel, MU\//1// Ifltcl/c( ILIa 1.' and Naliol1al Development 111 Indonesw (New York Nova Snell( e l'ubhshcl S Inc., 1992), 110. Muhammad Al-Buraey, J\tlf1llll/\tlllllvc JJcvclopl1lcl1t An Islamlc }Jerspect/ve (London Rout ledl~l' and Kc!~an Paul, 1985), 28. Susan Selden Pu rdy, "l.cl~ltlllldtlOn 01 powel and dutholltles m a Pluralistlc State Pancasila .lIld CIVrl RelI!~lol1 ln Indonesw" (Ph.D. dIssertatIOn, ColumbIa lhll"CI ~Ity, 19H-l), 2:)4.

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speeches.

However, thele 1$ sOllle dIspute a~ 10 \vhctlll'I 01 Ilot II1IS PIO}~Il'~~ h.\s

met the expectatlons of the sOCIety II1IWlll'ldl. SlIlel' Il Il,\,> tOtl! hl'd ,1I1110~1

l'very seetol ot the natIOnal plan, the ~l'IIOll~ c( OIWIII\{ dl~lhllll Il''' dlllOIlH

the c1lfferent reglons, espeClally bct\\'l'cn 1,\Vd ,\\lei IIH' olllel 1~1.\Ild~ ,lIld

between the rural and urban are<ts still l'l'm,II Il. In .lddll Ion, 1 Ill' ~()( 10-

eeononlle dispantles between "the l1dvl'~" and "1 hl' IIdvl' not~" h.lvl'

beeome more apparent. rhe econOI11I(' progrl'~~ h(l~ bl'l'l1 Ol! t IH' w\1ole

uneven. The outer Islands, the rural aI'edS, ,\\lei "the !t,Ive I!ot:-." IC( t'Ive

fewer beneftts of development rather than do lav<l, t hl' 1I1 hall dl (,.lS, .\\lel

"the haves" e1ement of soclety.3 9

Such an uneven dlstnbutlOn, ~\('('Ordllll~ 10 Adl )"~()1l0, ha~ IH'l'1l il

common charactenstlc III the process of ~O( hll (!talll',l' III Illally

developmg countnes durmg the last de('ad(~~:10 Ilw, l'XIH~IIl'IJ( e IIHI\{ atl'~

how hmtted the government's abtlity I~ to rc(trh the 1)()Olel' ~e( tJ()l1~ of

the sOCIety wlth ItS development prol~ram~, lIowevl'l, Ilot "Il of thl' ~O( Idl

problems must necessanly be dealt wlth by the I~OVellln\{'1l1. 1 Ill'

37 See for example Douglas S. Paauw "Re( l'lit 1 ('OIlOIlW Il (,Ilcb III Indonesl8," journal of Southeast J\stan S"udle\' 1 (, (1 <m~) L1H-~"().

38 Anfm M. Slregar, "Sohdantas Muslml llntuk Mellf~II"IfIHI K('~.(,IIJdIlJ~all," in Dia/og BIsms Muhammadwah Kehun(lkllOI1 1'C'I1lJu\ufla Mm/lm, ('d. B. Wtwoho (Jakarta Bma Rena Panwélla, 19(1),40.

39 See Federsplel, MUS/lm InteJ/euua/~ and Natlona/ /)eve/upl1'1ent, IO(), Hasan, v, HIll, 53.

40 Adl Sasono, "Moral Âgama dan Masalah Kernl :--.klll<lll P('1l1~allt d/' KdJliIlI Tentang MISSI Islaml dalam Pembanl~llnall Na:--'Iolldl," III I\/am dl Indonesla Suatu Ikhtwr Mengacu /JIYI, cd. ÂmJrl I{dl~. (lak,lIta ILqawidl Pers, 1989), 99.

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119

par tH rpatron of the ~oClety at large, and espeCIally rts mtellectuals, IS

Important for frndmg a solutIOn to these problems.

Ind()ne~lan Mu..,lml Illtellectuals, ln fact, do deal wlth these questIOns

and P10Vldc ~()me analysls 01 the development process Itself. They offer

Islaml( (Olle ept~ of development, whlCh stress the Importance of

nOI mat Ive vallle~, those belollginf~ to Islam, as the basls of the

developrncllt PI'O!~I'llrn~.41 Sorne 0 f them concern themselves with the

plOblern of povcrty and propose Islamlc concepts to deal wlth It. zakah is

one of tlle lt1~tltlltlOIlS whlch IS advocated as a means of addressmg the

problelll~. Othcrs pay attention to the partlCular problem of the banking

~y~tl'Ill III Indonesla, and propose an lslamic banking system as an

aitelll.lllvc tn the cOllventlonal system whlCh many Muslrms beheve

IIlvolv('~ nlJü) (usur y). 1 he Islarmc bankmg system, sllch as it eXlsts today,

clldeavOI ~ 10 (Oll~trllct 1 mancral alTangements that c1early avold nba>, so

tllttt tlll~ MlIsltm can become Hlvolved in the system without havmg to

wOrly d!JOllt thls IS~lIC. Thcse two Issues (zakah and Islamlc bankmg)

have becn pdrtlnrlar concerns of the Indonesran Muslim mtellectuals

smce the 'New Ordcr' government Implemented the first PELITA in

19<>9:12 1 he Ic\ea~ of three Mushm economlsts, I.e., Dawam Rahardjo,

·11 Sec 1 criel ~plcl, Musltm Intellectuals and NatIOnal /Jevelopment, 111-112.

42 A very carly dls( lISSIOn of bank mterest, however, had actually been Pl'l'sclltcd by Mohammad I-Iatta when he publrshecl an article "Bank l'asay'' (Market Bank) ln the Indonesian Journal Duma Dagang in 1939. Ile 1 e,tcrdtect 11Is Ideas rn 1958 ln his book entltled Beberapa Fasal 1/...011011/1 ()omc 1 rOllomlC Issues), WhlCh was a compilatIOn of articles extenslvcly ctlSClISSlIlg tapies such as money, bank credit, and the QucStlOIl of IIltCICSt. 1 latta dlct not reJect the concept of bank interest 101' plodlll live IOllns or mtcrest which was not inordmately hlgh. A prodlll tlVl' 10,1ll II1tcrcst that was ncithcr very hlgh nor very low was

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Ahmad M. SaefuddIn. and Mllbyarto. wIll be prl'~cntcct III tlll~ :-l'( tlOI1 to

illustrate the solutIons proposed by the Musllm mtdlel 1 liaI:- III t hl'

economlC domaIn.

Dawam Rahardj043 plOposes an Ideolol~Il,\1 altl'llldtl\'C ,\~ thl' I),ISIS (JI

an Islamlc eCOnOITlIC system. /\((01 cl i ng to hllli. ,\11 1:-1,11111(' 1.'( 0110 III 1< ,

system must be consIstent wlth spll'ltual and (ultur,1I t Iddlt IUIIS. Ile tl'll'I:­

to certaIn Qur>ûmc notIOns ~lIld the 11IstolY ni tlll' l'It'pht't':- 1111 .... :-,1011

(dacwah) as the theoretlcal basls 101 such a SyStCIII. 1 hl' III:-t Il'vel,,t IUII

(AI CAlaq' 1-5) conslsts of verses whlch 1 III pl(lIlt the «()Il~( I()W>IH'~:-' 01

J/llhïyah (Taw~ïd) and that 01 HubhuhiVlIh: I.1 \VIth wllIrh .. hllllhlll (.III

attain hls or her eXlstentlal rom,( l()llSne~~. 1 dkllll~ the OUI' ,1111< lIol10llS

and the history of the Prophet's IIIlssion ,,~ a gllJ(le. tlH' MII:-,IIIII:-' "hould

attempt to realIze an Islanllc eCOllornl( ~y~tl'III by IIllpldlltllll~ ('t II\( ,d

not a Y/bu> but rente (rent), the Icl~al status 01 whl( Il. d( «()ldIlIJ~ 10 Hatta, was halai (penllIsslble). Bank IIItelest, he "11~IIl'd. w",> " necesslty reqlllred In the establishment alld Opl'ratloll 01 h,JlII,,> wh,," were much needed by sO('Jety to advallcc ItS erollOllly. 1 hl' 1111 !tH'1I1 l'

of Hatta's thought on the bankl:1~~ lIl~tltlltl()1I III IlIdolJ(''>I'' I~ (k"l enollgh. Banks have berome uselul In~tltutlOl1:-'. 1 hl'Y .Ill' v\{·wl'd. based on Hatta's framework, a~ IIlstltt'lIO\l:-, ,IIat .11(' dl t IVl'Iy eliminating Y/bü) or at lea~t redllnnJ~ ml\( Il 01 the nhll) dl IIVIII('~ withll1 the socIety. 10 pl cvellt t hls 1)1'.11 II< l' IIOIlI bec Ollllllj'. WH!t'

spread, since 1967 the ~~overnmcllt ha:-, l'XP<ltld('(\ tlJ(' plOI l")~ 01 instltutlOnahzatlon 01 the bdnkIll~~ ~y:-,telll dowlI 10 Ihl' V"I"I~(' 1('v(·1. judging from thls developnll'nt, RahaalJo dll~lIl':-', 011(' (<III 1 OIU IlIdl' that the mstltutIOn 01 mtele:-,t Oll (dlHtal app(',,,:, to Ilave 1)('1'11 accepted by the genelal publH. ~ec Dawam I{(dldl JO, "1 he 0111")11011 01 Istamlc Bankmg 111 Indonesla." III J'ilaml( Bonk/no ln )()UtJ1l'i/\/ 11\/(/. ('d. Mohammed Anff (SlIlgaporc In~tltllte 01 \olltlll'(l')t Â'>lilll \t IIdH'~I, 1988),140-163.

43 Dawam RahardJo was born rn <';010 ((entlal Java) Jtl 1()t1~. 'II' alh'lId(,d Gadjah Mada Unrverslty In Yogyakal ta dllcl c<lIl1ec! i.I dl'l~r ('l' III Economies. He jomcd the the ~taf 1 01 the In~tltl\te 101 1 (OIlOrnH <lIId SOCIal Researrh, I:.ducatIOn and Inlorrnatlon (1 jl H )). lal(" 1)('( orrll"l~ its dlrectol' for a number 01 year~. ~C( 1 CelCI ~PIl'l. Mu\l/m Inle//('( 1 UU/\

and NatIOnal JJevelof7ment, ~H

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v,dtle~ dnHHI!~ edu< aled Mu~llms and In the society In general.45

1\ !',Irnddl (OIH'('pt I!', propo~ed by J\hmad M. Saefuddm4G ln hls article

"lfarapan B'lIl1 dl f('nl~é"l KII~IS ~I!',tem f kanorTII Kontemporer" (New Hope

III the MHJ:-,t 01 1 he ! II~I~ of the C:ontemporary [conomlc System) which

('Xplalll~ tlldt tht' ba!',J( comcpt of an 1~lamlc economlc system hes In the

IIltt'Heialloll lJetwccll Cod, man, and nature in a form of "tnangular

aJ'l'alll~Clllent" whcl e Cod takc~ thc positIOn at the top, whlle man and

naturl', l'aeh of who III O( CUplCS the two positIOns below, are obedlent to

Cod'!', lule:17 )Ul('C man IS appomted the vlccgerent of God (Khanfat Allah

fI al-an.' 0111 )an surah 2 30), he ha~ been g1ven a Ilmlted control over the

wcaltll and I('!-,Ollires 01 the earth, whlch was created as a SOUlce for the

('(OIlOIllH (\ltlVlty and wcll-bemg 01 the people tQur)an ~urah 16 10-16).

'1 Ile IIl1pl«'dllOIl IS Ihat a man IS constrallled to perform weil wlth that

44 1Ii1ll1Yllh (f a\.-vl1ïd) means God'~ Umty and Soverelgnty, this lays the rllle~ 01 Cocl-r'nan and man-man relatronshlps. Ruhbuhïyah means (,od'~ dlVIlle drJ<tngement for nourishment, Stlstenance, and dlrecting thllll~s toW<ll(b thelr perfectIOn), J\I-Buracy argues that thls IS a IUlld.ulll'nl.t! IdW of the umverse whlch thlOws hght on the dIvine mode! 1<11 t he lise and developmcnt of resources and theu ffiutual SlIppOft ,;'ld sharmg, see !\1-BlIraey, 181-182.

,l~ï Sec \)dWdlll Rdhald)o, fJerspekuf IJeklarasl Mekkah Menu}u Ekonoml 1.,lum (B,lIld 1I1l1~ MI/lm, 1989),84-85. I-Ienceforth is Clted as Perspektl( J)ckhll lI\/.

'If> Ile W.1S !Jorn III Cil ebon (West lava). He earned a Ph.D. 111 Agncultural 1 WIlOIllH ~ 1 rom the Justus Liebig Institut, West Germany, 111 1973. Prof esslOllally he has bccn a staff mcmber at the Agncultural Instltute 01 B()I~Or tW('~t .Iav,,) and al a pnvatc II1stltutlOn, Ibn Khaldun lInl\'C' !',llr . .lbn located dt Bogor. Ile has served as a depanment chair ,Illet ctl'an dt the IOlmer dnd I~ector at the latt<.>r II1stltutlOn, Federspiel, /l'111'\/1111 Illtcllc( tl/aIs und NatlOl1al Dcvelopment, 4b.

·17 I\hllldcl. M. ~dcllldd 111, "1I.uapan Baru dl rcngah Knsls Ekonoml I\OlltClllpOICI'," PlIl1Jl MasyaYOkat (/akmta), 21 Octcber 1983, 42, hl'Il( c\ollllllted .\S "1 l ,\1\1 P <'\11 Halu".

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wealth and meet CCltd!l1 obJectives wlth It:t~ 1 hll~. the l'utile

performance of cl man \VIth respel t to the \\'(.',\It11 and Il'~()llln'S 01 the

world IS dlrcctcd toward~ the lulftlllllent 01 11I~ dut\' d~ \'lre!~l'Il'l1t 01 t;od.

whelcas development. III Nlllch()lI~h M,Hllld's \\'olds, "IS tlll' 11I1I""IIl'lIt 01

the vlcegerental funt tlon 01 a man III the \\olld, "vh\( Il hl' IlII1~t 11I~lIly

befolc God".49 Vlcegerenry, thus, ~11(11I1ll'S the ,H t 01 l"ISIl1I~ the ~t,\IId,\ld

of IIvmg by portraymg the pnlll'lJ)dl rUllctlon 01 Cod as hl'IIl!~ to ''l'''',\)~l'

as cffectlvely and cfflClelltly as pO~~lble hUIl1<ln Idl' ,\Ild to III"kl' Il

prosperous.50

Quotmg vanous Qur>amc percl'pts, Sacludd1l1 ,\{'kllowll'dl~l'~ th,lt Ihl'

mequaltty whlch eXlsts m the maten,,1 cllstllblltlon 01 the dl\'1I1l' gilt 01

grace IS God's prerogative. Ihelelol'l', the Il<h ~h()lIld th<lllk (,od lOI tlH'

grace He bestow~, and should work tn 111<\llltalll ('qu,d.ty (l'I'"dll<lII""I"III)

wlthm the sOCiety (~ürah b IG:»). 1 he IIllpl\( (ltlOn 01 tlll~ clOIIIII\(',

Saefuddm argues, IS that there should be .Ill ellort Oll the palt 01 tlll' II( Il

to achleve equaltty and Iratelnlty amonl~ the people 111 Ihl' ~plH'II' 01

economlC actlvlty and cooperation 111 the ecollotlly.') 1 /\11 Oldll1ldy, t IH'

economlc actlvlty of man m the world should benellt Ilot only 1IIIlISPl! 01

certam privlleged classes, but all people as weil.

48 IbId., 44, Fedcrsplel, MUS/II11 Intcllectua/\ and Nal1ona/ /)('w/o/1nwnt, Ill.

49 Sec M. Amin /\ZI'/, "Mencan 1 tlka Peml)dnJ~lHldll lJrndt," /1('n/1/'kll! Is/am Da/am Pemhangunan Banqsu, :J.h, qllotllll~ Nille IJ()II~IJ MddJld, "Agam a clan Ulka Pembangunan" (\.(·mb(ll~a Study tq~arna d .. 11 Ilhalal (LS/\F) diSCUSSion pclpel, n.p., 19X4).

50 Ibid., 27 .

51 Saefuddm, "Ilarapan banl," 44.

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123

1/1 (Olltld..,1 10 the above two mtellectuals, who base thelr theones only

011 IslarrJl( notIOns, Mubyarto, a promment Indoneslan econonllst,52

(O/llbllle~ the Olll<inl( (one epts of economlCs Wlt h the national Ideology

01 t lIe l'um (J\"u. /\c (01 dlllg to hm1, the Indonesran natIOn, whosc

ICI(·()I()I~Y I~ the Pun({/\i1a. belleves that ItS cconomlc morahty IS basecl on

tllls J(1e()I()J~Y. Ihe (hdlartclï~tl(S and form of the natIOnal economy, as

OUtlI/H'c! by tht' 194') ConstitutIOn, are m accord wlth Qur>alllc teachmgs

(:-'lf mil 'l(J 10 dlHI <1 1). In thls regm cl, the QUI'> an contallls concepts of

IlIstlC'c <111(1 thc cven (lIstnbutlOll of wealth and IJ1come (slÏ l'ah 41 10 and

') <) 7). 'ï 3

Islll/ll IS, thus, a source of ethlcal economlc actlvlty and development.

Ilowevcl, Mtlbyarto contlllucs, nelther Qur\ïnic teachmgs nor the

trtldltloll of thc PlOphet (S'unnah) arc alone sulflCient to provlde

1~llld('11I1C~ 101' l11an's bchavlOr or lor a government's pohcy. Practlcal

l~lIld('llIlcs are I1ceded to detclmlllc development pnontles 50 as to avoid

lallure 111 <le 11Ievmg the ultlmate objectIves of the development Itself.

Whde thc l'lJl1W\ï!O, the 1945 C0I15tltutlon, and the GBHN have provlded

the etlllcs 01 n,ltlonal cconO/1l1C development, the Tn/ogl Pembangunan

(1 J'\l()t~y 01 Illdoneslan [)cvelopmcnt, I.e. even distnbutlon, growth, and

natloll,t1 st<lblltty) 15 the 1110st practltal sct of operational gUIde!lIles ta

r ') ,h. Ile w.\S born on :3 September 1938 m Yogyakarta, Central Java. He

Stlldll.:,d 1 COnOll1lCS at Ga)ah Macta UllIverslty, Yogyakarta, and contllllled IlIS edtl<\ltlon at the Iowa UniverSity, until he was awarded a Ph.J). SIlice 19G3 he has served as a professaI' \Il hls alma mater, (;<\1,111 l\1.H!,llJllIvCISlty. see Raeder and MahldIn Mahmud eds., 178.

'd 1\1 li bv,1I to, "1 tll,,, l'e1l1bal1~~Unall rkonollll," III Etlka Pembangunan tlll/Ilm l'el1llklrllll 1.\/(//11 dl Il1dc)I1("jll1 cd. Machnlln Hlls~e\ll (Jakarta, R(llilwdlJ Pel~. 19~b), 1') 1-1'L2.

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admimster the state and son al hle.s-!

The Issue of zaküh (oblJ~r.atory alms) I~ ( IO~l'h' 1 eldll'd 10 1 ht' 1:--~lIl" 01

poverty and the BLl}'( a/-Mù/ (the hOU~l' 01 \\'L'\(<lIt', plIl>llI Ill'<I:--lIl\ 1.

l(/kllh IS a social and lelJ!~IOllS dut)' e~I,\bhslll'd I>v Ihl' \'Ioplll'I

Mu~aml11ad, whlch Imposect UpOI1 the nch tlll' ohh!~dtl(}l1 10 ,\~~,I:--t 1 Ill' il':-,:-­

fortllnate as a poor-duc, aIllOUl1tlll~~ to 2,') pCI' (l'Ilt 01 OI1l"~ Ill'I ""\'lllJ~~.

rherc IS also d special /.uküh wllH Il 1:-' Illlpo:-,ed UpOIl ,dl I\tll:-.hlll~ l'dl Il

year at the end of thc lastlll!~ llIonth. 1 hl~ kllld 01 /lI/..ul! I~ (,llll'cI /i1/"t/( (//

f/~r, and amollnts to about 2.5 k!~s 01 staple I()()d~ or " ~IIIII 01 1110 1 Il'\,

equivalent in valuc to thls amount of lo()d~tllii. OtlH'1 th,m /(//..1111 tlll'I('

are chant y (~adaCfah), spcndll1!~ (m!ill/l, dllel the (h,lIlt,,!>\(' IOlllld"IIOil

(waqf). Ali of these I11cans (,Oll~tltllt(' the ('( OIHHlllI Il'!-'Olll( lI<, 01 the

ummah whlch arc é:lllllcd not Ollly dt hl'Iplll!~ tlte Ill'('dy. wlllt It I~ lltl'

pnmal'y alm, but also at provlclll1!~ fllnd~ lOI otlll'r ~()( I,d (dlo( dtl()ll~ ~,IIIIJ

r r as education, tralllmg, l'chabtlltatlon, and crnploymellt polll Il':-'. ) )

As an oblt~ratloll upon tlle rI( Il MlI~llIm, /lIktlll I~, thl'Iefoll', tI

potentml economlc resoulcc 01 the Mu~lml (Olllllllllllty, 1 hlolll~h /li/wh.

Sacfuddm states, the Musllms will be able to Ill( Il'a~l' cc 011011111 !~I owt"

and at the sarne timc mallltalll " dlstllblltlOll of 1111 Oille ,IIHI l'( 011011111

growth wlth equlty. ln manal~e ancl deveJop tlll~ lII~tltl1tlOIl tlll' Mw,ll/tI'.

must have a leadcrshlp wlllch IS respcc tcd III the f'OHlllllllllty dllcI ("1),,111('

of collectmg, dlstributmg, and spenclll1l~ the /aküh to meet thl' t(lIl~l't a<,

54 IbId., l32-134 .

55 Sec I\I-Buracy, 185.

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125

~tlpldated by hlarnlc Idw.:JG 1 he target IS not only to mect the temporary

need~ of the lecelvers, but lIloreover IS designed to release them from

povelty, thereby they will no longcr be recelvers but will be transformed

Illto the kllld of peoplc pro~perous enouf~h to be glvers.57 1'0 meet this

lonf~ t{'rm trall~formatloll of the pOOl' mto glvers, It IS wldely belreved that

a Mu~lrrn trei\sury, the /layt al-Mal, IS essentwl.

1 he Ba}lt aI-MailS a finannal instItution that mobllizes the hnds and

resollrcc~ of the ummah for the purpose of ralslflg the standard of IIvmg

and the human values Dt the poorest segment of the commllnlty. It IS also

i.llmed al mcetll1~~ f~enelal commun/ty m~eds whlch are m accordance wlth

the provIsIOns of Islanuc law.5~ 1 he Hayt al-Mal has been III eXIstence

CVCI' ~Jllre the ~ecollcl Ca"ph, <-Umar Ibn al-Khattab. It mltlally functioned

as a stO( kholdmg (ompany to asslst the life of the earbest generatlOn of

Muslrms. I\t the man o-Ievel of economlCS, the Bayt al-Mill woulcl enable

the management of zakilh to be more effective by workmg to make a

stronl~er eCOIlOllllC Impact. Slich a body, Dawam RahardJo says, should

cooperate wlth the local government, whlch coutd functlOn as guide,

superVlsor, and subsldlzer. The government should also train skilled

rnanagcnal pCI ~()lllIel. RahardJo mamtams that the Bayt al-Mal personnel

5G Ahmad 1\1. )aeluddm, fkol10ffll dan Masyarakat dalam Perspekuf Islam (Jakarta Ralawall Pcrs, 1987), 114, henccforth clted as Ekonoml dan Mll'iYllWkllt.

c..,. ::> 1 Sce 1 cdcr spld, Musilln Intellectuals and NatIOnal Development, 112.

58 Saclllddlll, /ï.':0I101111 dan Masyurakat, 118, see further Idem et aL, Islam IlI1wk J)/.'\/plll1 I1mu fkonomr Buku Daras Pendl(lIkan Agama IsIO#1l l'ado J'Ctf/I/rLl17l1 III1~Wl Umum (Jakarta Proyek Pembinaan PcndlliJk..\lI Ag.Ull<l Islmu Pada Pergllruan TlIlggl Umull1, Dlrektorat PCmblll<wll J>ClJ~lIlllall IlIIggl Agama Islam, Departemen Agama RI, 19H()), 1 L~-l·tS.

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12h

sholiid Implement programs, glvc mformatlOl1 ln tlle ('01lll11l11l11y

concerning its actlvltles, and subnllt wnttcn ICports .. boul Ils ~\I·tl\·ltll'~ 10

a board of dlrectors. It sholiid also pubhsh reports 101' tht' J~()\'Cll1lllelll

and the commulllty.59

ln Dawam RahardJo's vlew the Bayt a/-MM. Il1us, IMS thrt't' IUllctlollal

aspects.

1. Moral and spmtllal aspects, whercby the Hayt (/!-f.4ü/ serves as a pillar of reltglOn, whïch el1ablc~ Iht' pt'ople 10 release themselves l'rom the shacklcs 01 slavel)' lllld exploitation.

2. A redistnblltive aspect, whlch ~lIpp()rls the ('( 01101111<

growth of thc pOOl people and IIl1plove" 1 hell purchasing power, henccforth, the I(\('al of 1 il Il distributIOn um be rel,ll/cd.

3. An mvestment aspect, whteh rreate~ lllld 1111 Il'a~l'~ 1 ht' field of employrnellt dml peopl("~ Ill< Olllt'. III 1 III~ respect, the mvestment IS lIsed to IlIlalHe Ihe lItlh"ItlOI\ of natural resoulhos plovldcd hy (,od lor tht' plO~pt'lIty of hllman bemgs.

Actually, a body slmllal' to the Hayt al Mal dlleddy l'XlsIS III ~ollle

places III Indonesia, namely the BAZ (the Lakill1 Mallal~el1al Body). 1 hl' BAI

has been establlshed permanently m several PIOVII1('('S 111 Illdoll(,~I", 1.('.,

Aceh (1975), West Sumatra (1973), South ~lImatla and LaIlIIHIIlI~ ()<)7')),

Jakarta (1968), West Java (1974), ~oulh Kallln<llltall () ()77), 1 a~t

Kalimantan (972), North SulawesI and ~ollth ~L1laWe~1 (1 (m'd. illld W('~I

Nlisa Tenggara (date lIncertalll).61 Accordmg to Rahardlo, thel e are 1 hJ('e

partlclIlar patterns of operatIOn whlth an' char<lc tel'l~tJ( to tlll~

institutIon' the flrst pattern places Stl css on (ollectlOn 01 /ukut ul-(/~r

59 RahardJo. Perspekllf D/~k/arasl, 164.

60 Saefuddm, Ekonom, dan Masyarukat, 121-122.

61 Rahardjo, Perspekt,r /Jeklarasl, 1 H9.

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127

(('.!~. 111 W('~t Idva), (he second emphaslzes the management of property

alrn~ (/.okat al-ma!), (hanty (~odoqah), and spending (m{aq) (m Jakarta),

(Incl the Ihlld ~{Ive~ attention 10 the management of 'slamic prop~rty. This

tllllcl Jhlltelll ~eern~ tn be developmf~ mto a flilly-fledged Bayt al-Mal,

wllH Il would (olier 1 and managc the commllnity's propeJ'ty as gUlded by

'~Iallll( law hL "he Body of ReliglOlIs Pro pert y (" Badan Harta Agama") m

Ac ('h 1:-> a ( (Ise JlI pomt.

RCf~ardlc~s of whether there are pragmatic reasons on the part of the

HoveJlHncnl 10 coJJect as much as pOSSible of the Mushm's funds for

morc ncneral sectors, the Mushms should see the establishment of thls

body as a SCII()lI~ atternpt on the part of the government to manage thelr

fllnd~. 'hCldoIC, Sadllddlll argues, the Mushms are urged to develop the

fUllrllOIlS and slnlllflcanrc of thls body partlCldarly for the pllrpose of

c1l'veloplIlH thl' ~tandard 01 IIrc 01 thc un1n1ah. 1 hey can lISC the funds for

the ncatloll of ncw flclds of employmcnt, for trallllllg m manage rial and

lechlllcal ~kJlb, and for other productive busmess that can Improve the

spll"ltual and physlcal prospenty of the ummah.G3

1 he second IS~UC IS that of bank mterest and the bankmg system. The

MuslIlll thtnklllg 1 cgardlllg bank II1tercst and an 'slamlc banklllg system in

IndonesJa CdlllC to the fore whcl1 a nllmber of semmars about economics

in Islam wcre hcld on seve raI occasIOns bath at the national and regional

lcvrls. '1 hl' setmllars gellcrally questioned the problem of bank mterest

G2 Ibid.

G3 S(\l:~fllddlll. J.k0I101111 dan Mas}'arakat, 119.

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and whether or not It was comparable 10 , IJ1l1 '.b·'

Nevertheless, the qucstlon 01 bank 111 te 1 l'st ICnh\lI1~ lInll'~ol\'{'d. 1 hl'

number of alternative VICWS r,\I~~~es Ilom dl\llIlllll~ It ,I~ '/(///11

(pernllsslble), '.1OIüI by 1 eason 01 '\\ml'1!~eIH y ('Oll(l!t IOns", 1I1t1kt 1/11

(dishked, but not amountmg to a sm), and J.lllrtllll (pIOlllhltl'dL IIH' 1\11I1

leaders, for examplc, l'ven though they tend to 1Jl'lIcvl' h,lIl\... 11I1l'1l'~t I~

permitted, still express dlfferent OI)lIllOIl~ on lb I>ll'( I~(, Il'l~.tl ~I.tl\l~.

Hassan Basn, the present MUI General Chi.\llllldn, hclll\vl'~ th.lt tl'11Il

deposit interest or savlIlg-deposlt mterest I~ Julia l, wlllle olhel Iyp('~ 01

mterest remain debatable. SYllkn C;hal'all, thc IOlllll'1 MlJl (,('IH'I"I

Chairman, IS of the opllllOn that bank II1tCIl\~t IS Julia/ lOI tlll' Il'<I\()1I 01

"emergency conditIOns". l-.Z. Muttaqm, a lormcl' Mill ('11<111111;111, ~ill(l tll,ll

there IS no exploitatlve clement III bank IlItel'e~t. thll~, It 1') Ilot //lIU/II'!>:)

64 ln 1982 IAIN "Sunan Ampel" Surabaya hdc! a semillal Oll "11011011111 Development Accordlllg tn 1~1(1I11" (Pemhun(Jwlllll l "(lIIU/11, MCIIIII lit Pandangan Islam). A sHTlIlar tOPIC was also (IJ~( u~~ed III il ~\('l1lll1ill held at UNISBA (The Islamlc University :)1 BandulllO III Apl JI II)H L III December 1984 tSAF (Lemba}:a Studl t ;~,lIlla d,Ill 1 J1~("at 111(' ( ('111('1 for the Stlldy of ReligIOn and PhJlo';ophy) hdd It~ 111:--.1 1I1('('tllll~ attended by Mushm mtellc(tuab to dISClIS~ the "1'(,I~I)l'('llv(' (JI 1',1.1111 in the National Dcvelopment" (Penpckfl{ 1.\10111 da/um 1'('III/J(/lIlIIlIlUII

NaslOna/). And III Dc( elllbcr 1 <j()O the MlIhdltlllltldlYdh Ol!(dlll/('d d busllless dialogue wlth thc thcmc "l)eveIOpI1I1( thl' BW,JIIl'~):) 1'()t('lItlttl in Muhalllmadlyah" (pengcml1ul1f1an /:1\#1/" Mllh li 11111111lllya II). 1'1101 t () these events an IIlternatlcnal (onfcrcnr c 011 ('( 01101111( ~ III hl,lIl1 Il,1(1 been held ln Mccca III 197b. Dawam R<lII;lIdlo pllblJ\ltl'd li IHI\Jk entltlcd Perspekttf J)ekla ra ,'1 Mekkah (Pel ~)pl'( t IV(' (JI MI'( 1 <III DeliaratlOn), thc contcnb of whu h dl~( Il'':' the 1~<'I1(,:-' wllu Il d/O:,(' III the latter conference and some ploblem~ Iclatllll~ to tho~(' 1:,'.11(". III Indonesta, sec Pemhanyunan 1 konol1l1 lJa/am l)lIl1{/unl1l1t1 1\/0111

(Surabaya c.v. AI-Ihsan, 19H2), "BlInJ~d Ballk Rd)éI (Itdll BIlk.lll i ," l'onJI Masyarakat (Jakatta), 21 Oktober J<Hn, LL. !\Iullad I.IC ky M.)., "llIwéll Pertcmuan Cendcktawan MuslJm Indol1('~ld," III IJenpekfl{ I\I1Im /Ju/am Pembangunan Bal1gsa, 9 .

65 Ibid., 140.

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129

wherea~ Iblahlm Ilu~~eln, anothcr MUI rhalrman, opmes that only rn the

(a~c 01 ail emcl'J~ency ~hould bank mterest be tolerated. however ItS

orlJ~rnal 1e!~aJ status rcmarns ~aram (plohlblted).G6 Whlle Muttaqrn

stlc~~e~ tht' e1cment 01 exploitation, and Ghal.aJI that of "emergency

(olldltlon~", Iltl~self1 lays str'e~s on the origrnal statlls of nba>, whlch was

hurüm and t he temporal y lIatul e 01 "emergency rondltlOns".

PronlJsrn!~ alternative bankrnf~ models wlth rnterest-free systems are

pJ'('sented by Ahmad M. Sac( lIddrn rn hls aI ticle "Harapan Baru cil Tengah

KI'I~IS Slstlm 1 kOIlOlll1 Kontemporer". Here, Saefuddrn proposes a form of

"cooperatICHl" whl('h ('an operate at any level of economlc actlvlty, I.e., al-

tiare} (01 al-qlr~1 loan) rn the lOI m of cooperatIOn between a fmanCler

(hank or depo~ltors) and a workrng party (e.g. entrepreneur) on the

condItion tltat the former and the latter ail stand to garn or Jose together.

One !Olfll l~ callecl nwdlirahah (Ill. speculatIon) m which the bank

l'maures the entlre operational cost of the economlC umt, whIle the

cntreprcncur works ac('oldrng to hls sklll and expertIse. Another form is

l1lurilbul,llll1 (cost -plus f'lIlancrng) when the bank pllrchases the goods

needl'd by il cllcnt and sells them to hlm at a marked-up pnce (that is,

('()~t plus ail aglccd proftt margrn).G7 ln additIon, he also suggests other

l1on-usury Illodcls such as mushürakah (partnershlp, I.e., sharrng capital

by thc bdnk and entl eprcneur), ljï:rah (a form of leasing), and bayC salam

bG "Bun!~a Bank Rlba dtau Bukan7," 22.

G7 Sce S<let uddlll, "Ilarapan Bam," 48. Mohslll S. Khan and Abbas Mlrakhor "1 hc 1 lIlallClal System and Monetal y Polrcy 111 an IslamlC 1 ('ollomy," III 1 l7eorct/cal S'rueilCS ln Islal11lc Banktny and Finance, ed. l\1oh:-'1ll S. Khan and Abbas MlIë:lkhor (Houston, Texas IRIS Books, 1 (HU), 170. See also Ilablb Shlra71 ed. Islanllc Banktng (London ButtCi WOI th. 1990), {Ihlptel s 3 dnd 4 passim.

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lHl

(a sale contract 111 whlch the p\,\('e IS lMld at the tlllle 01 (lllltl"l'tlll!~

whcreas the deltvery ot the goods sold t,\"-es pl,H'l' ,It ,1 lutull' (\,\Il'L

Becallse these modcls are still (luestlOnahll' dS to wl1l'tIH'1 thl'\' ,1Ppl',\1 ,IS a

legal sldestep 01 a legltllllate Wdy to ovel('OIlll' thl' IIlt/'llt 01 thl' 111'11' 1 dl',

RahardJo suggests that reseal'ch IIlto Sll( Il lllodeb I~ IH'( l'~~,1I)' tn

lInderstand the opelatlOnal pattellls 01 the bl,1I1l11 1l<\1l"1Il1~ ~\'Sll'lll.bH

The concepts proposed by Sacluddlll wou Id dppl'al' to hl' p\,()IIlI~I\I!~,

since they offer other ways to perform ('0111111el< lai ballkllll~ IIIIH'tIOIl~

whlle at the same t1lne avoldmg nhü>. l hese COll( epts hdVl' dtt l ,\( tl'd thl'

attentIon of the Mmlster of RCltglOliS I\llall s, MUlldWII '-I.'d/all, who

dehvered a speech at the semmal' on "1 COIlOIllI( !-. III hldlll" hl'lcl ,1\ lJNI\B/\

(The IstamlC Umverslty 01 Bandung) III I\PI Il 19H L ()Il 1111', ()( (d!-.101l t h<.'

minister urged the CU/(lI11Ü> to l'cath a ('on!-.l'II~u:-, (OIHl'IIlIIlI'. Ihl' 1c,~(II

status of bank mterest a('conlIn!~ to Islam. 11<.' abo tOlIl IH'cI 011 tlll'

posslblltty of adoptmg the mlddte COlll~e 01 the ballklil!~ sy~tl'III, 1.('., d

bank wlth an mterest-tl'ee system whlch techlllcally wou Ici he ("lied

muqarabah or al-qlYq.69

The Idea of establtshmg an IstamlC banklll~~ IIlstltutlOIl III III<!OIU.'!-.liI

based on these concept~ was relteratcd at the M\JI wOlk~IHlP ,,1 ( I~dllitl

(West Java), m August 1990. I\t the end 01 the tneetll1!~ the paltH Ipdllt~

asslgned the Commlttee 01 1 conomlf' DeveloprrH'lIt (Ko/'mlC'

Pengembangan Umat) 01 the MUI the task 01 e~talJll~hlll!~ <III Il)\('\('\t 1Il'('

bank. ThIS deClslOn wa~ realfirmed tn the National ( onv('ntlOtI 01 tlle MIJI

68 RahardJo, Perspeku{ f)eklara.~/, ~4 .

69 See "Bunga Bank Rlba atall Bukan"," 22.

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131

11('ld III 1 he ~arnl' mont h 111 !akart<.l. 1\ (ommlttee was then formed for the

I('all/dllon 01 thc plan.

III(' pldll W(I~ wclcornccl by PI eSldent Suharro. He hlmself named the

ballk BMI (Hank Mucamaluh Indonesw), Inste<.lcl of the Imtlal name

PI()p()~('d hy Ihe ('omnllttee, Le, the BMII (Bank Mucamalah Islam

In{/oll('\w). A loan or ~ billion ILlplah (IndonesJan currency) for ItS InItiai

('apllal wa~ rHOVldcd by the Y J\MP (the FoundatlOn of the Pancasllalst

Muslllll C liant y), a IOlll1ddtlOn LInder Suharto's directIOn. AddltlOnalloans

wc Il' ill~() p,lvell by I(Hlr other social toundatlOns under the dIrectIOn of

~lIharto .lIld lm, I~HnJly, each of whlcr gave 1 billIon ruplah. These Initiai

IUllcls WCll~ supplementecl by Investments f rom a number of Indonesmn

ellt rcprellCUI ~" ~tatc entcl pllSl'S, and pnvate enterpnses. There was so

Illuch IIlIClcst on the part 01 the Mushm entrepreneurs and enterpnses 111

the BMI that III only LI ~hort tlme (Jess than three months) the capItal of

the BMI 1'l"H hec! the .. Ullollnt of 110 bIllion ruplah. The BMI was then

off H'tally e~tabltshed 111 November 1991 ln Jakarta. Us notanal certlflcate

was sl!~lIcd by 1 7S of Its founders'?O

70 1 he HMI, however, WdS not the flrst Islamle bank in Indonesla. Two ~lIl11lar pllv,lte hanks were actually established not long before the HM!. 1 he III ~t Olle IS the BPR (the Popular CredIt Bank) MatahaYl 1\1 tlltll/va, willeh wa~ estabhshed In September 1990 In Jakarta. ThIS bank 11I1l~ two SYStl'lll~ 01 bal1kmi~, the conventIOnal system and the Islam\( one. 1 he custolllcr may choose elther one in accordance wlth Ills 01 hel behels. But pl'Obabl~' because lt Hllplements two ban king s)'~tellls, thls ban" has Ilot yet attlacted the Mushms' mterest. During olle ye.ll Il IhHI le~s thdll SI'" hllndred clIstomers. The other one IS BPR Uerklill ,'"wl S(~J(ll1tera, whlch was estabhshed in August 1991 in Bandlln!~. In (Ontldst to the Illst one, thls bank nnplements only the 1~1(\1l1l(, b<IIl"IIl!~ sy~tem. \)lIIl1lg the thl ee months SInce It was l'stdhllshl'd, Il IHS hdd Ill~arly nille hllndred customers, see Jultzar "<I~III, et .IL, "1,\1.., 1 d!~1 Menyllllpan dl Bawah Bamal,' Tempo (Jakarta), 9 NO\'l'Ill!Jl'1 1 qq l, 2h.

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The modern Islamlc concepts ot eCOIlOlllH deVl'lnpmellt plopost'd 11\

Saefuddin and RahardJo constltllte alternative solutions to the ploblt'Ill 01

the SOCio-eronOIllIC dlspantles of sOCIety. 1 hls attltudt' l<lw.\lels

development stresses that 1l01111atlve and rdl!~IOllS valllt's ~h()l1ld hl' d

conSideratIOn III the development polIr)'. 1 he 1Il,\Il,\!~t'tllt'111 01 /(/k,II, ,Hld

othel' klllds of MlISlt1ll challty by the BA/ ,\11(\ 1 he reah/dtlOlI 01 ,lIl hl.\Il\l(

banklllg system throllgh the HMI, III t' only two t'x,\Il1plt'~ 01 ho\\' III!'> llt'lIIg

made possible fOI the w11I11ah to pal'tH'lfltlte ,H Ilvely 111 Ihe Pl()( l'~S 01

development and, at the.' sallie tlllle, Ill1plelllt'lIt tlte teac1l1l1gs 01 Isl,lIl!.

Muslim Intellectuals and National Development

'1 he SymposIUm 01 Indonesldn Ml1:-,llIlI IlItelle( IlIdb, whl( Il Wd!'> Ill'id III

Malang, fast ):lva 1 rom G 10 81)e(elllt>1'1 1<)<)0. Wd!'> d ve:y 1I1II>OIIdill ('Vl'1I1

III tel'ms of the leslIrgclH e 01 the MlI!'>llIlI 1I11t'lIl'( tll,1I tlddlllOIl III

Indonesta.71 It was slgnlf 1( allt III 1 hal It 1>1 oVlded d 10111111 1 01 MII~hlll

intellectllals to qlle~tlOll thclI Iole and IC:-'POII~lhlllly li!'> M Il:-,1 III 1:-', liS

intellectuals, and as members 01 Indonc~lan ~O( Idy-- III 1 hl' I~SlIe 01

natIOnal development. This questIon aro~e ln the Itght 01 (\) the Ill'cd loI'

71 11lItlated by fIve stlldents lrom Brawljaya lJrHvl'r~lty, Mdlall!~ (1 d',I Java), who were concerned wlth t hc ab:-,enre 01 d 1011l1ll wIll! Il (Ollid ullIte the Musltm mtellectuals' asplratlon~, the ~ympo:-'lIml 1)('( ;1111(' d

national cvent. Several rnllll~ter:-, anel 01 hel hlf~IJ('1 1 dnkllll~ bureaucrats, directors of conldomcrate~, and othel UIIPO/ lalll MU'IItIlI~ from vanolls professlOn~, weIl' Iflvolved III tlte (Olllllllttl'(' 1111', Illitiatlve also attracted the attention 01 Pre~ldent )Uhillto illld VI( {' President Sudharmono, who I~;we thell ~uPpo/t to tll(' ~,ympO<,lllfil Suharto was plcased to 1~lve the openllll~ addJ('~~ 011 IIH' 111',t ddy 01 the seSSion, whlle 511clhat mono ~{ave Ihe (10"1Il1~ dddI(H,,, 011 lite lil~1 clay of the session. -, hls con:-,t Ituted, III r (H l, a Idf(' ('V('lIt wh('1 (' 1 wo 01 the statc's top leadcI~ weil' plcd:-,ed to attend d IIwctUljJ

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133

Mw,IuII Hltellpc tuais 10 be Hlvolved Hl the natIOnal development. (2) the

need for Mw,lIm mtelll'ctuais to address the Issues that affect the ummah.

and (1) tlle expec tatlon by MusIJm sOCIety and by thc govcrnment that

mtt'ilec tuab be a ~o(Jal [orce whlch aets for thelr respective mterests.72

1 he qlll'stlOn of the /Ole of Indoneslan Mushm Hltellectuals ln the

'New Olcler' Indolle~la c an be traced to the carly days of the 'New Order'

perlOc!. ~IIH {' t he ~lIharto reglme came to power ln 1966, Indonesia has

undeltaken a Vd~t IHoJects of pohtical, economlC, and cultural

n~('on~tllJ( lion <llfned at the "modermzation" of thE:' country. However,

Mu<,hm IIItell('( tlldb have felt that, desplte this vast change, the

1~()Vellllllent has not been mllch concerned with religlOus (Islamlc) values

III the PIO( e~~ of 1I<lllOnal development. There were vanous responses

and ('Iltl('l~Ill~ lIlade by the Mushm mtcllectuals to thls apparent lack of

concel'll 011 the palt 01 the l~overnment. Mohammad Kamal Hassan, ll1 his

thesis entilled "( onlemporary Muslim Rehglo-politlcal Thought in

Inclonesl<I 1 he Respol1se to New Order Modermzation,,73 analyzes the

vanolls 1 espollses of the Mushm mtellectuals to the 'New Order'

deve!oplllent pohry and categonzes these under flve headings

Idcolo!~I('al, Ideahst, (\rcomodatlOmst, reformist, and protestmg. Of these

(Ive type~, (OUI' are relevant enough to our diSCUSSIOn to be briefly

dlustrated here the Ideologlcal, Idealist, accomodatlOmst, and protestmg

types.

~')

1,- Sec Ahmad W. Pratlknya, "Anatoml Cedekiawan Muslim, Potret IndonesJ(I," III RdIS, cd., 1-2.

~ , 1.) I\tnh.Hlllllcd Kamal Hassan, "Contemporary Muslim ReliglO-politlcal

1 houl~ht III Illdol1c~la -1 ne Response to New Order ModermLation" (Phd. \)ISSClt,ltIOIl, (olumblil UllIVCI'Slty, 1975).

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The IdeologlCal type apphe~ to the sort 01 rcsponsc WIlH Il I~ dOl t 1111,11

m motIvatIon. poleI11Ical In substance. and dclt'n~lvc \Il (11.11 ,H tl'I'.

Cntlcisms of this type rcvolvc around the dCI11<ln .. \tlOl1 01 Ihl' 1Il,\INI,11

and spmtllal forces III Indonestan develOpment alld IIlt'llldt' .. lt'hlln.1I 01

the accusation that Islam IS "dntl-dcvclopnH'nl". 111 addltlOll. 11ll'

IdeologlCal group st/e~ses the imporla/l{ e 01 IIlV()IVIIII~ I\ltI~11I1I

mtellectllals In dISCUSSIl11~ topJl'S of hl1~h nat 10/MI IIllpol'tanl'l'.

The Ideahst type IS applied to that SOIt 01 (,l1tJ('ISIll~ wh\{ Il Stll'~Sl'S

that the thrust of de\ elopment 15 the developmellt ni the hUIIlal1 IH'IIII~ !II

his or her physICal and mental qllahties. \)evelopmellt. ,H «()rdlll,~ ln 11l1~

type of response, can only be worked out Ifl a (ontcxl wlll( It ,1I1()w~ 11111

realtzatlOll of the SharïLah. 1 he governlllcIII I~. tltll~. H'IIII1HIl'c1 01 II~

constltlltlOnal obhgatlon to the Mlishm (ornllltllllty to l,\( 11I1<lll' tlll' IlIlIe!'

apphcatlOn of Islamlc mJunctlons m MlIsllln sOCIety.

The accomodatlOnist type IS charactcn,:cd by l'OIllI)J'()III1~e ,11Ie1

pragmatlsm on the part of the Mlishm ehtc tow(uds tll(' polttHalll'altty III

the 'New Order' period. The a('comodatlOm~ts cali 101' Musltltl ~()('J('ly 10

be positively mvolved In the 'New Orcier' devcloprnt~lIt pl OI~J(III1~. IIIl'

social change, accordm$~ to thl~ lIndcrstandlllg, IIllplte~ Iltat a (halll'IIEl' I~>

offered to the rehglOus ehté to COllstruct a d('v('lopml'III-~>llppOllIVl·

"theology" of a kmd that would permit religIOn to bec orne more 1 devdlll

to the moderlllzatlOn process.

The protestmg type relers to the Mu~IIm OPPO~ltl()1l to 111('

seculanzation trend mal1lfestcd III the GBIIN (the CencI al Olltllne of ,IH'

State's DirectIOn) of 1973 and III the drah of the Marrlil!~e Bill Plopo<,('d III

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135

thc ~amc ycar, 1 he pcople of thls type dlrected senous enllClsm to

)lJharto'~ politH al re( onstrurtlOn and development pollcles, whlch

~tlc~~ed ploJ~rc~s m thc matenal (economic) realm, Accordmg to AH,

Na~lItlOn, who wa~ HI( ludcd m thls type, the 'New Order' "IS a mental

dtl Illide whl( Il tllms at (reatIn!~ a ~oCJal. polJtlcal, economlC, and cultural

Idc JIllu~('d wlth the cthIC 01 Panwslla, In paItlcular the PnnClple ot Behef

III One SlIplcmc Cod", Proponents of thls cntlcal vlew favored the

Illll·j~r .. tloll 01 C( OIlOnllC and non-ceonomle realms in the development

prO!~I"IIl~,

l hes(' vat IOllS responses of the Mushm ehte, wlth the exception of the

(lCCOmodatlollIst vanety, have in faet put Islam and the Muslims in a

dISadvé.llltal~cOlls position vis-à-vIs the government. Becallse of thelr

SllSJ)J('J()lI~ and ne!~é1tlve VICW towards modermzatlOn. Islam has been seen

by SOIllC l~ovcl'Ilmcnt Icadcrs and by some technocrats as tradltlOnal, antt­

ll\Odcrni~m. anti-devclopment and cven anU-Pancas/la. The Mushms have

bcen placcd m a margmal positIOn III the process of Indonestan

devc!opmcnt dnel modermzation and are even consldered as a burden to

rllodcrnl/atlon. 1 hls unfavorable situation has arollsed concern among

SOIl1C Musltm mtellcctuals, espeClally those who favour the realistlc­

aCCOll1odallolllst type of response. and promptcd them to seek change,

whlCh t hcy hope. will reversc the negatlve Images of Islam and the

l\1ushms III IndonesIa to mOI e POSitive reactlOn.

Prcredcd by the Pembaharuan (renewal) Ideas lallnched by Nurcholtsh

l\1adlld III the early 1970's, the Pembaharuan group, conslstmg of a

Ilumbcr of young Mushm mtellectuals, lent ItS support to the

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government's efforts In Implelllentlllg the de\'l~I()pml'llt !>101!ldlll 111

Indonesia. In contrast to the respollses 01 sCllIor 1\111~11Il1 mtl'lkrtll.11s

such as Mohammad Natslr, Deltar Noer, SyalJ'lIddlll 1'\',I\\'II,\1ll'I~dl,l, 1\1

Rasjldl, and NaslItlon, whlch conslstcd 101' thc \I10~t P,lIt 01 tIW()Il't\( dl

formulatIOns In the fonn 01 statcmcnts thdt hl,1Il1 I~ Ilot III ( onl l',ul\( 1 10 Il

to modermzatlOn and that 1ll0dell11:tatlon IS <1 J'equlll\IlH'1l1 d( (oldlll)'. 10

Islam, the Pembaharuan f~rollP proposcd il IllOl'e l'Illpll'l( dl dPPI 0,11 Il 10

how to deal wlth the qucstlOn of 1l10derlll/dtlon III Illd()lll'~ld ,IIHI how

MlIslims, formmg the maJonty of Indone~"\Il ~()l'Il'ty, ~h()\Ild Iw IIl\'olvcd

in government pl'Ograllls.

As Howard M. Federsplel obscrves, a lal'l~(' IH 1111 IH' 1 01 1\111:-.11111

intellectuals, whose Ideas cou Ici bc IIldudcd to thl' ,HI OtllOcldllOIlI\t IVlle,

have recently become mvolved III the 'New 01 deI' deVl\lopllll'1l1 pl Il ",1 .1111.

Sigmflcantly, large numbcrs 01 MII~IIIIIS IlOW Idt'1I1 Il y \VII Il the current govcrnmcnt 101' a Illlxtlll'e 01 Il'cI\OIl\. Mdlly .Ill' employed In govcrnmcnt admllllstl<lllv!' d,~l'II( Il':-' (IIH' natlOn's pnme crnploycl). Ot hCI ~ Ill'Iollg t 0 1'111\11111

aSSoCIations that cast thclr polltlu.lliot wlth (,olk,\I, II\(' p,\Ily that aets as the mobtlizcr 01 support lOI Ihl' 1~()Vl'lllIll('1I1 StIll other groups suppoJ't the J~ovel'lltrH'1I1 1)('( cllI\l' 01 speCIfrc policles -In agllCulture, tracle, 01 hll~IIIl'~~> IlIdl promote the w9Y-belllg 01 taq~et J~r()lIp~ ICl wIll< h t IJ()~,(' Mushms belong.

They were generally not much IIltcrested III pol1tl<'(11 hlalll 01 III II\(' 1(\('1\

of estabhshIng an Islamrc statc but welP mOle 1I1tere<,ll'd III lIow to

provldt: an adequate IIlfrastrurtllrc 101' the actlvlty 01 t Ile ummah allcl i10w

to develop the basH structure ne(c~~ary to ~lIppOlt a dl'lIIoC IdllC pollllCdl

system. Not only wcre thcy cmr.loyed by the I~OVClIlJllelll, IHII IIH'y al~,o

74 Howard M. Feclersplcl, "Musllrn Inlellce tuab and Indoll('~"d'\ Nilt 10lldi

Developmcnt," J\swn S'urvey .~ 1 (1991) ~:H.

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~pread ln val'Jou~ professions. 1 hose who wcre ln the bureaucracy began

rD on upy hl,~her pOSitIOns. Others orcupled hlgher managenal level

post~ 111 rnany enterpn~es and other pl'OtesslOns.7 5 ln sllch posItIOns they

apparently (an contnbute more to the development programs and

partH ularly \0 the IIltere~ts of the ummah.

Il I~ not lInllkely that due ta thell' support for gaver nment programs

and thelr Identlflcdtlon wlth the government by employrnent ln the

adnlllll~tl'dtlve af~eIHfC~, the relatfOflshlp between the Muslmlldeallsts and

the J~ovelnlllen( hd~ 1I11PIOVl'd substantlally. 1 hls can be seen Ill, mter

alta, the f~ovel nrnent'~ accommodatIOn of Mushm aspIratIOns when the

former plopo~ed the Bills 01 (Islamlc) RehglOus Court, of the NatIOnal

1 ducatlOn Sy~tl'm, and in the perm:SSfOn glanted to Mushm female

studcnts 10 WCiH the Ji/hah alter Il hac! bcen banncd for several years, as

ha~ been explalllcd III Chapter 2. Llkewlse, It is III thls context that the

~ymposllllll 01 Muslim mtellectllals at Malang in 1990 recelved the full

support 01 the ~~oveJ'llment.

l he symposIum brought together sorne 500 important Muslims,

whosc occupatIons tangcd trom that ot bureallcrats who occupied

I111poltant 1)o~ltlOn~ III the govcrnmental structure, to that of managers III

cnlt'rpr ISCS. and othcr protc~slOnals. l he therne of the symposium was

"\)cvelopllli~ Indonesll\n SOCiety III 21 st Century" (Membangun Masyarakat

Indoncs/{/ i\lwd XXI). !\ numbcl of papers, whICh revolved al'Ound

dcvclopmcnt and the questIon of the l'Ole of Musltm Intell(:ctuals In thiS

75 1 b 1 1 "Is allllS<\~i I10a-.la~1 atall blro",ratlsaSl Islam," Media Dakwah (Jakarta), IlllV 1 ~)91. "<>. sec also rcderspiel, Musltm lntellectuals and NatIOnal /Jcvl'lO!1I1lCl1l. 3.

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era of sCIence and tethnologv weil' plesellted. B.1. (Bt\CIl,II'lHldlll 11I~1I1)

Hablble,7G the State MlIllster 01 Resedlch .1Ild Il'l'Ilnolo!~\'. lOI l",\I11pll'.

presented a paper entltled "1 he Role ni S( Il'nel' ,me! Ic( 11Ilolo!~\' III IIH'

SOCIal 1 ransformatlon l'ro( ess" (/'enllltlll J/11111 l'en//l'llI/,III/II dl/II 1 cklloio/f/

dalam Proses Trcll1S(ormas/ MlI\l'lIrakot). 11\ wh\( h Ill' sl.\Il'd 111,11 "IIH'

Mushms, as a maJonty p.u t 01 Illd()lle~I,1Il ~()l Il'I)'. dH' \,PI Y dt'l'I~I\'(, III 1 hl'

progress of the nation. 1 hey sholiid bl'( ome 1110 Il' Il'l hl\()I()I~H ,Illy

onented 111 order to IInptOVl' thelr stalHl,ud 01 h\'IIl!~ ,lIld ~hollid hl' III 11ll'

front 11I1e 111 the effort to 1Il1p10Vl' pIP(\lI( Ilvlty." OllOIII1I! l'I('~ldt'lIl

Suharto's statcment that "Indonl'~hl'" \l'( onc! ') r '- ) y l'd 1 1 0111'. Il'1111

Development Plan" would becol11l' "thl' ~l'( O\let ph,,~l' 01 Ihl' Il,,IIOII.ti

dwakcJllng",77 B.]. lIablblc fUlthel ~t"lcd Illd! "llldolll'~I"W, ,,\muld wOII, 10

make themsclvcs flcc ftom t1htl'l(\( y 111 ~(I<.'l1l'e <lIHI Il'( hl1()lol~Y. IH'( dll~.l'

only a country with Ihe dbtllty 10 c1l'vdop IlCW Il'( hll()I()!~y "IHI ~( Il'IH l' 111

harmony wlth Its culture l'an SUl'VIVl'"n~

76 B.]. (Bacharuddlll Jusuf) lIablblc Wd~ bOl Il III l'al C l'ail' ()out Il Sulawesi) on June 25, l~nh. Ile obtdllll'd hl~ dl'I~Il'l' dl 1 lit' Illllv('I"lly of Aachen 111 West Germany (1 9bO). WOI kllll~ dt t lit' M(,~~l'I ',( 11111111 Bolkow-Blohm CorpOlatloll, he occunlcd the po~,lllon of VI< l' l'H'''ld(,1l1 111 charge of the appltcatlOn of tc{'hl1olo!~y. WIH'1l 1)(' 1I'I1I11ll'd 10 Indonesia he was appomtcel i\dvls('r 10 III(' DII('( lOI III (111('1 of PERTAMINA Obnll Sutowo), a:-. weil a~, 1)('''(\ of l'II~ 1 i\MINi\':. 1 )IVI"IOII of AdvanceellcchnoloI~y/Aclondll!I(.1I -1 (l( IIllol()!~y. \11)( (' 1 ()"lb II(' IId" been Dlrertor-m-Chlct of PI NllltdlllO (now Il'1 N NII"dllldld 1\11( I.tii Industries). and since 197H ha~ ~clv('d d<., Illl' \Ictl(' MIIII'.I(·1 of Research and lechnolo~!y. Sec BCIlC(\H t i\1J(\{'I~OI1 cl .11. ('(1'., "1111' Fourth Develonment Cabmet !\nnolllH'ed M.II( Il 17 1 cm ~." III(/()/H''llll 35 (April 19H3) 3<)-40.

77 The blrth of the Bueil UtOnlO 0 q~anl/all()11 III 1 cJOK 1<, 1H'lll'vl'cI to IldV(' marked the l'irst "natlOnal awakentrl!(, 101 Il awak<'/Ic(\ tll!' IndolJ('''lall people to the Importance of a nat lotJélll~1 «()tl~( J()IJ<,I1(,<"<' 10 Il)(· process of freclIlg the natHH' frolll (OIOlllall<,III,

78 B.]. Hablble, "Peranan Ilmu PenRetahuan ddfl 1 ekIlOlo!!1 d;IIc1tr1 1'10'>(", Transformasi MasYéuakat" (linpubll~hl'd pdnCI PI{,~)('IIIl'cI dl Ih('

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/\t the rneetJllJ~, <Jnothel Impoltant paltlClpant from the mlnlstenal

level, 1 mil ~a"rn,l() 1 he ~tate MJnlster fOI 1 nVlronment and PopulatIon,

pOlllted out to t he ~ympo~ILlm that IndonesléI shoulcl spcnd more money

on e(ItH al 1011, fOI lIl<.,tancc by scndmg young pcople to study abroad and

by ImpIOVIIl~~ the (ollclltlon of domestll untversltles. Quotmg John

Nan-,IlIII'S pledlCllon that the LIst centuly will be the ela of rellgious

revlval, he al~o ~I re~~ed that Muslml mtellectuals should respond to thls

( hallelll~e. III thls Iq~ht, Il IS nec (~~saly to combme sCience and teehnology

WIIIl re",~J()1l and ~pll1tual values m order to achleve a Just and

pro~pl'J'()lI~ llatlOll, both matenally and spmtually. He stated that

~(IC.'IlII~t~ alld ICIJglOUS leaclcl~ should work to!~ether ta reach the target.

Religion, lI( (()Idllll~ to 1 mil ~alllll, coulcl help teach people how to use

le('hllolol~y 10 II~ best advdntage.80

~ymposlulll 01 Muslllll Intelleeluals at Malang on 6 December 1990), paSSllll, espe( lally 27-29. sec also /\rdmws Sasdl, "[conomlC War to Replace Mlht .. \! y Confltet," Jakarta Post, Deeember 7, 1990, as lepubll~hcd 111 /CM/ Ukatan CendeklUwan MUS/II11 Se-/ndoneslU) dalam Sorotan l'ers /)cscmher 1990 - Apnl 1991, cd. Makmur Makka (Jakarta' Seklctanat Pusat ICM!. 1991), 177. Hcrcafter 1 CM/ (Ikatan CendckwwlIn Musllm Se-/ndonesw) da/am Sorotan Pers Desember 1990-,.prll 1 !J91 1;. ('Ited as /CM/ Dalam Sorotal1.

79 Ilml S,llllll w"s UOI n III 1 dl1.1t, South Sumatra. He obtamed hls Ph.D. lrolll the Ulllverslty of Calll o l'ilia at Berkeley. In the Suharto pcnod, he served cOllsl'cutlvely as a member of the EconomIe Advlsory Team (J 9bb), as d \)eputy Chail man of B/\PPENAS (National Development Pldlllllnl~ A!~eIH y) III charge of Matellal and Infrastructural Planning (1 ~)(;7), Il!'> ~t"tl' MlIllster of l'erfeetmg and Punfymg the State's Apparatm ,md a~ the Deputy-Chamnan of the BAPPENAS, as the I\1lll1ster 01 (omllllllll('atl()n~ (1973-1978), as State Mlfllster for Stlpel VI!'>IOIl of Development and J:nvlronrncnt 0978-1983), and most rerently dS State 1\1JllIstel lor Population and l:.nvlI onment (1983-1988 and 19HH-l ()9.n. see Anderson, 40.

80 Sa:,dl. 1,7. !'>ee alsn "KeLJangkltan RehglUs Pcrlll Jawaban," Jawa Pos, 7 Ih'Cl'IllUl'l 1 ql)O, .b 1 epllbll~hed III ICMI Dalam Sorotan. 156.

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The statclllcllts ot thcsc two tllllllStCI S lI11pltcd rOI1Cl'1'Il 011 Ihl' lhlll 01

Mushms. and cspeCially thclr mtcllcctllals. t!l,lt Ihc\' should ((lillmuc

partlclpatmg In the natIOnal dcvelopmcnt. Il IS 111 Ihls ('ontexl Ihal tlll'

symposllIm lllgcd the followmg that thc Musltm IIltclll'rtll<lb hl'rollll'

involved in the Indonestan devetopmcnt prorcss Oll II1to Ihl' 2 ht n'Ill li ry,

that they sttn1l11ate dl~cusslon amollg dit IIltl'lIl'l tU,lb 011 tilt., ~lIhll'( t of'

the natIOnal development pl'OCCSS, that Ihl'y delIllc Ihl' dut y 01 tlH'

intellectuals In the sOCIal transformation PII)('C~~, ,lIlel 1 hdt 1 !lcy t OIIlHII.lh'

strategie concepts In the <llcas of ttallslolflldllOIl 01 ~('Jl'l1n' ,lIld

technology, SOCIal and eCOn0I111C CI1I~II1CCIIll!~. ,lIld 1 earlll<llI/,IIH)1l 01

cultural and spllltllai values.SI

The symposIUm also stressee! Ihat Il wa~ 111l1H'latlvc thal MlI~11I1l

intellectuals, as a potentially Important part 01 MliSIIIll sOlÏcly. hl' tlllIled.

so that together they WIll be a IOlre that ('<Ill make d 1lll'(1I111l!~11I1 IIIl(ld! 1 III

the proeess of national development.82 JI was III thl~ ('onlt'xt Illat Ilol

only dld the symposIUm cllsclIss the papel S ple~cllted hy Ihe pdl 1 Il'Ip;lIlt~,

but It also establlshed an organizatlOn 01 !nd()lle~1i1ll MlI~llIlI IIlt('IlC! ÎlIdh,

namely the ICMI (the ASSOCIatIOn of IndonesHln Mllshm Inlellc! Illab). IIH'

establishment of ICMI, as statcd III Its statutes. "I~ dl mec! al IItlIHOVIIlI'. the

intellectual quahty and partiCipatIOn 01 Inciolle~lan MlI~llIll Illlelle! Illais III

the national development, as an applICation 01 1 <)'1 r) (OIJ~lltllll()lI. 10

reahze a peaceful. Just, and prosperous Ide rnalellally alld ~r)Jllt\Jdlly

81 "Slmposlum NaslOnal Cendeklawan MlI~lml cI 1 MalaIlJ~," IInqkutun BersenJata, (Jakarta), l Decembcr 1990, m, rcpublJ<)!Jcd JrI leMI lJa/am Sorotan, 134.

82 "Potensi Cendekmwan Musllm Pcrlll J)1~lIfrlPlllJ." IJclltu (Iakal 1 il) •

December 1990, as republlshed Hl /LMI na/am ~(}r()tun, 1 ~f),

• 141

IJle~~cd by Cod I\lrnl!~hly (Allah ~'uh~ânal1u wa Ta cala).,,83 On the last day

of the .wrnpO~lUm, B.I. IIablble, as was expectccl, was unammously clected

II~ (,clH'lal ( IWlIlmm. Ihe cholCc of I-Iablbie: reccived full support from

Ihe palll(lpalll~. 11t~ appotntment was belicved to be a rcflectlOn of the

~Iroll!~ (k~lIe arnon!~ Mushms that they shoulcl contribute to

developllIcnts III the Ileid of sCience and tcchnolo~y.

1 vell 1 h(Hq~h the ollglllal Iclea of establlshmg the orgamzation came

1 rolll ~IlIdcllt~, wlth ~lIpport 1 rom some mtcllectuals, It IS d iscernible that

Ihe !~()v(,llllllellt (II( les qUickly becal11e Involved m the process of ItS

(·~ti.tIJII~hllH'nt alld III the body of the ICMI. 5uch an mvolvement I11lght

al()lI~l\ 1111('1 pletatl()n~ 01 the ICMI l'rom several angles, Inter alw

a. 1 il"l 1 he ICMI repl e~enb Ihe government's attempt to brmg Mushrn

• IIllelle( t lIah JIllo a 1I111ted workmg arrangcment wlth the government;

•

h. 1 litt! the IO~1 lepl(~scnts the government's attempt to silencc MuslIrn

(,l'ItlC~ by ('oopt mg them.

('. 1 hat 1 he IC Mils nothlng more than a gmnt publIc relatIOns dnll by

!~()ve \'\llll e nt.

I\('('ordin!~ly, It IS loglcal that the existence of the leMI has aroused

deep COll( e 1'(1 III sorne peo pIe as to whether or not polttical II1terests lie

behllld ItS e~tilbltshl11ent. Beslclcs the involvement of bureaucrats 111 the

hody of the /CMI, cotnndenccs surrounding ItS birth, such as the 1992

l'lectlOIl ,lIld the Issue or succession, are among other reasons for their

conrel'l1. Ridwan S(lIch, an ex-Parliamentary member From the ppp factIOn,

HJ Sel' the ICI\II st<ltllte~ c11..lptcr :1 article 5,111 Ablar Muhammad ed., ICMI clall lieu li pli 11 UI11(/( Udkarta Yayasan Pendidlkan Islam RUHAMA, 1 ~)91). 2(.,9 (appelHhx).

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states "The blrth nt the ICMI IS d polItl('(11 pIH~llOl\lellon. 1 hl' Il ~tl ",dl Ill'

the Mushm's representatlve. 1 he qtle~tlon of 'repll'Sl'llt.lt I\'l" h,IS. 0\

course, pohtical connotation. 1 he IC[\1I abo will Idtl'I' 1~~lll' po!tIIl .. 11

statements and concepts. ln tlH' long 1'llll,It WIll be the :-,alllt.' ,\~ thl' !\tUI 01

'Satkar Ulama",.84 Abdurrahnlan Wahld. thc NU CClll'1 al l h.llllll,\Il. \vl!o

dcclined a posItIOn on the ICMI Board, expres~ed surI! dppll'ltl'lI\lOll:-'

when he smd that he was "SlISpIClOllS 0\ thc IH0.ll'( t ( 1.('. ICI\1I\. he( dll:-'l' Il

has the stamp of Suharto ".85 and ChalId Mawi.\I dl. li 1'.\llldIlH'1I1,1I V

member from the ppp faction, questlOned the polItlC al tIlll'll'sl lH'hllld 1 hl'

establishment of ICMI.8G

ln responsc to thls general apPl'chcnsioll, NlIr('holl~h Mad IHI, VI( l'

Chairman of thc 1 xpertlse Coul1nl 01 ICMI, delllc~ th,lt polit Il al ",1l'll'~I~

formed the background of the blrth 01 ICMI. Ile alglle~ that It~ hlllh wa~

only natural as a reslIlt 01 the dcmographw t~l'Owth 01 edllcdled Mm.lllll~

in IndonesJa.87 1-lII'thermolc, MadJld mcntlons Ihat al the hC,~lIIlllll". ni Ihl'

1960's a great number of Mu~lIm studcnb of WInIYi (devolI! MIl~llIll)

circles began to enrollm publIc univel'sltics. Allhc cnd 01 tlw 1 ()(,O'~ dllcl

the begmnmg of the 1970's a gl'eat numbcr 01 \(wln s!udt'Ills 1~J' .. c1l1ill('d

84 See "Momentum ICMI dan Munculnya Ilabll)l(~," /empo (lak,lIla), X December 1990, 30: "Satkar Ularna" I~ an assonatlOn 01 ( lJ/lInw) 11111\('1

the umbrella of Golkar.

85 "Suharto Courts Islamlc Intellcctuah, 1 he Mll~lltJl 1 H k('I," Il 1 U. LO December 1990, as republlshed III /LMI IJa/am SoYOlan, Lr,L.

86 "I-Iarus Dibuktlkan ICMI Bukan Ban~dn Polltlk," M('cilu Ind()nl'\1U (Jakarta), 6 Dccembcr ] 990, as rcpubll~hed III IbId., 1 r) ~.

87 Ahmad K. SunawldJaJa, ct al, "( elldcklawall Mu~lIrn M('liI/lf~kdlJ dilll Malang," 1 empo, 8 Dcccmbcr 1 <)<)0. L(), al ... o NllIC holl~)h M(I(IJICI'~ speech to the Semmar of ICMI at M(CI" lJrIlvcr~Jly, MOfltr(',t1 011 ~ May 1992 (recol'cled).

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flOIll t ho~(' unlvel ~Itles and obtaincd Jobs m pnvate enterpnse or beeame

bllle(luc rat~, 101' the tlme bemg, they dld not stress thelr Islamie Iclentlty

a~ t!ley plll~lIed thelr carcers. After occupymg important positions, thelr

belleh b('l~aJl to be more cVldent, 1 hey bcgan to "Islam Ize" thell' offices,

d('partm(,llt~. (lIlci ('alllpuse~. through vanolls religlOlIs actlvltles at these

p!d(,(~~. 'II Ille rneaIlIJnH .. \ the Ilumber of cducatcd MusIJms IS slgmfJcantly

JI 1( ll·d~lllg. ~() thal there IS now a nced for a forum through whlch they

(ail (hanne! theu aspll'.lllOnS and play a more slglllflcanl role ln the

deve!opllH'1I1 of the Ilat ion. Il was sUlh a situation which surroundcd the

I)JIIII of I( MI. 1 hlolll~h thls on~amzatlon the Musllm bureallcrats and the

MlI:-.11I1I Il,I<'Ilc( tuais outslcle the burcaucratlc system jomcd forccs to

cl< III('ve tlm pUI pose,S8

ln Plll'SlIIf]f~ a dll t'crcnt 'IllC ot' rcaSOl1mg, M. Amm RaiS, assistant of

CellCI al Challll1all 01 the ICMI, dellics that the bll'th of ICM 1 IS are·

establishment of polltlcal Islam or that It would be involved in action·

onelltcd pohtlcs. Ile asscrts that the ICMI's goal IS nothmg more than an

atlelllpt to llI .... shall the Mushm intellectual forces so that they can more

elf(·ctlvcly contribute to the future of the natlOn.89

Re~~ardle~s of thcse dIffcrenccs of opinion as to whether political

1I1lerests \Vere bchllld the bll'th of ICMI, thls ol'gamzation now eXlsts and

IS part of Ihe Indollesian intellectual scene. The ICMI has formulated its

X~

~t)

Sel' lalaludd III Rakhmat, Islam Aktual Refleksl Sosla 1 Seorang Cl'l1dckllm'an MUS/lm (Bandlln!~ Mlzan, 1991), 101, also Madjid's ~pel\{'h 10 tilt' Seminal' of ICMI at MeCIII UIlIVeI'Slty, Montreal.

"ICI\II BlIk,Hl Reekslstensl Polrtlk Umat Islam," Surabaya Post, Il !)l'~l'1II111\r 19~}(), ,IS 1 epl!bltshed \Il leMl na/am Sorotan. 248.

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program of actlvlty, WllICh cOll1pnsc~ 13 pOllll~, I.l'.

1. To create COllnllllI1ICatlOI1 and lOOpCI.IIIOIl \\'Ith Ihl' \dll ous levcls of souely whelhct IIHh\'ldu,II, 1Il~llt\lIIOII"I, orgamzatIOnal, govel nnlental, .md/ol pl 1\'<11 t' 1>'11 1 Il'S

2. Ta partlClpdte d( tl\ l'IV 111 Iht.' dl'\l'IopllH'1I1 01 l'dllldt WII

and hlllllan resoul ces .tIllIIIl!! ,It dl'\'doPIII!~ 1 Ill' IIltellectudlity 01 Ihe (Ollllllllllll\ dlHI t Ill' Il.111011, partlcularly the Illdonesl,lIl MlIslIm (Olllllllllllly.

3. '1'0 IfllplOVC the Cllltlllty 01 1lH.'1II1Jl'I\ ,HIll dl'vl'Iop IlwlI expertlse throllgh coordIlldtlOIl of IIlIOIIll,\IIOII dlHI commUllIcatloll IIcl WOI"~ alllOlll~ 1111 Clll'( 1 IIdh,

rnstltutions, and ()I~anllatlolls, III tlll' «(JlIlllly ,lIld III lorelgn countlles.

4. la promotc thought, IC!1carch, .lIId sllIdy, whl< Il .Ill'

rnnovatlvc, ~tratc~~lc, .llId .\I1II(II><IIIVl', alld 10 IIldkl' senous efforts 111 IOllnlllallll~~ alld WIVllIl~ lo( dl, Il'glo,,,,I, natIOnal, and i~l()bal st rdll'I~J( pl obll'III~.

5. Ta orgallllc a('tlvltles aillled dt 1I11plOVIlIg IIIl' ~1,lIllltll cl 01 IIfe and statlls 01 pOOl peopll' ,lIld dl ,1( IHl'VIII!~ ~()( lai JustIce for Ihc who\e Illdolle~lall I!l'ople.

6. Ta promote "bulIY dlHI dot lIlII('III.t11011 «'II11'I:--', ,1\1<1 10 develop 1I1te~~rdled (Ollllllllllll al 10 Il .III cl 111101111.111011 networks amled at co I\e!'tIII g, ~IOIIllI~, pHI! l'~:--'lIlj~, ,111<1 ("stnblltlll!~ IIll01llldtlOIl III Ihe 1 !l'Id 01 ~,( 1('111 l', technology, and hurnan n:~our('c~, dlHI III ~()( 1<11, econonlI<, legdl, dncl ( ultlll (II "~pl'( I~.

7. Ta promote centers loI' sOCIal, ('ulllllal, alld mldll'( 111,11 actlvlties by, amOIlI~ otll('r lJleall~, l'IH()III<1I',III,~ 1 hl' MusHm mtelIectllal's involvernent III Ihl' 1" O,~I ,1111 01 Islamie altlvlty.

8. To promote IslanlIc economic and 1 malln,,1 1I1~1111I1 IOW,

through, am(Hli~ othel meall~, IIlOhill/allOlI 01 fllllel'"

management ot Il1lanclal capItal, banb, (OOIH'1 al 1 Vl'~, smalJ busIIlcsses, /.aküh (relI,~lOus (t1Il1~), d\lcl ot hl'I lawful means.

9. Ta cnCOUla~!e the Mlishm Intellce I\lal'~ IIIvolvl'IIH'1I1 III relIgIOlIs stlld les.

10. Ta contnbllte 111 develop1l1J~ the (lIITH ilium 01 U,1I1111 edllcational m~tltutIOIl~, l'SpCC lally III the I\l'Id of ~.( Il'II< (' and technology, and in the developlIH'1I1 of l'ellI( cil 10 liai pIlot proJccts.

Il. Ta support the operatIOn of edlHtltloll, IC<'('C\J(II, <1\1(1 development III the fjeld of blOf(l(hnolol(y, Il'( hllol()l~y 01 IIlformatIOn, altclllative enell~y, tIiHl~I)()II"IIOII, 111.1\('11<11'1, mlcro-c1ectronJc~, and III ~()( lai, e( 011011111, I('l'.dl, dllfl clIltu l'al aspect s.

12. To develop mtellee tuai InSII~hl~ In yOIHlI~ ('<III< dll'c! Muslims whlch ale onented 10 natIOnal developnl('lll.

13. To seek and/or I~rant lellow~)hlp~ lor POI('lIllrd MII<,llIrJ

1 1-1

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<.,tudents who «mnnt aCCord ta fmance thelr educatlOn.gO

1 aklllg li (Io~e look al thls program, It IS apparent that while

pdftJ(lpatlOrJ III S(lence and tc(hnology IS ~ccn as a pnonty m a cl/mate

whl'I(' ~IH Il aclv(tlJ( c~ dIe Important m flllftlimg human needs,

IlCVl'llh('le~~ a ~pliltuai dltllCn~lOn I~ élisa needcd to mamtam cquillbnum

bet W('l'II t Ill' Illatcllal and ~Pl! Itual nceds of the people. SlIbsequently, a

1)f{)1~1,lIn 01 1l'11I~I{)U~ d('tlVlty also forms an Important P:Ht ol the ICMI's

oblC( tIV(,~. 1111~ JJl()f~falli IS Ul Ime wlth gavernmcnt's expectatlOn, whlch

~tI('~~c~ tllrte thetllc~ "~lIPPOltlJlg the government policy of ecanomic

dcvelopnll'lIl, tdklll!~ il leddlll!~ raie III activism ta set on example, and

dcvel()plJl!~ hl,lIl1J( IJlSlltlltlon~ compatible with national development".91

Whethcl or Ilot ICMI WIll bc able to preserve thls ideahsm depends more

on lhe indlvlduals II1volvcd than on the objectIves stated.

ln ('ondll~lon, as a result of the goverment pohcy to tlghten its

(Ofllml OVCI 'pohtical' Islam, and as a consequence of boredom wlth the

behavlOr 01 the IslanBe party and Its pOOl' performance III national

pollll('S, the MlI~hms have slowly lelt behmd their emphasls on formai

pohtH'al (lrtlvltICS. Morcovcl', alter the ppp was obhged to replace its

orgalll'latloll.ll IOlludatlOll and Its symbol wlth those more m conformity

Wlt Il 1'1I"((I,\f/a, mally Mushms who were voters of the ppp also )oosened

tlwlr cmotlOllal bond to thls pal ty. The other two parties have now

becomc altcrll,\tlves loI' thcll' pohtlCal aspirations. This can be seen by

90 "J\pa dan Ba!~(Ulllana ICMI," Suara Mas)/d (Jakarta), April 1991, 16·17.

91 1I0Wdl d M. 1 edel'splcl,"Mushm Intellcctuals and Indonesaa's NatIOnal Ikvl'lOPlIIl\llt" 2 3 7,

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companng the IcslIlts of the 19H2 electlOll. the I,,~t elecllOll bl'loll' the

law of the "Solc FOllndatlon of Pancastla". and thosl' 01 the 19X7 l'Il'cllOn.

the flrst electlOn artcr the law was prolllllll~dted

PERCFN rAGL 01 VO 1 LS WON (BY PAR 1 Y) IN rI Il:. 1982, 19S 7 U.rC IIONS 92

-----

PARTIES L9Bï. l'lB!

-PPP 2'/. 'lU l ,) . '1 1

GOLKAR 64.34 / i . 1 ()

PDI '/ . eH

-

Along wlth thcse changes, MlISlt1ll actlvlIIl'S III 11lt' ~phl'n' 01 ~()( 1.11.

econollllc, cultural, educatlOnal, and IIllellc( lual ,tf 1,lIr~ h"Vl' hlo:-'\Ollll'd .

Theil' Ideal lS no longer thc creatioll of <Ill 1.,,1,11111< "tdll'. 1~ldlll d~ Ihl'

state's religion, or the state which Ill1plelllCnb Islanllr .)/}(Id lI/l. 1>111 IIH'

creatIOn of an Islamlc community and tItl' weil-IJ('ltll~ of tltl' li HI/II li Il.

which, accordmg to them, can be achlcved thl'OugIt ~o('t() ('('(>11011111' ""cl cultural means and the wllIlIlgness to coopl'rate Wlt Il 1 h()~e who ~hal('

different ideas. That IS why their concerns ale foc lI~l'd Ilot 011 IOlllldl

political matters but on the sorial, econornl(', and ('ultural OIl('~J ~IJ( Il dS

pro blems of poverty, lInemployment, education, ~()( lai cl 1~1)dllt y,

backward ness, and the hke.93

Their concern regarding these matter~ ran bc seetl If] a nlHlIlH'J' of

92 ThIS fIgure is clted From Sur'/admata, ]]<) (appendlx 1) .

93 Sel' Bambang Pranowo, Il.

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progfafll~ they Pfopo~(~d for the ummah and 111 the several actlvlties they

organl/ed ln the ( ourse of the yeurs 1984·1990. The concepts proposed

by J)aW,ln RahaHIJo and AM. Saefuddm, ln roncert wlth those proposed by

othel MII<,lIfl1 IIltelle( tuais, have Icd to the establishment of the BMI,

wlllch OpCI dte~ IslamH' bankmg system. 0' he symposium of MlIslrm

1!llelle( tll"l~ ln Malall}~ went further III estabhsh1l1g ICMI as a

"developrncm" ~uppoJ'ter. ICMI, as was hoped by Its founders, has

plovldcd il fOlll/lI for the Musllm intellectuals to play a more slgniflCant

l'Ole III thc dcvelopment of the natIon, and partIClilarly that of Mus\Jrn

:-,O( lety. 1\ flUllIbcf of ~tlldy groups, social fOllndatlOns, and other kinds

of the N(;()'~ (Nofl-Covci nmental Or ganizatlOns) have been establlshed

under the dilectIOn of Mushm IIltellcctllals. Sorne can be mentlOned here,

C.f~., "Yilya~(lll ~dll Insan" (San Insan FOllndatlOn) m Jakarta lInder the

dllcction of IlIladuddlll Abdul Rahim, "Yayasan UllIl Albab" (Ulul Albab

loundatlOfl) III BOf~or under Ahmad M. Saefllddm, LSAF (Lembaga Studl

J\oama dan j I/')(lfllt) III iakarta under M. Dawam Rahardjo, "Yayasan Wakaf

Paramadllla" (l\lramadll1a FOllndatlOn) III Jakarta lInder Nurchohsh MadJld,

and "Yayasan Mutahhan" (Mutahhan Foudation) III Bandung under

Jalaluddlll Raldmldt.

1 hanks to the Mushms' actlvltles along these lines, great changes are

dlslcnllbll' III the govcrnment's attitude towards the Muslims and, in a

lal'l~er ('ontext, III the rclatlOnship between the state and Islam in

Illdonesla. 1 ven th()lIJ~h fllrthcr devclopment lS still awaited, reeent

eVldellcc, as shown by the case of the law of Rehgious Court, the

pl'l'lIllSSIOn 10 weal the Mlishm gown VI/bab) in schools, the government's

altl'Ilt 1\'\.' 1 e~pOIlSl' tn the Mushms' aSpiratIOns in the case of the Law of

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NatIOnal EducatIOn System, the est(lblishlllent 01 the BI\II, ,1Ild I,,~t hut 1l0!

least, the establishment of leMl, arc among t hl' l'casons for optlllllSIll lOI

a better relatlOnshtp betwcen Islam (the !\1l1SIIl11S) and the :-.t,l!l'

(government), at least on the surface .

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CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

1 would IIke to begm thl~ last rhapter by quotmg the vlew of George

Mc IlIllwn Kahltl ahout the Iole 01 Islam, the religion of the maJonty of

Illdolle~lan~.11I the 1~lowth 01 Indonesléln natlOnahsm

Olle of tlle rnost Importallt IdC tors eontnbutmg to the 1~lowth 01 ail mte~~latcd natlOnalJsm was the hlgh degree of r('lrgloLl~ hOlJloJ~enelty that prevailed ln Indonesia, over 90 pCI (Cllt 01 the population bell1g Mohammeclan (MlIsllms). As the natlondhst rnovcment sprcad out from ItS ongmal and pl HlClpal hase on lava ta the outcr Islands 01 the Duteh­controllpd pOJtIOIl 01 the archtpelago, the parorhral tcndellClc<; that /l111~ht othelwl~e have beeome strong among thell' (OlJlnlUllItiCS tCllded to be counter<\eted becallse of the ~()lrddl'lty i ndllccd by a cornillon religIOn.

Such d relr~~i()lIs bond was apparent m certam politlcal parties in

Illdoncslé.\ ~lI('h as ~arekat Islam (an Islamlc party of the colomal penod),

Ma~J\lml, and cven thc PPP, In thelr early eXistences.

Sarckat 1~lam was establrshed to lImte the MlIsllm traders agamst the

rislnf~ (Ompetltlon 110111 Chll1cse traders and the oppressive practlces of

the Indolle~lan JloIJlhty. AI ter 191 G, It became an Important polrtlcal party

Hl IndonesHl. and by 1920 It constltuted the largest polrtical lJarty with a

mClllbel sh ip 01 ove!' one million persans th rOllghout the archlpelago.

lInt" this pel'lod Sarckat Islam had been a very strong and solid pohtical

par ty. Ilowl've!'. tllis posItion (bd not last long. -1 he party began to decline

WIlCIIIIl 19n It blokc II1to two PaIts a left wing and an lslamlc wll1g. The

Iclt \V"Jf~ bC(dme a lIucleus of the IndonesIan Commllmst party, whlle the

Is!allIlC WI tl!~ pUI ~lIed Its pohtieal aspi ratIOns unde!' the new name PSII

Cl'Ol'}~e Mc IUllIdll Kahlll, Nat/Onahsrn and Revolution m IndonesJa lItha( a. Nl'\V \'01 k Co: llell Univl'rslty Press, 1952), 38.

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(the Indonesian Islall1\C limon Pattv).- Ilw dl'd1l1e becall1e Il\Oll' ,lppdll'Ilt

when there was also d rupture \Il the body 01 the P~II. 1 wo 01 It~

promment leaders, t\gus Salllll and S.M. KaltoSl1WlI\O, Wl'Ilt so 1,\1 dS to

create wlthin the party two ddïerellt 1,lctlOll~. S,Ibm (Iedtl'd Ihl' "B,III~"11

Penyedar PSII" (the Comlllittce ni the P~II (()Il~( 1011~IIl'~~) .lIld

KartosllWIl]O estabhshed the "KOIllIte Pelt.th,\Il,m Kl'IH'lldl"ll 1'\11" (Ille

Commlttee (01' the lJcfence 01 Rlghtness 111 the l'Sil), ln ,\{Idltmll, two olill'I

Islamlc parties werr bOl n III the 1930\. 1 he (Ir~t Wil~ \lel1lll (1 hl' 1\111~11I1I

Union Party), which was cstabhshcd 111 Sumal ra 111 1'l Hl, ,lIld the \l'C o Il el

was the Pli (the IndonesIaIl Islanlll' 1\lrty) whl< h Wil~ l'~I"hh~lH'd III IdV,1 III

1938.3 From then on, the Séllekdt Islam (01' tlll' l'Sil III 111I~ (.t~l') wa" IlO

longer the only Isl<umc pally III Indone~ia and Il cl'asl'd tn Ill' poillu ,Illy

Important.

The Mas.JlIllll party could 1I1l1te the maJor 1;,1,11111< orl~.tlll/illl()l1">

notwithstandmg the dlfferences ~hat exist(·c1 III tllel\' l'CSPC( tiV. ll'hl',I()II~

schools of thought (madhhah). It bccame a Vl'Iy IInpollanl 1;,1.11111(

politlcal party ln the early IIldependence pel JO cl 01 Illd()IH,~ItI, illld

developed further mto a large and mtluentlal polJtJ('al pill Iy III 1 hl' y(,(l1'~

that followed. It also slIcceecied 111 maIJltalllll1l~ It~ leple~('lllallv(,~ III th!.'

cabmets in the course of 1945-1957. Nevcrtllele~s, Ma~\llllli LlIlpd to

represent Itself as the only Islam\(' pohtlcal pdlly 1)('( all~e only two wc'<,k "

after ItS establishment, another IslarnJ(' polltl(al pdrty, I.e. l'('rll, Wei:,

2 Anthony /-1. Johns, "Indoneslél Islam and (ultulal PlulalJ:-.rn," III I\/um ln

ASIa, ed. John L. Lsposlto (New York Oxlord IJllIvel:-'lty PI('<'\, I<JX7), 207.

3 See Deliai' Noer, '/ he Modernl\/ MU\/Im Mowmen/ In Indunl''>w 1900-J 942 (Singapore Oxlord IJrnver ">Ity Prl'~:-', 1 cJ? ~), l 'J ~ 1 () 1.

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fOlllHIl'd III ( ('lit/dI )lIrnatra. 1 he Mas)uml power dlso wanecl and became

1~ladlldlly dlvHled when two of ItS afhhated organizatlOns, I.e., the PSII and

t hl' N (J, 1('1 t Hl 1~)4 7 and ln 1952 respectlvely and then tounded separate

polJtHal pa/ta's on thelr own.

III addlt IOn to It~ separation hom the PS" and the NU, the pOOf

/ dal IOII~IIIP belwccn MaS)llflll'S leaders and PI es/dent Sukarno led to the

party'", ()( (lIpylng a dlfflCult pO~ltlOn. ThiS tenuolls relationshlp

dell'/ JO 1 t,cl IIIto a senoll~ (onlllct dunng the pel10d of "GlIIded

1h'/1I0( la( y" (1 (J~i~J-19hS), wlth thc result that ln August 1960 President

)lIk.l/'110 fon l'cl Mas)lIllll to cllssolve II~clf, Imlmg WhlCh, It was told, lt

wOlild IH' 1>.1I111l'd. On 13 Scptel11bel 1960 Ma~JlIml announced that lt was

dlssolvl'd III Ihe IlIcantlnll', thank~ to thell accomodatlve tactlcs, the

(II he/' t 111 l'l' pdllICS, I.e. the PSII, the NU, and PCI t i, were able to mamtam

Ih(,l/ )'(I~)pe( live eXlstellce~ and stcpped forward II1to the 'New Order'

pellOd.

I.lllel'l111~ the 'New Orclcr' pcnod, the nllhtary emerged as a dominant

I1CIOI OWlll~~ ln the maJor role Il hac! played In crushing the PKI and

/'l'1ll0VlIlg SUkdlllO Ilom hls autho/ïty. The first slgniftcant measure

"dopkd by the IllllItary <lllthontics ei.uly in Ihls pCllod was to reorgamze

Colk.H, ,1 loos(' ledelatlon of antl-PKI forces III the 'Gulded Democracy'

IH'IIod. lInd tl,lIlsfollll It to a pohtlcal party whose obJect It would be to

11I1I1I1ttlll1 tlll' J)o!ttH'al II1tercsts of the nlll!ldry. In the meantlme, a new

Isl,lIl1lC Ihll ty, n,und)' Parmusl, was born In 1968 with the approval of the

lIew <\lIlh()lltle~. \l\'llh the presence of PannusI, thele were now l'OUf

Isl,lIl1ll' p<ll t les 111 the ei:uly 'New Order' penod, I.e. the PSII, the NU, Pertl,

l, , ' .

• and Pannusl. However, ~tnct control by thl' Il1Iltt.\I)' !~O\ l'l'Illlll'llt ()\ ('1

these Islamrc parties only rcsultcd 1I1 thell' pOOl' pl'r\olll1lll11 (' on 11ll'

Indoneslan polItlcal stage. 1 hls was appalent, \(ll l'XilllIpll', 111 thl' Iqil

election when the fouI' Islamle parties altogether only llI<\Ild!~('d lu ohl"lll

less than 30 pel' cent al the tot(1I votl'~. wl1\ll' (,olk.lI, wll\l Il \\'.1:-'

sUPPofteci by the govclIlment and the IlIllttdry (II( les, \V<I~ dhk 10 ohl""1

over 62 pel' cent. The l'esults of thls cle( tlOn showl'd the IH1SItiOll 01

Islamic palltical forces III Indane~I~Hl pohtll'al sn'IH' .me! ,llso cll'll'IIIIIIIl'd

the l'ole they were able ta play 111 planl11nl~ the lulur e 01 IlldorH'~hl.

Desplte the landsltde vlcloly of the 1l11lrtar y /!~()Vl'rrlllll'lIt h,\I "l'cl

party, I.e. Golkar, the gavernmenl W<l~ ~tlll lIlH (lllli (lltahlt.' wllh "polit\( ,d

Islam". Nat sUl'prislIl!;ly. the !~OVellllllellt llltIOc!IHl'd d IIIIIIIIH'I 01

• measures ta curtad its slren~~th. J\rnolll( tlll':-'l' ,\ltl()l1~ two Wl'I(' ell('(llvl'

and decrslve. lhe first wa~ the amal$~anJatl()1J 01 the loul I:-.Iilllll< p"ltl('~,

(the PSII, the NU, Pertl, and Parmll~l) mto Olle, I.e. t hl' l'l'l' (/'(1/ lli/

Persatuan Pembangunan the Devclopmelll UllIOl\ l'ait Y), will( Il Wd~

effected III 1973. The second was t he e~tabll~ltll1cllt 01 t hl' lIve Idw:-, (t he

Generall:.lection Law, the Law of Polltlral Pal tle~ and ('()IOIlJ~(1I1 K,lI yd, tltl'

Law of Mass-OrganizatlOns, the Rclet't'ndutn 1 <lW, ,lIld the DI'IUMPR 1 ilW).

three of whlch (the General Ilcc tlOn 1 <lW, tlll' POlltlC ,t1 1'<111\(.'\ <11111

Golongan Karya Law, and the Md~~-Ol!(alll/<ltioll 1 élW) "t !f)IJI,IIl'd 111<\t ,dl

polJtlcal parties and ma~S-OI'l~anlnltl()n:-, Ifl IlldOfll'\liI "II!J\( IrI)(' ol1ly to

Pancas/la. ï he Icsult was a (on~ld('rdble wcak(,l1l11,~ 01 tlll' hl .. 11111

political fOI"ces ln IndonesJa, due to the la(1 thdt tl1(")(' partH", and

organl/atlons had dlllcrent trItere~ts and W('le nlad!' III> 01 ddl('II'''I

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1~IOllp~. 1 he fU'>lon only (r('ated rntcrnal tension and faetlOns,4 whlle the

stlpllléltl()n~ of the thrce laws mentloned above have only loosened the

rellglOlI~ emotlOnal bond among the members of the parties and

() 11~~1Il11 at 10 n ~

lOI the III~I rOllryeal~ artel the fusIOn (1973-1977), the ppp gave the

nnpl e~~I()n t hat It was to be a polttlCal channel for most Islamlc

OI"J~anri'atlons and fOI ItS afllhated paltlcs. It was so effectIve III aroLlslllg

Ih(' lelll~lOlI~ ~(,lItlm('nl of many Musilln votCIS that ln the 1977 electlOll Jt

su('('eeded III IIH'lca~lIlg the per('ental~(' of votes rrom that whlch the

Mushm pal tl(,~ Ihld obtarned III the 1971 elcctlon. As a matter of faet,

these flr~t 10111 years of the pPP's eXistence constltuted Its peak penocl,

bec(\us{' altel the 1 <)77 elcrllOll the paIty gradually dechned. 1 he rupture

wlthlll the party, 111 addition to the govcrnment's control OVCI the party's

mternal (\lIall~, was the mam rau~e of Its declll1e. Alter thc 1977 elcctlOn,

the l'PI' IlCVl'r al~all1 achleved a bettcr pcrformance as an elcetoral

Ill{\( hlllC, 1101' dld It ~elve any longer as a pohtlcal channel for Islamle

Olf~alll/atloll~ al "hatcd to IL 1 hc declme was more apparent after the NU,

the m~~Jor supportlllg organrzatlOn of the PPP, leff the party and after the

ppp chan!~ed ItS Islan1l( ba~ls I\1to one based on Pana/s,la.

;\~ iar (I~ IldllOnalrst SClltlllH.'nt was conccrncd, It would secm that

Profcssoi K,lhlll'S observation that relrglOus homogcnelty constltutecl an

important !.Il tOI rOlltl'lbullllg 10 the glowth of mtegrated natlonalrsm is

corrcct. 1 hl~ rail be ~hown III the c(Ise 01 Sarekat Islam 111 ItS carly penod .

. , I.eo SUIYddlll.\ta, "POlrtlldl ContestatIOn 111 IncioncsIa," 111 Polit/cal Contn'(al/Ofl, Ca.\(' S(lIll/Cs Irom /ÎSIll, cds. Norma Mahmood and Zakaria Illlll Ahllllid (SIIl!!dPlHl' IIIl'dllch N,Hlmann loundatlon, 1990),20.

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However, rellglOlIs sentlrllcnt could IlOt ~rll(lI\lIltl'l' Ihdt Ihl' Il'IdllOl1:--IIIP

wlthm a rcliglOlIsly homogenolls glOup would I.\~I very IOIlI!. DII It-rl'Ili l'~

of rehgiolls thought and competitIon III .\rhll'\ïll!! ~tlll( tUI .. \1 P()~ltIOI1S 11\

the party's body and 111 the pal'haml'nt \Vl'rl' dlll()lll~ 1 he IIllt)(lI 1.11\1 1.11 toI ~

whlch loosened such rehglOlIs bond~ .\\lel 1 mali\" weakelll'd Il s ~I Il'IlI~1 Il t\~

a polItieal force. As showll III thl' ra~l'~ 01 MllSllIlIlI dlHI 1 hl' l'l'l', 1 hl' 111:--1011

only created mternal lactu)(ls and tenSIOn, bul l.llll'cI lu IIhllllldlll <lIlV

rehglOus (Islamlc) sentIment amonl~ Its sliPportll1l~ !~I ()Up~. 1 hl' 11I~1c)1 Y 01

Islam as a polItlcal force 111 Inclonesla I~ 1I0111c(\lIy de~( IIIH'd ily Idlalllddlll

Rakhmat.

The story of Islam III Indolle~ld hd~ ,dw.lY:-' IW('11 " Sloly of the l'ehglOus commullIly (IIInnwl1) (()1111111~ 1 ()l~l'I hcr, ollly to fall apal't once morc. IIH' ~dl ekdt hl.lIlI (kvl'Iopl'd dlHI mobilized many Islanllc forces, but Il'<lehed " (1l'~(l'lId() of internai dIsputes. MaslulTIl hel~all by \11111111g 1 IH' 1~ldllll( eommumtyand end cd III dl~array~. 1 he '\)(,Vl'IOPIIIl'llt lltllty Party' (PPP) has tncd to blllll~ vallOll~ 1~I.III1J( p.1I 1 Il'~ together into one body, but lias bl'l'Il pll'O( (lIpl('d Wlt Il dIVISions and ("t'ises, sOllle have l'vell ~.al(l t h<l~ l'l'JI I~ Il'dlty not a party, not umtcd, and not a deve/opIIll'lll. )

Whitc the government's attllude lowarcl~ pollll( al 1~lillll 11I11~'" h"Vl'

been considered as stnct and ~cvele, It~ attllude lowald" 1t·"I'.I()II~

(Islamic) actlvltles in econonllC, soual, edU<dllOllal, Il'I~,tI, alld olill'i 11011

pohtical domams, was genelally ~lIpp()ltlve. If Ollt' look., dl I()d"y'~)

developments III these domallls, the Ml1~IHn (Ol/IIIUlIllty lia" l('a~OIl 10 1 l'l'I

optimistlc. RelIglOus fanhtlcs have m( lea~t'd I"pldly, BUH(' 1',1""111

schools have been established III mo~t pl OVIIH e<" <llIcI 1 he hla!tlll

5 Jalaluddm Rakhmat, "Islam dl Indone~la Md~("ah IkIIlW,I," III M. 1\111111

RaiS cd. islam dl Indonc\/U SIWIU Ikhtwy MenlJluu /J/YI </"k,lll" Rajawali Pers, 1989). 38, as quoted m Na~1I I,HII""', "1~ldlll IlIldPI 1111' 'New Order' A Polrtlcal Illstory," PY/\nw the' fndon('\I{,Jn Iml/( U[oy '}Il (June 1990) 6.

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edll! iltJOnal ~y~tern has bccn Improvcd. In legal affalrs, two Important

Ii.lWS ) c:-,peC'ltn~~ Islarme InstItutIOns, I.e., the Marnage Law and the

Rdll~IOU:-' (lslarll1(,) Court Law, have been establtshed, In whlch most ot the

Mu!,/tm a~pllatl()n~ are mc luded.

1 !Jus, Il 1:-' /loI entIlely ('oneet to say that Islam under the 'New Order'

~~ovcrnrncnl ha:-. bee/l ~uppressecl. What the government dld was to

:-.eparale polll J( al Islam f rom rcliglOus Islam. Since a polttlcally orgamzed

Islam I~ c ()1\~ld('red a threat to the natIOnal pohtlcal sy~tem, relIgIOus

bldrtl I!) loleldled and even respected. AccordIngly, even though

pohlH'ally "'Iam IS weak, reltglou'; aetlvlties have bcen growIIlg lapldly

une/el' ~lIh<1I 10':-' leadership. '1 hls development has had an Impact on the

al1l1l10lll1 (Ilolllillai Muslun) cucles in Golkar and ITl the government, as

weil a:-. 011 Ihe mn/n (devout Musltm) CIrcles. Many ahangan leaders In

Colkeu aI\(l III 1 he government have begun to appear ta be mal e Islamic.

Many of them have been actIve 111 reltglous actlvltles dunng Ramadan

(l'aslllllO llIollth:-.. led players dunng the Islamle festIve seasons. and he Id

01' pal II< IPdlcd III the ChSclisslons on IslamIC tearhmgs. In tum, many

Islaml(' leadl'I'~ have been working within the government structures and

art' active III Colkal, ln both IIlstltutlons they have exerCised thell' Islamlc

1IllitlelH e. 1 he hlallll/dtlOll process and the co-optIon of Musltm leaders

IIllo Colkal ,md 11110 Ihe ~~o\'eillment system has gradually rendered these

1Il:-.lltlillOIlS 1ll01l~ IslamlC. dt least IllltS l'Itual and symbols.G

Outsale the pol!tlCal system, many of the Musltm elIte have

() Sec SUlvadllldta, ''l'olttlcal ContestatIOn", 25. see also Idem, Military ;\\u'l1dtl/l( l', 129·1.:0.

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partlclpated 111 the l1atl0l1.11 devl'loplllent plO!~l'aIllS thl'Oll!~h ,H'tl\'llll'S III

Non-Govel11mental OrgafllzatlOns U cmlJl/ua .\'WlItim'cl MtI\"t/ulf."t/c).

Discussion groups have splun!~ up, l'elt!~lOlIS ,lIld edw,ltlOlh11 (H'II\'IIIl'S III

mosques and ollKcs have 1I1C1'e(lsed I(l~)ldly, (Illd ~n( 1<11 l()lIllll<lII()II~ 10

asslst and to tram the yOUI1!~el' !~eneratlOn 01 Illl i,1I1~hlll (0l111l1l1ll1t\' Il,I\'l'

been estabhshed m manv places lIndel Ihe dlll'c lIOn nI VOllll!~ 1\111~hlll

intellectuals such as NUl'choltsh Mddlld (of the 1'<11,\lI1.\d1l1.1 IOllIHI.llu)Il),

Immaduddm Abdul Rahllll (01 the ~an Insan lound,lllon), Iv!. ~"('llIddln

(of the Ulul Albab FoundatlOn), DdWi.lI11 R<lh(\Id,lo toI tht' 1 ~!\I J (',"IJi'tlu

Stud, Aganw dan 1,[sataO, Idl(lluddlll RakhlPdt (01 1 Ill' 1\1111(11111.\11

FoundatlOl1), and many othel~. Ille Islaml( d( IIVllll'~ ("()"!~ 111l'~l' 1I11(,~

have become mOle lOIlSplCUOllS than cver belole. M.\IlY lI/Jillllftill MlI~llIlI~

are dlrectly 1I1volvcd whcther 111 the body 01 Ihe~t' OII'.dlll/dtIOIl:--' Cli .1"

financial supporters. Ihey also sc1H1 thelr (hllcllcn 10 palll( IlId\(' III IIH':--'(,

actlvities.

The government conslders actlvltles al()I1!~ thc:-.c Illies to bl' III tlC( oui

with its development prograrns ancl thus It lully supports thelll. IIII~ (Ill

be seen, for example, 111 Its eltolts to plOvlde la( IlItH'S fOI tilt' MlI:-.IIIJI

community such as mosques, books <mc! ('ople~ of the Olll'illl, ,IIHI

financing Musltm actlvltlCS suc h a~ rellf~l()lI~ le:-.llvdls, dl:--'( II~:--'I()JI~) ilnd

seminars, and other sOCIal progl ams.

Through thcsc dl~cus~l()n~ and :-'Clllmdl'~, tllc MII~IIIII IlItl'llc'( Illab d(('

develop1l1f~ Islamlc t hm km~~ 1 n (le e orclancc wlI Il model fi (hilll('n!~(·s. ')(lIlI('

of the thcmes clcalt .vIth ln thc:-.e ~eHllllal~) IIIC 11I(1<~ ('( OIlOlll1c .... , Iltl'

Sharïcah, theology, po Itl< S, cc!Lu allOn, :-.( len( e <llIcI tee hnolo!~y, allcl 1 II('

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157

Irkc. DISC U~~J(Hl~ 011 cc OnOlnlC ~ have brought 01 the Question of the raIe

of ;;akâh ami 01 the BA/. (the Managellal Body of the zakâh) m solvmg the

pl'Oblern 01 poverty alld III nll~lIlg the Musilm cconormc and sOCIal status,

the 101(' 01 hanklIIg m~tltutlOns, the legal ~tatus of bank mterest, and

.. Itelllalive modeb of bankmf~ wsterns, dl~cuslOns on S'harïcah have

foc lI~('d Oll thc questloll~ of II1hentallc e, IIlter-relIglOus marnages, the

codll J( al 1011 01 1~ldmlc law, and the Importance of Religious Court m

Illdonl'~Ié.I, Ihell IIlvestlgatlolls 01 the therne of theology have revo\ved

arotllld the qlle~tlon 01 the rClntcrpretatlOn of classlcal texts wntten long

but 1l0W lac cd Wlt h model n (hallcngcs, debates on polItlcal Issues have

look('cI IIlto the Id(\tlOn~hlp bctweell state and religIOn, the Pancas/la and

hlalll, dllcl the l'Ole of ('UhUl1Ü> 111 polItlcs, discussions of education have

drawlI ""l'nt Ion to the problem 01 sec ulm education and rehglOus

education, and talks focuslIlg on SCienle and technology have been

COlI< el'lll'cI wlth thc MlI~lIm partlnpatlon III thls clomam, whlch has been a

f~rc<lt ( hl\lIl'nl~c III t hc modern wortel.

nif 1 el cnccs of oplllion cmcrglllg from these diSCUSSIOns have made it

possible 101' Ideas to develop regarelmg the broader thernes of rnorality,

~o('Jcty, phil()~ophy. culture, and hlstolY. An evolutlOn of thlllking, using

1 atlhll d'S tel m, 11'0111 polItlcal and Ideologlcal OrIentatIOns to IIltellectual

and nIltur.ll OIleS ha~ takcn pillee and, al the sarne tlme, rnethodologlcal

('l'lIu 1~1lI h(l~ lliso devl'Ioped. In short, inlcllcclual actlvlty has blossorned

III the tl .. dlllOIl 01 Isldllll< Ihought ln IndoncsIa. Ali of thesc actlvitlCS have

been madc possible lIl1der the conditIOns of the 'New Order' period,

Whl'Il' the l!ovel Ilmellt's dl hlevcmenls 111 ~ollal, cconormc, and

l'<!ucatlolldlllllf>lOVemcnts, and III provldll1g the lIlfrastl'llcture for Islamlc

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development have made a grcat d1llcrenre.

Islam, thcreforc, conllllues to play ,lI1 Importdllt roll' 111 the 'Nl'\\'

Order' pCl'lod. Its roll' IS now dtflclent Ilom th,lt III the ~lIL\lIl() pl'ilod.

whele Islamlc movcments were IIlclcaslIlldv assoCl<ltl'd wlth tlll' lh-III,lIld

for an Islarlllc stail'. It IS now morc ("omplcx 1\ltlll'r thall JUst politH <I\. III

the 'New Order' penod, thc Mllshm lOIlHlllllllty IS app,lIl'nt Iy (h,tlll'Ill'.l'd

ta cooperate with those who shase dtllerent Icleas ,\\lei Idl'()lol~ll'~ to 1IIIIId

the country and to estabhsh Cl new sOCIal (ontract whl( h rail hl' al'( l'pt l'cl

byall.

Desplte thcse devclopments, It is. howevcr, stIll 1Il1rll'ar whl'thl'I 01'

not the developlIlg rchgiolls Islam III Illdolle~ta will Olll' day hl'

transformed IIlto a powerful pohtlral force. Nevert hl'le:-.S. OWllll( tll the

faet that the abangan clement IS still dOlllllli:lllt III the polltu al :-.trll( tlln'

of the state, slleh a possiblhty rcmallls unpredlctable .

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1'1 .. "1OWO, M. B,\lnb,\lll~. ''!Sldlll dan Pancasda DlI1aJl1Ika Pohtlk Islam di Indolll'sh\." .tL/mli/ lI/L/mul Qur'an 3, Ilumber l (1992) 4-14.

"POtCIlSI CCIHil'''l<lWdll Mushm PCllu Dlhimpul1." Pe/lta (Jakarta), 3 Ikl cmbcl 19t)O. 1\':-. 1 eplllJh~hed 111 ICMI (lklltan Cendektawan Mus/111I .\~-llId()I1CSIll) da/am Sorotan Per.'; Deccmber 1990-Aprtl 1 (}91.l'd. Mtt"llIl1l I\tdkLl. Jaka/td SckrCldndt Pl1~at ICMI, 1991 135.

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Pratlknya, Ahmad. "AnatOllll Ccndd,law.\I1 1\11I~hlll Pot Il'l Indolll'~I,I." 111 Islam dl Indol1cslll S'UlllU lklltltll MCI/c/l/ul /Jill, l'cl 1\1 /\111111 R,II~, 1· 36. Jakal ta R,lJélwall Pel~, 19~1). .

Purdy, Susan Sc1dcl1. "Lcgltnnatlon 01 PO\H'I ,lIld /\lIlh()lltll'~ III " Plurdltstlc Stdtc PallCastld dncl (Ivll Rl'III~lolI ln IlIdol1l'~I"." l'lU) DIssertatIOn, ColumbIa 1I1l1\'l'l ~lly, IlHH.

Radl, Umatdl. Strateell ppp ]1)7-;·198l :'\ll/ll)' 1 ('fl{l/II{I "t'kllt/1lI11 Pol!lJ" Islam rm(Jkat N{/s/(J/llIl. lakMt.\ Intcglll,\~ l'l'I:-', flH"!

Rahardjo. M. Dawam. Perrcktlt J)cklato.\1 Mokf..../lil f','!ellll/II 1"(11101111 "111/11.

Bandung M17all, 19H9.

____ . "The QuestIOn of Islamle Banklllg III 111(1()11l'~hl." 111 "lili/III

Bankmg In Soutl1Cll\'t Ibw, cd. Mohamml'd 1\1'111, 1·\0 Ih { SlIlgaporc Instltutc of Southeast /\Slilll Stll(IIl'~, 1 ~)X~

Rakhmat, Jalallldd1l1. Islam Aktua/ Ret/chi .\O\ltl/ .\(,OUI/IlI (,11(1('/,.11/\\,011 Muslim. Bandlllli~ MI/,lll 1991.

____ . "Islam dl Indonc~la M,,~al.th \)l'IIIII~I." 111 I\/UII/ dl IlIdollt'\It1

Suatu Ikhttar MCnO(/Ul J)m, cd. M. /\111111 R,\I:-', ~7 r,x. 1.11.:.1l1t1 RaJawalt PCI~, 1989 .

RaSYld. ROlhan /\. Hukun7 Acara l'c>rucli/(111 A(/umu. l"k,1I Id \{,qaw.tI, l'l'I \, 1991.

Reevc, DaVId. Go/ken of Indonesw !\n Alternut/ve te> thc 1'1lI t)' \)".,(('111.

Smgaporc Oxford UllIverslty p, css, 19W).

Roeder O.G., and Mahidm Mahrnud. cd~. W/Jo\ Who In /"t/I)lJI'\ltI

BIOgraphies of Promll1C/1t Indol1e.\w/1 J'L'nuI/O/llIc ... III Ali 1 whl... /Ild ed. Smgapore GlInllng I\gunR, 1 <JHO.

Sacfuddin Ahmad M. rkOYIOY'11 dan Ma\YlIrlikut cI(/lum jlc'nf7l'/wf 1\10/1/. Jakarta Rajawaltpers, 1987.

____ . "lIarapan Balu dl IcnJ~ah Kn~l~ 1 kOIlOll1l K()III(~IIII)()I(·l." l'WIll Masyarakat (Jakarta), L! 1 Octobci 19H3, 4L! 49.

___ et al. ed~. Islam untuk /)1\lp/1I1 J/mu llw/1of1l1 Hu"u /JaYll)

Pendldlkan AfJuma l.\/am Puda PCrçJurUlll1 III1(J{41 IJmwH. Idk.1I ta Proyek Pcrnbinaan Penclldlkan /\1~drna hl,ltll l'<lda 1)('II~llllldl1 l'I1'~I~' Umum, Ulrcktorat l'embtnaall P('II{llllldll 11I1I~1~' 1\1~""ld 1.,1.1111, Dcpartcmcn /\1~anJa RI, 19H().

Salmima. ur (Iqbal Abdullau!). "IUHW, )Cllljl1 dl Bulélll ')\1< \," l'ul1JI Masyurakat (Jakarta), 11 June lC)W; Itl-I().

Samsun, Oemar. and ~uddllrnan 1 cbba. "'1 he l{c<.,pon<.,lhlllt J('~, of Il)(, Musltm Intellcctudls." Indonc')/(/ Uef1()rl\ (u/lure und )()( I/'Iy

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)upplement LO (1 ebllldly 1 (JK7) r)-7_

)a~dl, /\Idlrnd'>_ "1 c OIlOnllC Wal 10 Rcpla( c Mrlltary (onIlICt." Jakarta Post, 7 Dcc ernlJcl 1 {){)O_ /\';-, lepLlbhshed III ICMI (Jkatal1 CendeklLl\ .... an MU\/Jm \e-ll1d()J1(~'1/U) du/am Soro(an Per_\ fJesemher 1990-Apn/ 1 ()() J, ('(L M,tI,llIlll Mttkka. Idkdl td ~ekrctdllat Pll~at ICMI, 1 <)91 177.

~a~OIlO, /\dJ. "Molid /\1~dllld dall Ma';-,(t1ah Kcr11lsklllan Pcngantdl Ka]lan tl'Iltalll~ MI';-,"I hlall1l cldlam 1\'llIb,lI1gunan Na<;-'IOl1al." ln Islam dl In{/Ot1('\/l/ \U(/t il Ikl1( wy Mel1çJlIul !JIn, ccl. M /\mlll Ral';-" 99-108. Idkal t cl I{,lji.lw,dl l'el ';-" 1 !)WL

)hlrall, 1 labri), l'd. I\/W11lL J{ul1kll1ÇJ. london Buttclworth, 1990.

~Id labat, W.lUWa!tt'1 BOlldl'). RellÇJ10 U.\ lo/eranLe and the ChrIstian Fmtfl. J)ltlkal Id Bddilll l'ClIl') bIt KII~tell, 1 (H»).

"SlIllJ)()';-,)UJn N""IOlldl (cnclcklawan MlI';-,ltm dl Malang." Angkatan HencflJolu (Idkdl ta), 1 /)ecelllbel 1990. I\s rcpublrshcd rn ICMI (I/W(lIlI ((,l1l/ekIllWlIl1 MU\/nl1 .\e-Indol1e.~Ja) da/am Sorotan Pers /Jc'c eml7er 1 {)(JO Âf7n/ J ()() /, cd Makmur Makka. Jakal ta Sekrctanat l'li ';-,d t « MI. 1 <)<) 1 1 H.

S"('I~dl, /\111111 M. "\OII<!(lIlld';-, MlI';-,lllll lJntllk MengLllangl KeseIlJangan." ln J)w/o?, JJ/\III\ MU/llIl11l11111Ji)'oh Kchlll1Ç/klt(111 jJengusaha Musllm, cd. IL Wlwollo, )(J-/IX. lakdl ta BIIla Rena Pat Iwara, 1991.

SltOIllJ)ul, 1 III a 1 M,II tdhan. NU tian J>anLasl/a. Wlth a foreword by /\hdulitlillllall Wdhlcl. l.lkarta Pustaka Smar I-Iarapan, 1989.

~ock(lIllo. 1l1e Hlrtl1 01 ['/lllljllsl/a I\n Out/me of the J-lVe Prll1C1p/es of The Int/oll(,\lell1 ,\ICI(e. I)Jakaltd Department ot InformatIon Republtc of IIWOIll'';-,la, 1 ()bO.

"Suharto (Olllt';-, bldllll( llltellc( tuais 1 he Musltm '1Icket." Far Eastern J WI10m/C NevlcH', LO l)cccmber 1990. As repllbhshed In ICMI (/katoll CCl1llcklll\\'lIl1 Mm'/II11 ,,>c-lndonesw) da/am Sorotan Pers l)cc cl17her J 9()()- l'Pri/ J 991, cd. Makmllr Makka. Jakarta Sekretanat l'U';-,dt IUvll, 1 qq 1 L :lL.

SUlly, 1';-,111.111. "lsl,1I1l d Sy~tcllI 01 1 dW tn Indonesla." ln Pembaharuan IlL/kwll /";/al11 dl Il1dol1CSlLl, cd. bmatl Suny. 16-21. Jakarta lllllvei Slt,\S Indollcsla, 19H 1.

SlIl'h\Wld l,lia, /\hllldd K. et al. "Ccndektawan Mushm Melangkah dari M,llang." 1 ('111/'0 (J,\I. ... ," td), H [)ecembel 1990, 2G-28.

Madlld, Nur('h(JlI~h. 'the Background ot the Bllth 01 ICMI." Speech at the ~Cllllnar 01 I( 1\11. 1\10l1t 1 cal, Quebec, :3 May 1992. rape rccordmg.

SlIlyadlllat.t. 1 l'O. "Polttll'al ContestatIon 111 Indonesla." ln PO/ltlcal Contn(lIl1ol1 ((/'1(' SIL/dlcS l yom ;\''1/(/, cd. Nonna Mahmood and

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Zakll'Id lIaJI Ahmad 1 f)-~('{. SlIlg,\pOIl' IIl'llll'llI,\llll \~ld. II}\)O.

~uryadtnata, LeD. Mi/aw'}' A~'((Jl1dl/l}( \' (/lIt! PO/H/(1I1 (lIllll/(' \ "l/ld\' o{ I11do/1csw'S Golklli. I\thens. OhIO (l'IlICI lOI Inll'IIl,IIIOIl.tl \llIdll'~. Ohio Umvcl'slty. 1 ~9().

SyamslIddm. DI\1. "Muhd\l1madl)'dll dan Rd,<I\"I~d l'Olttl!,. 01 dl' Bdl Il.'' III Muha m madlYa h Kim da J1 1 _\01-.. cd. \)1\1 ~}"\lII~\I{ld III. 1 Il l ,!(\(,.

Jakal ta Pustaka P(ll1l1mas. 1 <)~)().

SyamslIddlll, Ndlat'lIdclll1. /'('/II!1eronlaklll1 I\t//I/JI HCI'II/I/'I-. 1\i1\If\ 0/1/ III Islam Acel1. Jakdl ta Cralttlpl'I~. 1 ~)<)().

ramara, NaslI'. "Islam lJndel the 'New Oldl'I' 1\ l'oItIH," Ih:-.loIY" 1'1'\/1111 The /l1do/1csulI1 Ind,ui/or -19 (lune 1 L)90) b W,

van OlJk, COI nelts. {hu/cr Ille !JUlIl7er of /\/11111 Ille [)/I/ /1/ I\/tl/l1 /II 1l1donesw. -1 hl' Ila1~lIe Mal'tllllls NlIholl. 19H 1.

van N\(~lIwenhu)7c, C.A.O. ;\'17('( t,' 01 1.\/UI11 111 J!O\t (O/OI1Il1/ IIIt!OI/(,\IlI. 1 ht' Ilague-B(mcllll1!~ W. V<l1l Iloev(', 1 ()[)K.

von deI' Mehden, 1 l'ccl R. "1 he l'oltt I( ,ll ,llld \o( lai ( h(lIl'Il,~l' (lI 1 IH' 1~\I(III1\( Revlval III Mdlaysla dlHi Indollc~la. II/(' M/I\//lH Will Iii 7h (11)})!))

219-233 .

Yatlm, Bachl. "Ianpd Rekomillasi NIJ J\kdll 1'('(.111" /'011/1 Mi/\)'II/I/I,(//

(Jakarta), 21l\pIII 19H7, 23-2:>.

Zacky M.S" Ahmad. "Ihwal Pl'iterlllldll CelHleklilwdll Mil <,1 1111 IIIc!OIH'<'ltI." III Perspekllf Is/am da/am Pemlw/llJul1UI1 HlIIIII\lI IJeltcHllli/1I

Cendekwwal1 Muslll11 jJerluma 1 embUllll .\l/ldy !\llumll til/II l,hll/lIt (LSAF) , eds. /\ Rlfd'I Ilasan and 'Aml'lIll,dl AllIlldd, q L l, Y(),~y(tI'dl Id PL3PM, 1987 .