חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרChapter 1What is Social Psychology?

behavioral genetics

A subfield of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in behavior.

cross-cultural research

Research designed to compare and contrast people of different cultures.

cultureA system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, and practices shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

evolutionary psychology

A subfield of psychology that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behavior.

interactionist perspective

An emphasis on how both an individual’s personality and environmental characteristics influence behavior.

multicultural research

Research designed to examine racial and ethnic groups within cultures.

social cognition

The study of how people perceive, remember, and interpret information about themselves and others.

social neuroscience

The study of the relationship between neural and social processes.

social psychology

The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרChapter 2Doing Social Psychology Research

applied research

Research whose goals are to enlarge the understanding of naturally occurring events and to find solutions to practical problems.

basic research

Research whose goal is to increase the understanding of human behavior, often by testing hypotheses based on a theory.

bogus pipeline technique

A procedure in which research participants are (falsely) led to believe that their responses will be verified by an infallible lie-detector.

confederateAccomplice of an experimenter who, in dealing with the real participants in an experiment, acts as if he or she is also a participant.

construct validity

The extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate.

correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables.

correlational research

Research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by the researcher.

debriefingA disclosure, made to participants after research procedures are completed, in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any negative feelings, and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participants’ involvement.

deceptionIn the context of research, a method that provides false information to participants.

dependent variable

In an experiment, a factor that experimenters measure to see if it is affected by the independent variable.

ExperimentA form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because (1) the experimenter has control over the events that occur and (2) participants are randomly assigned to conditions.

experimental realism

The degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרexperimenter expectancy effects

The effects produced when an experimenter’s expectations about the results of an experiment affect his or her behavior toward a participant and thereby influence the participant’s responses.

external validity

The degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations.

hypothesisA testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur.

independent variable

In an experiment, a factor that experimenters manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable.

informed consent

An individual’s deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researcher’s description of what will be required during such participation.

internal validity

The degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables.

interrater reliability

The degree to which different observers agree on their observations.

meta-analysisA set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects.

mundane realism

The degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real world.

operational definition

The specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable.

random assignment

A method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions.

random sampling

A method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal chance of being in the study.

subject variable

A variable that characterizes pre-existing differences among the participants in a study.

theoryAn organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרChapter 3The Social Self

affective forecasting

The process of predicting how one would feel in response to future.

bask in reflected glory (BIRG)

To increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful.

dialecticismAn Eastern system of thought that accepts the coexistence of contradictory characteristics within a single person.

downward social comparison

The defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are.

facial feedback hypothesis

The hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion.

implicit egotismA nonconscious form of self-enhancement.

overjustification effect

The tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors.

private self-consciousness

A personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states.

public self-consciousness

A personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others.

self-awareness theory

The theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behavior.

self-conceptThe sum total of an individual’s beliefs about his or her own personal attributes.

self-esteemAn affective component of the self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative self-evaluations.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספר

self-handicapping

Behaviors designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure.

self-monitoringThe tendency to change behavior in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation.

self-perception theory

The theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, people gain self-insight by observing their own behavior.

self-presentation

Strategies people use to shape what others think of them.

self-schemaA belief people hold about themselves that guides the processing of self-relevant information.

social comparison theory

The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others.

Terror Management Theory

The theory that humans cope with the fear of their own death by constructing worldviews that help to preserve their self-esteem.

two-factor theory of emotion

The theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרChapter 4Perceiving Persons

attribution theory

A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior.

availability heuristic

The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind.

base-rate fallacy

The finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates.

belief in a just world

The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims.

belief perseverance

The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited.

central traitsTraits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions.

confirmation bias

The tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs.

counterfactual thinking

The tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not.

covariation principle

A principle of attribution theory that holds that people attribute behavior to factors that are present when a behavior occurs and are absent when it does not.

false-consensus effect

The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviors.

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people’s behavior.

implicit personality theory

A network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviors.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספר

impression formation

The process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression.

information integration theory

The theory that impressions are based on (1) perceiver dispositions; and (2) a weighted average of a target person’s traits.

mind perception

The process by which people attribute humanlike mental states to various animate and inanimate objects, including other people.

need for closure

The desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first impressions.

nonverbal behavior

Behavior that reveals a person’s feelings without words, through facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues.

personal attribution

Attribution to internal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood, or effort.

primacy effectThe tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later.

primingThe tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information.

self-fulfilling prophecy

The process by which one’s expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations.

situational attribution

Attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck.

social perception

A general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרChapter 5Stereotypes, Prejudice & Discrimination

ambivalent sexism

A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings and affectionate and chivalrous but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings.

contact hypothesis

The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions.

Discrimination

Behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group.

groupTwo or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions, membership in the same social category, or common fate.

illusory correlation

An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated.

implicit racism

Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally.

ingroup favoritism

The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups.

ingroupsGroups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity.

jigsaw classroom

A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts.

modern racism

A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize.

outgroup homogeneity effect

The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups.

OutgroupsGroups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרprejudiceNegative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups.

racismPrejudice and discrimination based on a person’s racial background, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another.

realistic conflict theory

The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources.

relative deprivation

Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared with others.

sexismPrejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one one gender over another.

social categorization

The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes.

social dominance orientation

A desire to see one’s ingroup as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups.

social identity theory

The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem.

social role theory

The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women.

stereotypeA belief or association that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics.

stereotype content model

A model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth.

stereotype threat

The experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one’s group.

subliminal presentation

A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them.

A shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרsuperordinate goal

groups.

Chapter 6Attitudes

attitudeA positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea.

attitude scaleA multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person’s attitude toward some object.

bogus pipelineA phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions.

central route to persuasion

The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments.

cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce.

elaborationThe process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication.

facial electromyograph (EMG)

An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts—such as black or white with good or bad.

implicit attitudeAn attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having.

inoculation hypothesis

The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument.

insufficient deterrence

A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened.

insufficient A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward.

חברתית א' – מושגים מתוך הספרjustification

need for cognition (NC)

A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities.

peripheral route to persuasion

The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues.

persuasionThe process by which attitudes are changed.

psychological reactance

The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive.

sleeper effectA delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source.

theory of planned behavior

The theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person’s actions.