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GEOG 80 – Transport GeographyProfessor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Topic 5 – International and Regional Transportation
A. The Strategic Space of International Transportation
B. Transportation, Globalization and International Trade
C. Commodity Chains and Freight TransportD. Logistics
A – The Strategic Space of International Transportation
■ 1. The Geostrategy of International Transportation■ 2. The Panama Canal■ 3. The Suez Canal■ 4. The Strait of Malacca■ 5. Other Important Passages
1. The Geostrategy of International Transportation
■ Features of international transportation• Involves geopolitical considerations.• Passages subject to conflicts aimed to assure a control of a
strategic location.• International transport infrastructures:
• Ports, airports and canals.• Also subject to geopolitical considerations.• Access to strategic resources or key markets.
• Acknowledged early in the history of international transportation:• "Whosoever commands the sea commands trade; whosoever commands
the trade of the world commands the riches of the world, and consequently the world itself". Sir Walter Raleigh (c1610).
1. The Geostrategy of International Transportation
■ Maritime transportation• Dominant purveyor of international freight distribution and
evolves over a global maritime space.• Constrained system:
• Profile of continental masses.• Forced to pass through specific locations corresponding to passages,
capes and straits.• Freight flows:
• Commodities.• Parts.• Finished goods.
Maritime Routes and Strategic Locations
SuezHormuz
PanamaMalacca
Bosporus
Magellan
Good Hope
Gibraltar
Bab el-Mandab
Capacity of Key Strategic Passages
Standard Capacity Depth TEU
Panamax 65,000 dwt 12 meters (40 feet)
4,000
Suez-max 120,000 dwt 16 meters (58 feet)
12,000
Malacca-max 300,000 dwt 21 meters (68 feet)
18,000
Shipping Lanes and Strategic Passages in Pacific Asia
Hormuz
Malacca
Sunda
Lombok
Makassar
China
India
Tsugaru
Sout
h C
hina
Sea
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
Japan
Indonesia
1. The Geostrategy of International Transportation
■ Conquest• Initially a mean to acquire and conquer oceans, territories and
resources• Maritime technology:
• European powers first to improve significantly maritime technology.• Able to establish maritime trading roads and colonies all over the world.
• Railroad technology:• Mean to achieve territorial conquest.• North America for nation building.• Africa for colonialism.
1. The Geostrategy of International Transportation
■ Competition• Mean to compete on the global economy.• Prevalent force in shaping modern transportation systems.• Right to carry national passengers and freight:
• Often reserved for national transport companies.• Cabotage laws.• Air freedoms.
• Transport related activities also compete:• Shipbuilding, trade and insurance.
• Usage of flags of convenience.
1. The Geostrategy of International Transportation
■ Cooperation• Common interests favor agreements.• Involving access to infrastructures or setting standards:
• 1792: most countries along the Rhine agreed to free navigation.• 1871: Canada and the United States agreed to the development of the St.
Lawrence Seaway in 1954.• International trade within Europe was enhanced by the adoption of a
standard over rail gauges (1.435 meters).• International air transportation is subject to regulations over security and
prices.• Emergence of economic blocs:
– European Union and the North American Free Trade Agreement.– Leans on common rules about transport standards and prices.
The Northern East-West Freight Corridor
Russia
ChinaCanada
Un
ite
d S
tate
s
Kazakhstan
Mongolia
Vostochny
Lianyungang
Archangel'sk
Brest
Druzhba
Zabaykalsk
Oulu
Lokot
Perm'
Astana
Harbin
Urumqi
Beijing
Irkutsk
Lanzhou
VologdaVainikkala
Ulaanbaatar
Novosibi rsk
Yekaterinburg Presnogorkovka
Halifax
Moscow
St. Petersburg
Haparanda/Tornio
BostonNew York
Rotterdam
Transatlantic Segment
Rail Main Trunk (Broad Gauge)
Rail Main Trunk (Standard Gauge)
Rail Connector (Broad Gauge)
Rail Connector (Standard Gauge)
Russia
Sweden
FinlandNarvik
Haparanda/Tornio
OuluVainikkala St. Petersburg
Port
Gauge Change
Rail Terminal
The Northern East-West Freight Corridor
Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University, November 2005
Scandinavian Segment
Azimutha l Equidistant Polar Projection
Halifax 8 Days Narvik
1 Day
Tornio0.6 Day
0.3 Day
Vainikkala1 Day
1 Day
Vostochny8.2 Days5,600 km 600 km 970 km 9,870 km
Freight Transport Sequence
Source: International Union of Railways (2004) The Northern East West (N.E.W.) Freight Corridor, Transportutvikling AS.
1. The Geostrategy of International Transportation
■ Control• The control of strategic places.• Vulnerability:
• Developed countries are becoming more vulnerable to supplies of freight and raw materials.
• Some developing countries, like China, are becoming dependent on supplies of food and energy.
• United States:• Became more dependent on external supplies of oil.
• Foreign policy shifted at keeping an eye on strategic locations in oil trade, dominantly in the Middle East.
Shipping Lanes and Strategic Passages in the Middle East
IranIraq
Saudi ArabiaEgypt
Turkey
Indian Ocean
Hormuz
Bosporus
Bab el-Mandab
Suez
Oman
Yemen
Red Sea
PG
PG: Persian Gulf
15.5
3.3
3.8
3.0
1.0Oil transited (millions ofbarrels per day)Black Sea
2002-2003 figures
Mediterranean
Sudan
Oil Transited at Major Strategic Locations, 2004
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Strait of Hormuz
Strait of Malacca
Bab el-Mandab
Suez Canal & Sumed Pipeline
Bosporus
Panama Canal & Pileline
Million barrels per day
2. The Panama Canal
■ Context• Joins the Atlantic and Pacific oceans at the Isthmus of Panama:
• From Cristobal on Limon Bay, an arm of the Caribbean Sea, to Balboa, on the Gulf of Panama.
• Ranks as one of the greatest engineering works of all time.• Composed of three main elements:
• Gatun Locks (Atlantic side).• Gaillard Cut (continental divide)• Miraflores Locks (Pacific side).
• Dimensions:• Slightly more than 64 km long.• Depth of 12.5 m (40 feet) and width of 91.5 m.
• Prevents a 21,000 km detour around South America.• Handles about 12% of the American international seaborne
trade.
Gatun Locks
Miraflores LocksPedro Miguel Locks
8 0 84 Miles
The Panama Canal
Pacific Ocean
Atlantic OceanAtlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Panama
Gatun Lake
Panama City
Colon
Gaillard Cut
Gatun Dam
Balboa
Cristobal
Panama Canal Railway
Panama Canal: Gatun Locks
Panama Canal: Gaillard Cut
2. The Panama Canal
■ Early history• Interests:
• Began with explorers of Central America the early 16th century:• In 1534, the Spanish surveyed the Panama region.• Was judged impossible.
• American involvement:• Gold was discovered in California in 1848.• Panama Canal railway constructed in 1855.
• French attempts:• French Geographical Society of Paris signed a treaty with Columbia (then
the owner of the Province of Panama; 1878).• French Canal Company undertook construction (1879-1899).• Project failure: financial problems, tropical diseases (20,000 workers
killed) and the technical difficulties of trying to build a sea level canal.
2. The Panama Canal
■ American intervention• Panama revolt from Columbia (1903), supported by the United States.• Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty:
• United States guaranteed the independence of Panama.• Perpetual lease on a 16-km (10 miles) strip with complete sovereignty.• Compensation of $10 million and an inflation-indexed annual compensation.
■ Construction• Constructed between 1904 and 1916.• Cost of $387 million (compensation to Panama and $40 million to purchase
the previous project from the French Canal Company).• Under the authority of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.• 70,000 people worked on the project and about 5,600 died in the process.• Sanitation of the entire canal area (mosquitoes; yellow fever and malaria).
2. The Panama Canal
■ Operations and traffic• Under the jurisdiction of the Panama Canal Authority (1999):
• Collect tolls on all ships crossing the canal.• A loaded ship pays about $2.57 per net ton.• The average toll is about $45,000.
• Traffic:• 13,000 ships transit the canal every year, (35 ships per day).• Grains (43% of the traffic transited).• Containers (11%) and petroleum products (10%).• Loss of some of its strategic importance due to super-tankers.
• Panamax standard:• Equals to 65,000 tons and a draft of 12 meters.
3. The Suez Canal
■ Context• Running across the Isthmus of Suez in northeastern Egypt.• Connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Gulf of Suez, an arm
of the Red Sea.• Dimensions:
• Artificial waterway of about 163 km in length.• Width of 60 meters.• No locks, because the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Suez have
roughly the same water level.• Ships of 16 meters (58 feet) draft can make the transit.• Capacity:
• 150,000 deadweight tons fully loaded.• 25,000 ships per year, but handles about 14,000.
3. The Suez Canal
■ History• First canal excavated about the 13th century BC.• Expand trade between the Mediterranean and the Middle East.• Restoration efforts were abandoned in the 8th century AD.• Colonial expansion of Europe in Asia revitalized the idea of a
canal.■ French construction
• French and Egyptians interests (1859-69).• Cost of about 100 million dollars.• Brought forward a new era of European influence in Pacific Asia.• Saving 6,500 km from the circum African route.
Geographical Impact of the Suez Canal, 1869
16,000 KM
10,000 KM
3. The Suez Canal
■ British purchase• In 1874, Britain bought the shares of the Suez Canal Company
and became its sole owner.• According to a 1888 agreement, the canal was open to the
vessels of all nations in peace or in war.• Britain claimed the need to control the area to maintain maritime
power and colonial interests.• In 1936, Great Britain acquired the right to maintain defense
forces in the Suez Canal.• Strategic importance during World War II to maintain Asia-
Europe supply routes for the Allies.
Suez Canal, end of 19th Century
3. The Suez Canal
■ Nationalization• Nationalized by Egypt (1956).• Israeli ships were not permitted to cross the canal.• Threat was also extended to France and Britain:
• Refused to help finance the Aswan High Dam project.• Israel, France and Britain invaded Egypt (1956).• Egypt sank ships in the canal; closing it between 1956 and 1957.
■ Israel – Arab Wars• Tensions between Israel and Arab nations in the 1960s:
• Six Days War Israel and Egypt (1967); Invasion of Sinai by Israel.• Canal Closed (Between 1967 and 1975)
• Significantly destabilized international transportation.• Re-opened in 1975 as Egypt agreed to let Israel use the canal.
3. The Suez Canal
■ Modern canal• Widened between 1976 and 1980 to accommodate super-
tankers of 150,000 dwt.• Support the oil trade between Europe and the Middle East.• Ultra large crude carriers (ULCCs) cannot pass through the
Canal.• Important with economic growth taking place along Pacific Asia.• Growing movements of containers along the Suez Canal.
Suez Canal, 1990s
4. The Strait of Malacca
■ Context• One of most important strategic passage of the World:
• Supports the bulk of the maritime trade between Europe and Pacific Asia.• Account for 30% of the world trade.
• Main passage between the Pacific and the Indian oceans:• Accounts for 50,000 ships per year (600 per day).• Second passage: The Strait of Sunda (Indonesia).• Outlet to the South China Sea.
• Dimensions:• 800 km in length and between 50 and 320 km in width (2.5 km at its
narrowest point).• Minimal depth of 70 feet.• Can accommodate ships of about 120,000 tons.
0 200 400 600 800100Miles
The Strait of Malacca
IndonesiaIndonesiaM
alaysia
Malaysia
Thailand
Indian Ocean
Strait of Malacca
Gulf of ThailandIndian Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Singapore
Strait of Sunda
South China Sea
4. The Strait of Malacca
■ History• Important passage point between the Chinese and the Indian
worlds.• Controlled at different points in time by Javanese and Malaysian
kingdoms.• Arab control:
• From the 14th century, the region came under the control of Arab merchants.
• Established several fortified trading towns.• Malacca: most important commercial center in Southeast Asia.
• European control:• Shifted as the era of European expansion began in the 16th century.• In 1511, Malacca fell to the Portuguese.• Marked the beginning of European control over the Strait.
4. The Strait of Malacca
■ English control• In 1867, England took control of the passage.• Singapore as a main harbor.• Other important centers such as Malacca and Penang, forming
the Strait Settlements.• Control lasted until the Second World War and the independence
of Malaysia in 1957.• Growing importance of the strait with the growth of trade.• Singapore:
• Located at the southern end of the Strait of Malacca.• One of the most important port in the world.• Major oil refining center.
The Port of Singapore
5. Other Important Passages
■ The Strait of Hormuz• Strategic link between the oil fields of the Persian gulf and the
gulf of Oman (Indian Ocean).• Between 48 and 80 km of width (6 km wide navigation channel).• The most important strategic passage in the world (oil).• Contested by Iran and the United Arab Emirates.
■ Gibraltar• Peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean oceans.• Obligatory passage point between these two oceans.• 64 km long and varies in width from 13 to 39 km. • Under British control since its conquest from Spain (1704).• Second World War: Gibraltar blocked the access to the Atlantic
to the Italian and German fleets of the Mediterranean.
5. Other Important Passages
■ Bosporus• Passage of 30 km in length and of only 1 km in width at its
narrowest point.• Only link between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Ocean.• Passage of growing strategic importance, notably after the fall of
the Soviet Union.• The Caspian Sea has vast oil reserves.• A large amount must transit trough the Black Sea and Bosporus
to reach external markets.• About 50,000 ships a year, including 5,500 tankers, are transiting
through the passage each year.
40 0 4020 Miles
The Dardanelles and Bosporus Passages
Black Sea
MediterraneanOcean
Marmara Denizi
Dardanelles
Bosporus
Istanbul
Turkey
Turkey
Greece
Bosporus, Turkey
5. Other Important Passages
■ The Strait of Magellan• Discovered in 1520 by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan.• Separates South America to Tierra del Fuego.• 530 km long and 4 to 24 km of width.• Held secret during more than one century to assure the supremacy of
Portugal and Spain for the Asian trade of spices and silk.• The Panama Canal (1916) and the North American transcontinental bridge in
the 1980s undermined its strategic importance.■ The Cape Good Hope
• Extreme tip of Africa discovered by the Portuguese (end of the 15th century).• Separates the Atlantic and Indian oceans.• Vasco de Gamma (1497) and was the first European to reach India by sea.• Lost some of its strategic importance with the widening of Suez canal.